Dvaravati

File:Proposed locations of ancient kingdoms in lower Mekong Valley in the 7th century.png

Proposed locations of ancient polities in the Menam and Mekong Valleys in the 7th century based on the details provided in the Chinese leishu, Cefu Yuangui, and others.

File:Proposed location of Yamanadvipa.png

Six ancient kingdoms in Mainland Southeast Asia in the late 7th century mentioned by Xuanzang.

File:Large-5d6e38b2567c4.jpg

Thailand (now), Ku Bua, (Dvaravati Mon culture), 650-700 C.E.. Three musicians in right are playing (from center) a 5-stringed lute, cymbals, a tube zither or bar zither with a gourd resonator.

DvaravatiTemplate:Efn was a group of medieval Mon political principalities from the 6th century to the 11th century, located in the region now known as central Thailand,Template:Rp and was speculated to be a succeeding state of Lang-chia or Lang-ya-hsiu ().Template:Rp It was described by Chinese pilgrims in the middle of the 7th century as a Buddhist kingdom named To-lo-po-ti situated to the west of Isanapura (Cambodia), east of Sri Ksetra (Burma),Template:RpTemplate:Rp and adjoined Pan Pan to the South.Template:Rp Its northern border met Jiā Luó Shě Fú (), which is identified with Canasapura in modern northeast Thailand. Dvaravati sent the first embassy to the Chinese court around 605–616,Template:Rp and then in 756.

Dvaravati also refers to a culture, an art style, and a disparate conglomeration of principalities of Mon people. The Mon migrants as maritime traders might have brought the Dvaravati Civilization to the Menam Valley around 500 BCE,Template:Rp which continued to the presence of a "Proto-Dvaravati" period that spans the 4th to 5th centuries, with the existence of the principalities of Chin Lin to the western plain and Tou Yuan to the east, and perhaps earlier.

The center of the early Davaravati was speculated to be Ayojjhapura (present-day Si Thep) or Nakhon PathomTemplate:Rp or Avadhyapura (Template:Ill). Still, the power was shifted to Lavo's Lavapura after the annexation of Tou Yuan in 647; some scholars say this transition happened around the 10th and 11th centuries following the fall of Si Thep. However, some argue that Lavapura was potentially a separate kingdom known as the Lavo Kingdom, as mentioned in several historical records, but came under the sphere of Dvaravati influence.Template:Rp

The rise of the Angkor in the lower Mekong basin around the 11th–13th centuries, the conquest of Menam Valley and the upper Malay peninsula by Tambralinga's king Sujita who also seized Lavo in the mid-10th century,Template:RpTemplate:Rp the 9-year civil wars in the Angkor in the early 11th century, which led to the devastation of Lavo, as well as the Pagan invasion of Menam Valley around the mid-10th century.Template:RpTemplate:Rp All of these potentially are the causes of the fall of the Dvaravati civilization.Template:RpTemplate:Rp Jean Boisselier suggests that after losing influence over the eastern valleys at Lavo to the Angkor in the 10th–11th centuries, Dvaravati kingdoms in the western plain continued until the early 12th century and then probably fell under or influencedTemplate:Efn by Angkor for a short period during the reign of Jayavarman VII (r.1181–1218).Template:Rp After that, the region entered the Xiān era with the emergence of Suphannabhum, Phrip Phri, and Ayodhya, who later regained influence over Lavo in the 14th century.

History

The culture of Dvaravati was based around moated cities, the earliest of which appears to be U Thong in what is now Suphan Buri Province. Other key sites include Nakhon Pathom, Phong Tuk, Si Thep, Khu Bua and Si Mahosot, amongst others. The term Dvaravati derives from coins which were inscribed in Sanskrit śrī dvāravatī. The Sanskrit word dvāravatī literally means "that which has gates".Template:Rp According to the inscription N.Th. 21 found in 2019 in Wat Phra Ngam in Nakhon Pathom, dated the 6th century, three regional cities were mentioned, including Śrīyānaṁdimiriṅga or Śrīyānaṁdimiriṅgapratipura, then Hastināpurī and Dvāravatī, which made Nakhon Pathom where the fractions was discovered probably the center of Dvāravatī.Template:Rp

The traditional chronology of Dvaravati is mainly based on the Chinese textual account and stylistic comparison by art historians. However, the results from excavations in Chan Sen and Tha Muang mound at U-Thong raise questions about the traditional dating. Newly dated typical Dvaravati cultural items from the site of U-Thong indicate that the starting point of the tradition of Dvaravati culture possibly dates as far back as 200 CE. Archaeological, art historical, and epigraphic (inscriptions) evidence all indicate, however, that the main period of Dvaravati spanned the seventh to ninth centuries. Dvaravati culture and influence also spread into Isan and parts of lowland Laos from the sixth century onward. Key sites include Mueang Fa Daet in Kalasin Province, Template:Ill in Nakhon Ratchasima Province, and many others.

In the book of I Ching or Yijing, dating to the late 7th century, and the 629–645 journey of a Chinese monk, Xuanzang, placed Dvaravati to the east of Kamalanka or Lang-ya-hsiu and west of Isanapura, if Kamalanka was centered at the ancient Nakhon Pathom as several scholars cited, thus, Dvaravati must be moved to the eastern side of the central plain.Template:Rp This conforms with the location provided in the largest Chinese leishu, Cefu Yuangui, compiled in 1005, says that Dvaravati was to the west of Chenla and the east of the Ge Luo She Fen Kingdom (), which was proposed to be centered at the ancient Nakhon Pathom, same as Kamalanka, by Thai historian Piriya Krairiksh, who also identified this kingdom as the Gē Luó Kingdom () in the New Book of Tang,Template:Rp that also says Dvaravati met the sea (Bay of Bangkok) to the west, adjoin Chenla to the east, and encounter Canasapura to the north. However, according to archaeological evidence found in the western Menam Valley, several scholars suggest Nakhon Pathom was potentially the center of the Dvaravati Kingdoms.Template:Rp

Chinese historian, Chen Jiarong (), claims that the Zhū Jiāng Kingdom in the Cefu Yuangui and Book of Sui was Dvaravati principality, but some scholar placed Zhū Jiāng in the Mun Basin in the Phayakkhaphum Phisai–Nadun–Kaset Wisai cluster to the north of Chenla with the supra-regional center at Champasri.Template:Rp Zhū Jiāng and Cān Bàn Kingdom established relations with Zhenla via royal intermarriage after the annexation of Funan in 627. Subsequently, they wage wars against Tou Yuan to the northwest. Tou Yuan was the Lavo's predecessor that became Dvaravati vassal in 647.Template:Rp Several kingdoms were involved in the conflicts between Dvaravati and Chenla, including the three brother states of Qiān Zhī Fú, Xiū Luó Fēn, and Gān Bì, who collectively fielded over 50,000 elite soldiers, by aligning with the faction that offered the greatest advantage.Template:Rp Certain battles may have been associated with the wars between Lavo and its northern sister Monic kingdom, Haripuñjaya, occurring in the early 10th century,Template:Rp which also weakened Dvaravati Kamalanka.Template:Rp

A mixed Sanskrit–Khmer inscription dated 937 documents a line of princes of Canasapura, one of the Dvaravati polities, started by a Bhagadatta and ended by a Sundaravarman and his sons Narapatisimhavarman and Mangalavarman.Template:RP Further east, the Chinese Tang Huiyao mentions the kingdom of Keoi Lau Mì of the Kuy people was also influenced by Dvaravati. In the early 10th century, several Dvaravati polities in the Menam Valley, which were weakened by decade-long wars between two Mon kingdoms, Hariphunchai and Lavo, fell to the invasion by Tambralinga, then by the Chola and Pagan in the late 10th century. Later, Dvaravati polities began to come under constant attacks and aggression of the Khmer Empire, and central Southeast Asia was ultimately invaded by King Suryavarman II in the first half of the 12th century. Hariphunchai survived its southern progenitors until the late 13th century, when it was incorporated into Lan Na.

During the decline period of Dvaravati, its succeeded polity, mentioned as Xiān () by several Chinese and Đại Việt sources, was formed in the lower Menam Basin around the 11th century.Template:Rp This new polity evolved into the Ayutthaya Kingdom in 1351. Its capital's full name also referred to Dvaravati as the former capital; Krung Thep Dvaravati Si Ayutthaya (). All former Dvaravati principalities, including Lavo, Suphannabhum, and the northern cities of the Sukhothai Kingdom, were later incorporated into the Ayutthaya Kingdom in 1388, 1424, and 1438, respectively.Template:Rp

According to the Burmese Inscription of Hsinbyushin of Ava A.D. 1768 (Serial No. 1128), which was found on a bronze gun at Shwezigon Pagoda, and acquired by the Burmese in 1767, the Burmese continued to refer to Ayutthaya as Dvaravati by describing the "conquest of Dvāravati (Siam)" even after its fall to a Burmese invasion during the Pagan Kingdom. Several genetic studies published in the 2020s also founded the relations between the Mon people and Siamese people (Central Thai people) who were the descendants of the Ayutthaya. The Laotian Phra That Phanom Chronicle also refers to Ayodhya before the traditional formation of the Ayutthaya Kingdom as Dvaravati and Sri Ayodhiya Dvaravati Nakhon ().

Government

Little is known about the administration of Dvaravati. It might simply have been a loose gathering of chiefdoms rather than a centralised state, expanding from the coastal area of the upper peninsula to the riverine region of Chao Phraya River. Hinduism and Buddhism were significant. There are 107 Dvaravati cities in Thailand, most of which are in the central plain.Template:Rp The three largest settlements appear to have been at Nakhon Pathom, Suphanburi, and Phraek Si Racha, with additional centers at U Thong, Chansen, Khu Bua, Pong Tuk, Mueang Phra Rot, Lopburi, Template:Ill, Kamphaeng Saen, Dong Lakhon, U-Taphao, Ban Khu Mueang, and Si Thep.Template:Rp

According to the Chinese records during the Tang dynasty, Dvaravati is divided into three regions; possibly Kamalanka at Nakhon Pathom which has been identified as the center of Dvaravati culture, former Chin Lin at Mueang Uthong, and the last one at Template:Ill of Avadhyapura. Many government officials, such as military generals and civil servants, administer the national affairs.Template:Rp Dvaravati has two vassal kingdoms, including Tou Yuan (陀垣) the Lavo predecessor, and an island kingdom Tanling (曇陵),Template:RpTemplate:Rp whose exact location remains unknown; it was potentially located on some island or small peninsula in the swamp area of the early historic Bay of Bangkok.Template:Rp

A study on Dvaravati settlement patterns before the 14th century in the upper Chi-Mun basins suggests that Dvaravati might have been made up of several kingdoms linked by trade networks and centered at supra-regional level settlements, such as Dong Mueang Aem, Phimai, Mueang Fa Daet Song Yang, Template:Ill, Non Mueang, and Si Thep;Template:Rp similar to in the Menam Valley. A 2015 study of the pre-600 CE circular moated settlements in the Mun Valleys found that the sites were concentrated into five groups; the westernmost and smallest group with a total of four settlements is the Template:Ill circle. To the east is the Phimai cluster which has a larger number of settlements than the other groups. Next is the group of Phayakkhaphum Phisai–Nadun–Kaset Wisai on the northern Mun watershed with the well known site at Champasri, which has been identified as the Zhū Jiāng Kingdom or later Zhān Bó. To the south is the Buriram–Surin group, which has almost the same size in terms of number of settlements and predicted mean size as the third group. The last cluster is the easternmost on the adjoined watershed of the Mun–Chi Rivers, with the most concentrated area in Suwannaphum, Phon Sai, and Nong Hi of Roi Et province.Template:Rp

The following shows the polities under Dvaravati culture in the Menam and the Chi-Mun Valleys during the first millennium.

Dvaravati Kingdoms and others in the lower Menam and upper Mun–Chi Valleys during first millenniumTemplate:RpTemplate:Rp

File:Dvaravati Kingdoms in the first millennium.png	Seat/Cluster	Level	Settlem	Identified as
	Menam Basin
	Nakhon Pathom	Supra-regional center	8	Kamalanka (Sambuka; 6th-c. Dvaravati)
	Si Thep	Supra-regional center		Qiān Zhī Fú
	Suphanburi	Regional center	9	She Ba Ruo ()Template:Rp aka. Santanaha?
	Uthong	District center		Chin Lin (Proto-Dvaravati)
	Phraek Si Racha	Regional center	12Template:Efn/30Template:Efn	Duō MièTemplate:Efn (Proto-Dvaravati)/Xiū Luó Fēn?
	Lopburi	District center	14	Tou Yuan (Proto-Dvaravati)Template:Rp/Lavo
	Template:Ill	District center	7	Avadhyapura (6th-c. Dvaravati)
	Khao Laem, Uthai Thani	Sub-district center	6	Bō Cì? (Proto-Dvaravati)
	Tha Tako, Nakhon Sawan	Sub-district center	8	Part of Qiān Zhī Fú?Template:Rp
	Utapao, Saraburi	Sub-district center	4	Part of Lavo
	Chaliang	Sub-district center	4	Mueang Chaliang
	Yommarad	Sub-district center	3	Part of Qiān Zhī Fú?Template:Rp
	Template:Ill/Khlong Mueang	Sub-district center	3	KosambiTemplate:Efn/Gān Bì?
	Lom Sak–Lom Kao			Cān Bàn
	Mun–Chi Basins
	Dong Mueang Aem	Supra-regional center		Unknown
	Phimai	Supra-regional center	103	Mahidharapura (Vimayapura)
	Phon			Pó Àn ()Template:Rp
Dvaravati kingdoms in the Menam Valley.	Template:Ill	Regional center	4	Canasapura (8th-c. Dvaravati)
File:Dvaravati polities in the upper Chi River Basin.png	Champasri	Regional center	69	Zhū Jiāng?,Template:Rp or Zhān Bó/Template:Rp Yamanadvipa, Vassal of Wen Dan or BhavapuraTemplate:Rp
	Phayakkhaphum Phisai– Nadun–Kaset Wisai
	Fa Daet Song Yang	District center		Wen Dan or BhavapuraTemplate:Rp
	Kantharawichai	District center
	Non Mueang	Sub-district center	10	Part of Bhavapura?Template:Rp or Wen Dan?
	Buriram–Surin		57	Part of Vimayapura?/Mahidharapura?
	Suwannaphum–Nong Hi		39	Part of Bhavapura?Template:Rp
Dvaravati polities in the upper Chi River Basin	Songkhram–Mekhong Basins
File:Clusters of the 7th century moated settlements in the Mun River Basin of Thailand.svg	Nakhon Phanom/Thakhek			Template:Ill of the Tang,Template:Rp Na LaoTemplate:Rp/Later Template:Ill
	Sakon Nakhon			Template:Ill of the Tang,Template:Rp Later Mahidharapura?
	Template:Ill/Vientiane			Dàomíng, Dōu Hē Lú ()?Template:Rp
	Savannakhet–Mukdahan			Gān Bì? ()Template:Rp
	Dvaravati-influenced kingdoms with uncertain identification
	Template:Hlist
Clusters of 7th-c. moated sites in Mun Valley

Rulers

The excavation in several sites found silver coins dated the 7th century that mentioned the king and queen of the kingdom written in Sanskrit with Pallava script: śrīdvaravatīsvarapunya (King Sridvaravati, who has great merit) and śrīdvaravatīsvaradevīpuṇya (the goddess of the meritorious King Dvaravati). In addition, the copper plate dating from the 6th–mid 7th centuries found at U Thong also mentions King Harshavarman (หรรษวรมัน), who was assumed by Jean Boisselier to be one of the kings of Dvaravati, while George Cœdès considered the plate was brought from the Khmer Empire, and the name mentioned might be the Khmer king as well. However, the periods seem unrelated since King Harshavarman I of Khmer reigned from 910–923, 200 years later than the age of the inscription, and Harshavarman I's grandfather was Indravarman I, not Isanavarman as the inscription mentioned.

Moreover, the inscription found in Ban Wang Pai, Phetchabun province (K. 978), dated 550 CE, also mentions the enthronement of the Dvaravati ruler, who was also a son of Prathivindravarman, father of Bhavavarman I of Chenla, which shows the royal lineage relation between Dvaravati and Chenla. However, the name of such a king was missing. The other king was mentioned in the Nern Phra Ngam inscription, found in Nakhon Pathom province, dated mid 5th – mid 6th centuries CE but the name was missing as well.

However, some research suggests Bhavavarman mentioned in the Ban Wang Pai inscription of Si Thep may not be Bhavavarman I of Chenla due to different inscription styles.Template:Rp

The following chart shows the dynastic relation between Dvaravati polities and other kingdoms in the Chao Phraya–Mekong Valleys

Royal relation between Dvaravati polities and other kingdoms in the Chao Phraya–Mekong Valleys

Ruler of Qiān Zhī Fú – Ramburi		Ruler of Kamalanka		Ruler of Kamalanka–Lavo		Ruler of Lavo
Ruler of Chenla (Shrestapura)		Ruler of Haripuñjaya		Ruler of Lavo–Haripuñjaya		Ruler of Sukhothai

Chin Lin

Ruler	Reign	Note
Rulers before Isanavarman remain unknown.
Isanavarman	5th–6th c.
Unknown	5th–6th c.	Son of the previous
Harshavarman	mid-6th c.	Son of the previous.
Due to the rise of the Sri Vijaya maritime trade route, Nakhon Pathom of Kamalanka became more prosperous,Template:Rp and the political center of the region was then shifted to this new polity in the 6th–7th century,Template:Rp which marked as the beginning of the Dvaravati civilization.
Maratha?Template:RpTemplate:Rp	late 9th c.

Qiān Zhī Fú

Name		Reign	Note	Source
Romanized	Thai
ChakravantinTemplate:Efn	จักรวรรติน	5th century	Father of Prathivindravarman	Wang Pai Inscription (K.978)
PrathivindravarmanTemplate:Efn	ปฤถิวีนทรวรมัน	5th century	Father of Bhavavarman I or II of Chenla?
Unknown or BhavavarmanTemplate:EfnTemplate:Efn	ภววรมัน	Early 6th-c.	Son of Prathivindravarman In 590, King Siddhijaya Brahmadeva of Si Thep established authority in the Nakhon Pathom region, provoking conflict with the local ruler Kakabhadra. Qiān Zhī Fú's Si Thep – Kamalanka's Nakhon Pathom royal intermarriage established
UnknownTemplate:Efn		550–?
RamarajaTemplate:Efn	รามราช	c. 662	Spouse of Haripuñjaya's queen Camadevi First embassy mission to China around 656–661.	Jinakalamali
RajadhirajTemplate:Efn	ราชาธิราช	mid–late 7th-c.		JinakalamaliTemplate:Rp
ManohanarajTemplate:Efn	มโนหารราช	late 7th-c.	Son of the previous
Under Dvaravati, centered at Nakhon Pathom–Lavo
Unknown (puppet king)		late 7th – early 8th-c.	Under Dvaravati	JinakalamaliTemplate:Rp
Dvaravati civilization began to decline around the mid-8th to 9th centuries.Template:Rp
Vacant		Early 8th-c. – ?
AdītarajTemplate:Efn	อาทิตยราช	Late 8th-c. – early 9th-c.		Template:IllTemplate:Rp
During the eighth to ninth centuries, the Qiān polity centred at Si Thep—identified in Chinese sources as Gē Luó Shě Fēn—controlled territory encompassing much of the western Chao Phraya Valley, including Dvaravati’s Kamalanka.Template:Rp
Pú jiā yuè móTemplate:Efn (Padum Kumara?)		?–859	Potentially a dual monarchy of Kamalanka and Qiān Zhī Fú	Cefu Yuangui, New Book of Tang
The line was split into two seats: Qiān Zhī Fú at Si Thep and Kamalanka at Nakhon Pathom
The following four rulers were traditionally identified as monarchs of Template:Ill. However, if Si Thep indeed functioned as the principal center of Canasapura, as proposed by Tatsuo Hoshino, likely, their reigns were actually based at Si Thep.Template:Rp
Bhagadatta	ภคทัตต์	859–early 10th-c.	Relative of Bhavavarman II?	Śri Canāśa Inscription K.949
Sri Sundaraprakrama	ศรีสุนทรปรากรม	early 10th-c.	Son of the previous
Sri Sundararavarman	ศรีสุนทรวรมัน	?–937	Son of the previous
Narapatisimhavarman	ศรีนรปติสิงหวรมัน	937–971	At Si Thep seat. Son of the previous
Mangalavarman	มงคลวรมัน	971–986	At Muang Sema seat. Younger brother of the previous.
In 946, the Angkorian king Rajendravarman II won over Rāmaññadesa (Template:Literal translation, possibly Lavapura or Si Thep).
Vap UpendraTemplate:Efn	วาป อุเปนทร	949–960s?	Relative of Rajendravarman II of Ankor	Rajendravarman II InscriptionTemplate:Rp
Si Thep fell under Angkor around the 10th century. During this period, the center of power was probably shifted to Lavo's Lavapura, and the Menam Basin was then divided into two main polities: Lavo Kingdom to the east and Suphannaphum to the west. Moreover, a new settlement known as Mueang Wat Derm () was founded southwestward in the lower plain in 934.Template:RpTemplate:Efn In the 1080s, the city was set as Lavo's new capital and renamed Ayodhya, which continued to the formation of the Ayutthaya Kingdom in the 14th century.

Lavo

Name		Reign	Notes
English	Thai
Chá-shīlì Pó-mò-pó-nà		c. 644	As king of Tou Yuan
The Tou Yuan Kingdom was annexed by Dvaravati's Kamalanka in 647 and was refounded as the Lavo Kingdom in 648.
Kalavarnadisharaja	กาฬวรรดิษฐ์	648–700	Founder. Son of Takkasila's king, Kakapat.
BalipatijayaTemplate:RpTemplate:Efn	ภาลีบดีชัย	700–?	Grandson of the previous. Son of Balidhiraja (พาลีธิราช), king of Sukhothai
Unknown		8th century–861	Golden period of Qiān or Gē Luó Shě Fēn at Si Thep to the north, who conquered the lower valley from the 8th to 9th centuries.
VasudevaTemplate:Rp	วาสุเทพ	861–?	Tai Yuan monarch from the north.
Uchitthaka Chakkawat	อุฉิฎฐกะจักรวรรดิ	?–927	Later became King of Haripuñjaya
Tambralinga seized Lavo in 927.
Sujita	สุชิตราช	927–930	Also King of Tambralinga. As a tributary state of Tambralinga.
Kampoch	กัมโพช	930–946?	Son of the previous. As a tributary state of Tambralinga.
Vacant?		946–948
Vap Upendra?	วาป อุเปนทร	949–960s?	As the governor of Rāmaññadesa, appointed by Rajendravarman II.Template:Rp
Narapativiravarman?		960s?–980s?	As the governor.
Ipoia Sanne Thora Thesma Teperat		980s	As king of Yassouttora Nacoora Louang/Tasoo Nacora Louang (from Qiān Zhī Fú)
Angkor seized Lavo in 1001 or 1005.
Lakshmipativarman	ศรีลักษมีปติวรมัน	1006–?	As the governor, appointed by Suryavarman I
LaparajaTemplate:Rp	ลพราช		Period of constant wars against Haripuñjaya.
UnknownTemplate:Rp		?–1052?	Son of the previous.
Chandrachota	จันทรโชติ	1052–1069	Prince of Suphannabhum who fled to Haripuñjaya after Suphannabhum was seized by Tambralinga in the 920s.

Art

Dvaravati itself was heavily influenced by Indian culture, and played an important role in introducing Buddhism and particularly Buddhist art to the region. Stucco motifs on the religious monuments include garudas, makaras, and Nāgas. Additionally, groups of musicians have been portrayed with their instruments, prisoners, females with their attendants, soldiers indicative of social life. Votive tablets have also been found, also moulds for tin amulets, pottery, terracotta trays, and a bronze chandelier, earrings, bells and cymbals.Template:Rp

Further reading

• Robert L. Brown, The Dvaravati Wheels of the Law and the Indianization of South East Asia. Studies in Asian Art and Archaeology, Vol. 18, Fontein, Jan, ed. Leiden and New York: E. J. Brill, 1996.
• Elizabeth Lyons, "Dvaravati, a Consideration of its Formative Period", R. B. Smith and W. Watson (eds.), Early South East Asia: Essays in Archaeology, History and Historical Geography, Oxford University Press, New York, 1979, pp. 352–359.
• Dhida Saraya, (Sri) Dvaravati: the Initial Phase of Siam's History, Bangkok, Muang Boran, 1999, Template:ISBN
• Swearer, Donald K. and Sommai Premchit. The Legend of Queen Cama: Bodhiramsi's Camadevivamsa, a Translation and Commentary. New York: State University of New York Press, 1998. Template:ISBN
• สุรพล ดำริห์กุล, ประวัติศาสตร์และศิลปะหริภุญไชย, กรุงเทพฯ: สำนักพิมพ์เมืองโบราณ, 2004, Template:ISBN.
• Pierre Dupont, The Archaeology of the Mons of Dvāravatī, translated from the French with updates and additional appendices, figures and plans by Joyanto K.Sen, Bangkok, White Lotus Press, 2006.
• Jean Boisselier, "Ū-Thòng et son importance pour l'histoire de Thaïlande [et] Nouvelles données sur l'histoire ancienne de Thaïlande", Bōrānwitthayā rư̄ang MỮang ʻŪ Thō̜ng, Bangkok, Krom Sinlapakon, 2509 [1966], pp. 161–176.
• Peter Skilling, "Dvaravati: Recent Revelations and Research", Dedications to Her Royal Highness Princess Galyani Vadhana Krom Luang Naradhiwas Rajanagarindra on her 80th birthday, Bangkok, The Siam Society, 2003, pp. 87–112.
• Natasha Eilenberg, M.C. Subhadradis Diskul, Robert L. Brown (editors), Living a Life in Accord with Dhamma: Papers in Honor of Professor Jean Boisselier on his Eightieth Birthday, Bangkok, Silpakorn University, 1997.
• C. Landes, "Pièce de l’époque romaine trouvé à U-Thong, Thaïlande", The Silpakorn Journal, vol.26, no.1, 1982, pp. 113–115.
• John Guy, Lost Kingdoms: Hindu Buddhist Sculpture of Early Southeast, New York and Bangkok, Metropolitan Museum of Art and River Books, 2014, p. 32.
• Wārunī ʻŌsathārom. Mư̄ang Suphan bon sēnthāng kan̄plīanplǣng thāng prawattisāt Phutthasattawat thī 8 – ton Phutthasattawat thī 25 (History, development, and geography of the ancient city of Suphan Buri Province, Central Thailand, 8th–25th B.E.), Samnakphim Mahāwitthayālai Thammasāt, Krung Thēp, 2547.