Common Security and Defence Policy

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Template:Short description Script error: No such module "about". Template:Multiple issues Script error: No such module "redirect hatnote". Template:Use British English Template:Use dmy dates Template:Infobox national military The Common Security and Defence Policy (CSDP) is the European Union's (EU) course of action in the fields of defence and crisis management, and a main component of the EU's Common Foreign and Security Policy (CFSP).

The CSDP involves the deployment of military or civilian missions to preserve peace, prevent conflict and strengthen international security in accordance with the principles of the United Nations Charter. Military missions are carried out by EU forces established with secondments from the member states' armed forces. The CSDP also entails collective self-defence amongst member statesTemplate:Efn as well as a Permanent Structured Cooperation (PESCO) in which 26 of the 27 national armed forces pursue structural integration. The CSDP structure – headed by the Union's High Representative (HR/VP), Kaja Kallas, and sometimes referred to as the European Defence Union (EDU) in relation to its prospective development as the EU's defence arm[1][2][3]Template:Efn – comprises:

The EU command and control structures are much smaller than the North Atlantic Treaty Organization's (NATO) Command Structure (NCS), which has been established for territorial defence.[4] It has been agreed that NATO's Allied Command Operations (ACO) may be used for the conduct of the EU's missions. The MPCC, established in 2017 and to be strengthened in 2020, is the EU's first permanent military OHQ. In parallel, the European Defence Fund (EDF, established in 2017) marks the first time the EU budget is used to finance multinational defence projects.

Decisions relating to the CSDP are proposed by the High Representative, adopted by the Foreign Affairs Council, generally requiring unanimity, to be then implemented by the High Representative.

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History

Template:Incomprehensible Script error: No such module "Labelled list hatnote". Template:Multiple image The post-war period saw several short-lived or ill-fated initiatives for European defence integration intended to protect against potential Soviet or German aggression: The Western Union (WU, also referred to as the Brussels Treaty Organisation, BTO) and the proposed European Defence Community (EDC) were respectively cannibalised by the North Atlantic Treaty Organisation (NATO) and rejected by the French Parliament. The largely dormant Western European Union (WEU) succeeded the WU's remainder in 1955.

In 1970 the European Political Cooperation (EPC) brought about the European Communities' (EC) initial foreign policy coordination. Opposition to the addition of security and defence matters to the EPC led to the reactivation of the WEU in 1984 by its member states, which were also EC member states.

European defence integration gained momentum soon after the end of the Cold War, partly as a result of the EC's failure to prevent the Yugoslav Wars. In 1992, the WEU was given new tasks, and the following year the Treaty of Maastricht founded the EU and replaced the EPC with the Common Foreign and Security Policy (CFSP) pillar. In 1996 NATO agreed to let the WEU develop a so-called European Security and Defence Identity (ESDI).[5] The 1998 St. Malo declaration signalled that the traditionally hesitant United Kingdom was prepared to provide the EU with autonomous defence structures.[6] This facilitated the transformation of the ESDI into the European Security and Defence Policy (ESDP) in 1999, when it was transferred to the EU. In 2003 the EU deployed its first CSDP missions, and adopted the European Security Strategy identifying common threats and objectives. In 2009, the Treaty of Lisbon introduced the present name, CSDP, while establishing the EEAS, the mutual defence clause and enabling a subset of member states to pursue defence integration within PESCO. In 2011 the WEU, whose tasks had been transferred to the EU, was dissolved. In 2016 a new security strategy was introduced, which along with the Russian annexation of Crimea, the British withdrawal from the EU and the election of Donald Trump as US president have given the CSDP a new impetus.[7]

Deployments

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File:Map of EU interventions overseas.svg
Since 2002, the European Union has intervened abroad thirty-five times in three different continents.Script error: No such module "Unsubst".Template:Clarify

The first deployment of European troops under the ESDP, following the 1999 declaration of intent, was in March 2003 in the Republic of Macedonia (now North Macedonia). Operation Concordia used NATO assets and was considered a success and replaced by a smaller police mission, EUPOL Proxima, later that year. Since then, there have been other small police, justice and monitoring missions. As well as in the Republic of Macedonia, the EU has maintained its deployment of peacekeepers in Bosnia and Herzegovina, as part of Operation Althea.[8]

Between May and September 2003 EU troops were deployed to the Democratic Republic of the Congo (DRC) during "Operation Artemis" under a mandate given by UN Security Council Resolution 1484 which aimed to prevent further atrocities and violence in the Ituri Conflict and put the DRC's peace process back on track. This laid out the "framework nation" system to be used in future deployments. The EU returned to the DRC during July–November 2006 with EUFOR RD Congo, which supported the UN mission there during the country's elections.

Geographically, EU missions outside the Balkans and the DRC have taken place in Georgia, Indonesia, Sudan, Palestine, and Ukraine–Moldova. There is also a judicial mission in Iraq (EUJUST Lex). On 28 January 2008, the EU deployed its largest and most multi-national mission to Africa, EUFOR Tchad/RCA.[9] The UN-mandated mission involves troops from 25 EU states (19 in the field) deployed in areas of eastern Chad and the north-eastern Central African Republic in order to improve security in those regions. EUFOR Tchad/RCA reached full operation capability in mid-September 2008, and handed over security duties to the UN (MINURCAT mission) in mid-March 2009.[10]

The EU launched its first maritime CSDP operation on 12 December 2008 (Operation Atalanta). The concept of the European Union Naval Force (EU NAVFOR) was created on the back of this operation, which is still successfully combatting piracy off the coast of Somalia almost a decade later. A second such intervention was launched in 2015 to tackle migration problems in the southern Mediterranean (EUNAVFOR Med), working under the name Operation SOPHIA.

Most of the CSDP missions deployed so far are mandated to support security sector reforms (SSR) in host-states. One of the core principles of CSDP support to SSR is local ownership. The EU Council defines ownership as "the appropriation by the local authorities of the commonly agreed objectives and principles".[11] Despite EU's strong rhetorical attachment to the local ownership principle, research shows that CSDP missions continue to be an externally driven, top-down and supply-driven endeavour, resulting often in the low degree of local participation.[12]

Structure

Script error: No such module "Labelled list hatnote". The CSDP involves military or civilian missions being deployed to preserve peace, prevent conflict and strengthen international security in accordance with the principles of the United Nations Charter. Military missions are carried out by EU forces established with contributions from the member states' armed forces. The CSDP also entails collective self-defence amongst member statesTemplate:Efn as well as a Permanent Structured Cooperation (PESCO) in which 26 of the 27 national armed forces pursue structural integration. The CSDP structure, headed by the Union's High Representative (HR/VP), Kaja Kallas, comprises:

While the EU has a command and control (C2) structure, it has no standing permanent military structure along the lines of the North Atlantic Treaty Organization's (NATO) Allied Command Operations (ACO), although it has been agreed that ACO resources may be used for the conduct of the EU's CSDP missions. The MPCC, established in 2017 and to be strengthened in 2020, does however represent the EU's first step in developing a permanent military headquarters. In parallel, the newly established European Defence Fund (EDF) marks the first time the EU budget is used to finance multinational defence projects. The CSDP structure is sometimes referred to as the European Defence Union (EDU), especially in relation to its prospective development as the EU's defence arm.[1][2][3]Template:Efn

Decisions relating to the CSDP are proposed by the HR/VP, adopted by the FAC, generally requiring unanimity, and then implemented by the HR/VP. Script error: No such module "anchor". Template:European Union command and control structure

Strategy

Script error: No such module "Labelled list hatnote". The European Union Global Strategy (EUGS) is the updated doctrine of the EU to improve the effectiveness of the CSDP, including the defence and security of the members states, the protection of civilians, cooperation between the member states' armed forces, management of immigration, crises etc. Adopted on 28 June 2016,[13] it replaces the European Security Strategy of 2003. The EUGS is complemented by a document titled "Implementation Plan on Security and Defense" (IPSD).[14] Deterrence theory is applied to deter aggressors as one of the core mandates of Common Security and Defence Policy, yet lacks credibility due to insufficient resources.[15]

Forces

Script error: No such module "Labelled list hatnote". A new Action Plan on military mobility and cyber resilience was released 10 November 2022.[16]

National

Template:EU military personnel The CSDP is implemented using civilian and military contributions from member states' armed forces, which also are obliged to collective self-defence based on Treaty on European Union (TEU).

Five EU states host nuclear weapons: France has its own nuclear programmes, while Belgium, Germany, Italy and the Netherlands host US nuclear weapons as part of NATO's nuclear sharing policy. Combined, the EU possesses 300 warheads, and hosts between 90 and 130 US warheads. Italy hosts 70-90 B61 nuclear bombs, while Germany, Belgium, and the Netherlands 10-20 each one.[17] The EU has the third largest arsenal of nuclear weapons, after the United States and Russia.

Expenditure and personnel

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The following table presents the military expenditures of the members of the European Union in euros (€). The combined military expenditure of the member states amounted to €223.4 billion in 2018.[18] This represents 1.4% of European Union GDP. European military expenditure includes spending on joint projects such as the Eurofighter Typhoon and joint procurement of equipment. The European Union's combined active military forces in 2016 totaled 1,410,626 personnel.[19]

In a speech in 2012, Swedish General Håkan Syrén criticised the spending levels of European Union countries, saying that in the future those countries' military capability will decrease, creating "critical shortfalls".[20]

In May 2025, EU member states agreed to launch a €150bn loans-for-arms fund backed by the bloc’s shared budget. The initiative will allow EU countries to borrow from Brussels and spend on weapons systems and platforms through joint procurement.[21]

Guide to table:

  • All figure entries in the table below are provided by the European Defence Agency for the year 2017, except for Germany's personnel figure, which is for 2016. Figures from other sources are not included.
  • The "operations & maintenance expenditure" category may in some circumstances also include finances on-top of the nations defence budget.
  • The categories "troops prepared for deployed operations" and "troops prepared for deployed and sustained operation" only include land force personnel.
Member state Expenditure (€ mn.) Per capita (€) % of GDP Operations & maintenance expenditure (€ mn.) Active military personnel Land troops prepared for deployed and sustained operations Reserve personnel
Template:Flagicon AustriaScript error: No such module "Check for unknown parameters".[19] 2,673 301 0.74 574 24,190 1,100 950,000
Template:Flagicon BelgiumScript error: No such module "Check for unknown parameters".[19] 5,672 349 1.1 680 27,789 1,293 3,300
Template:Flagicon BulgariaScript error: No such module "Check for unknown parameters".[19] 1,140 109 1.56 118 30,218 1,168 3,000
Template:Flagicon CroatiaScript error: No such module "Check for unknown parameters".[19] 950 149 1.5 154 14,862 796 18,343
Template:Flagicon CyprusScript error: No such module "Check for unknown parameters".[19] 470 409 1.83 63 20,000 0 75,000
Template:Flagicon Czech RepublicScript error: No such module "Check for unknown parameters".[19] 3,310 184 1.46 474 23,036 672 3,236
Template:Flagicon EstoniaScript error: No such module "Check for unknown parameters".[19] 748 363 2.31 158 6,178 100 60,000
Template:Flagicon FinlandScript error: No such module "Check for unknown parameters".[19] 4,873 523 2.15 919 7,515 1,738 900,000
Template:Flagicon FranceScript error: No such module "Check for unknown parameters".[19] 49,700 609 1.79 10,201 208,251 17,000 38,550
Template:Flagicon GermanyScript error: No such module "Check for unknown parameters".[19] 57,300 489 1.53 177,608 29,200
Template:Flagicon GreeceScript error: No such module "Check for unknown parameters".[19] 7,086 393 3.82 504 106,624 2,432
Template:Flagicon HungaryScript error: No such module "Check for unknown parameters".[19] 2,200 122 1.66 492 23,846 1,000 20,000
Template:Flagicon IrelandScript error: No such module "Check for unknown parameters".[19] 780 191 0.31 103 9,500 850 1,778
Template:Flagicon ItalyScript error: No such module "Check for unknown parameters".[19] 26,310 339 1.6 1,583 181,116 18,300
Template:Flagicon LatviaScript error: No such module "Check for unknown parameters".[19] 758 243 2.23 132 5,686 75 3,000
Template:Flagicon LithuaniaScript error: No such module "Check for unknown parameters".[19] 1,028 256 2.13 145 14,350 26,000
Template:Flagicon LuxembourgScript error: No such module "Check for unknown parameters".[19] 389 484 0.56 30 824 57
Template:Flagicon MaltaScript error: No such module "Check for unknown parameters".[19] 54 122 0.51 8 1,808 30
Template:Flagicon NetherlandsScript error: No such module "Check for unknown parameters".[19] 12,900 507 1.5 2,144 40,196 1,500 5,046
Template:Flagicon PolandScript error: No such module "Check for unknown parameters".[19] 11,940 226 2.2 1,918 106,500 60 75,400
Template:Flagicon PortugalScript error: No such module "Check for unknown parameters".[19] 3,975 235 1.6 142 32,726 1,698
Template:Flagicon RomaniaScript error: No such module "Check for unknown parameters".[19] 5,590 185 2.0 277 69,542 2,961 50,000
Template:Flagicon SlovakiaScript error: No such module "Check for unknown parameters".[19] 1,520 183 1.75 198 13,152 846
Template:Flagicon SloveniaScript error: No such module "Check for unknown parameters".[19] 548 204 1.04 72 6,342 707 1,000
Template:Flagicon SpainScript error: No such module "Check for unknown parameters".[19] 15,660 231 1.2 1,891 120,812 7,410 15,150
Template:Flagicon SwedenScript error: No such module "Check for unknown parameters".[19] 5,620 460 1.1 1,973 14,500 750 34,500
Template:Flagicon EUScript error: No such module "Check for unknown parameters".[19] 222,194 365 1.50 1,287,171 2,330,803

Naval forces

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File:Charles De Gaulle (R91) underway 2009.jpg
Charles de Gaulle aircraft carrier is one of the largest commissioned warships in the European Union.

The combined component strength of the naval forces of member states is some 514 commissioned warships. Of those in service, 4 are fleet carriers. The EU also has 4 amphibious assault ships and 20 amphibious support ships in service. Of the EU's 49 submarines, 10 are nuclear-powered submarines while 39 are conventional attack submarines.

Operation Atalanta (formally European Union Naval Force Somalia) is the first ever (and still ongoing) naval operation of the European Union. It is part of a larger global action by the EU in the Horn of Africa to deal with the Somali crisis. As of January 2011, twenty-three EU nations participate in the operation.

France and Italy have blue-water navies.[22]

Guide to table:

  • Ceremonial vessels, research vessels, supply vessels, training vessels, and icebreakers are not included.
  • The table only counts warships that are commissioned (or equivalent) and active.
  • Surface vessels displacing less than 200 tonnes are not included, regardless of other characteristics.
  • The "amphibious support ship" category includes amphibious transport docks and dock landing ships, and tank landing ships.
  • Frigates over 6,000 tonnes are classified as destroyers.
  • The "patrol vessel" category includes missile boats.
  • The "anti-mine ship" category includes mine countermeasures vessels, minesweepers and minehunters.
  • Generally, total tonnage of ships is more important than total number of ships, as it gives a better indication of capability.
Member state Fleet carrier Amphibious assault ship Amphibious support ship Destroyer Frigate Corvette Patrol vessel Anti-mine ship Missile sub. Attack sub. Total Tonnage
Template:Flagicon AustriaScript error: No such module "Check for unknown parameters". 0 0
Template:Flagicon BelgiumScript error: No such module "Check for unknown parameters".[23] 2 2 5 9 10,009
Template:Flagicon BulgariaScript error: No such module "Check for unknown parameters". 1 4 3 1 10 18 15,160
Template:Flagicon CroatiaScript error: No such module "Check for unknown parameters". 5 2 7 2,869
Template:Flagicon CyprusScript error: No such module "Check for unknown parameters". 5 5 0
Template:Flagicon Czech RepublicScript error: No such module "Check for unknown parameters". 0 0
Template:Flagicon DenmarkScript error: No such module "Check for unknown parameters".[24] 5 4 9 18 51,235
Template:Flagicon EstoniaScript error: No such module "Check for unknown parameters". 3 3 2,000
Template:Flagicon FinlandScript error: No such module "Check for unknown parameters". 4 4 12 20 5,429
Template:Flagicon FranceScript error: No such module "Check for unknown parameters".[25] 1Template:Efn 3 13 11 20 18 4 6 76 319,195
Template:Flagicon GermanyScript error: No such module "Check for unknown parameters".[26] 3 7 5 8 15 6 44 82,790
Template:Flagicon GreeceScript error: No such module "Check for unknown parameters".[27] 9 13 33[28] 4 11[28] 70 138,565
Template:Flagicon HungaryScript error: No such module "Check for unknown parameters". 0 0
Template:Flagicon IrelandScript error: No such module "Check for unknown parameters".[29] 8 8 11,219
Template:Flagicon ItalyScript error: No such module "Check for unknown parameters".[30] 2Template:Efn (1)Template:Efn 3Template:Efn 4 16 5 11 10 8 59 303,411
Template:Flagicon LatviaScript error: No such module "Check for unknown parameters". 5 5 3,025
Template:Flagicon LithuaniaScript error: No such module "Check for unknown parameters".[31] 4 4 8 5,678
Template:Flagicon LuxembourgScript error: No such module "Check for unknown parameters". 0 0
Template:Flagicon MaltaScript error: No such module "Check for unknown parameters".[32] 2 2 1,419
Template:Flagicon NetherlandsScript error: No such module "Check for unknown parameters".[33] 2 4 2 4 6 4 22 116,308
Template:Flagicon PolandScript error: No such module "Check for unknown parameters".[34] 5 2 1 3 19 3 28 19,724
Template:Flagicon PortugalScript error: No such module "Check for unknown parameters".[35] 5 7 7 2 23 34,686
Template:Flagicon RomaniaScript error: No such module "Check for unknown parameters".[36] 3 7 6 5 21 23,090
Template:Flagicon SlovakiaScript error: No such module "Check for unknown parameters". 0 0
Template:Flagicon SloveniaScript error: No such module "Check for unknown parameters".[37] 1 1 2 435
Template:Flagicon SpainScript error: No such module "Check for unknown parameters".[38] 1Template:Efn (1)Template:Efn 2Template:Efn 5Template:Efn 6Template:Efn 23 6 3 46 148,607
Template:Flagicon SwedenScript error: No such module "Check for unknown parameters".[39] 6 11 5 22 14,256
Template:Flagicon EUScript error: No such module "Check for unknown parameters". 4 4 22 34 75 38 156 136 4 48 514 ~516 1,309,110 ~1,309,110

Land forces

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File:Leopard 2A6, PzBtl 104.jpg
The Leopard 2 main battle tank

Combined, the member states of the European Union maintain large numbers of various land-based military vehicles and weaponry.

Guide to table:

  • The table is not exhaustive and primarily includes vehicles and EU-NATO member countries under the Conventional Armed Forces in Europe Treaty (CFE treaty). Unless otherwise specified.
  • The CFE treaty only includes vehicles stationed within Europe, vehicles overseas on operations are not counted.
  • The "main battle tank" category also includes tank destroyers (such as the Italian B1 Centauro) or any self-propelled armoured fighting vehicle, capable of heavy firepower. According to the CFE treaty.
  • The "armoured fighting vehicle" category includes any armoured vehicle primarily designed to transport infantry and equipped with an automatic cannon of at least 20 mm calibre. According to the CFE treaty.
  • The "artillery" category includes self-propelled or towed howitzers and mortars of 100 mm calibre and above. Other types of artillery are not included regardless of characteristics. According to the CFE treaty.
  • The "attack helicopter" category includes any rotary wing aircraft armed and equipped to engage targets or equipped to perform other military functions (such as the Apache or the Wildcat). According to the CFE treaty.
  • The "military logistics vehicle" category includes logistics trucks of 4-tonne, 8-tonne, 14-tonne or larger, purposely designed for military tasking. Not under CFE treaty.
Member state Main battle tank Armoured fighting vehicle Artillery Attack helicopter Military logistics vehicle
Template:Flagicon AustriaScript error: No such module "Check for unknown parameters". 56 364 90
Template:Flagicon BelgiumScript error: No such module "Check for unknown parameters".[40] 521 155 27
Template:Flagicon BulgariaScript error: No such module "Check for unknown parameters".[40] 362 681 1,035 12
Template:Flagicon CroatiaScript error: No such module "Check for unknown parameters".[41] 75 283 127 10
Template:Flagicon CyprusScript error: No such module "Check for unknown parameters". 134 169 234 15 398
Template:Flagicon Czech RepublicScript error: No such module "Check for unknown parameters".[40] 123 501 182 24
Template:Flagicon DenmarkScript error: No such module "Check for unknown parameters".[40] 46 229 56 12
Template:Flagicon EstoniaScript error: No such module "Check for unknown parameters".[42] 74
Template:Flagicon FinlandScript error: No such module "Check for unknown parameters". 200 1,080 722 25
Template:Flagicon FranceScript error: No such module "Check for unknown parameters".[40] 450 6,256 349 283 10,746
Template:Flagicon GermanyScript error: No such module "Check for unknown parameters".[40] 815 1,774 401 158
Template:Flagicon GreeceScript error: No such module "Check for unknown parameters".[40] 1,622 2,187 1,920 29
Template:Flagicon HungaryScript error: No such module "Check for unknown parameters".[40] 90 634 35 8 471
Template:Flagicon IrelandScript error: No such module "Check for unknown parameters".[43] 107 36
Template:Flagicon ItalyScript error: No such module "Check for unknown parameters".[40] 1,176 3,145 1,446 107 10,921
Template:Flagicon LatviaScript error: No such module "Check for unknown parameters".
Template:Flagicon LithuaniaScript error: No such module "Check for unknown parameters".[44] 88 96
Template:Flagicon LuxembourgScript error: No such module "Check for unknown parameters".
Template:Flagicon MaltaScript error: No such module "Check for unknown parameters".
Template:Flagicon NetherlandsScript error: No such module "Check for unknown parameters".[40] 16 634 135 21
Template:Flagicon PolandScript error: No such module "Check for unknown parameters".[45] 1,675 3,110 1,580 83
Template:Flagicon PortugalScript error: No such module "Check for unknown parameters".[40] 220 425 377
Template:Flagicon RomaniaScript error: No such module "Check for unknown parameters".[40] 857 1,272 1,273 23
Template:Flagicon SlovakiaScript error: No such module "Check for unknown parameters".[40] 30 327 68
Template:Flagicon SloveniaScript error: No such module "Check for unknown parameters". 76 52 63
Template:Flagicon SpainScript error: No such module "Check for unknown parameters".[40] 484 1,007 811 27
Template:Flagicon SwedenScript error: No such module "Check for unknown parameters". 120 978 268
Template:Flagicon EUScript error: No such module "Check for unknown parameters".[40] 8,413 25,421 11,259 822

Air forces

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The air forces of EU member states operate a wide range of military systems and hardware. This is primarily due to the independent requirements of each member state and also the national defence industries of some member states. However such programmes like the Eurofighter Typhoon and Eurocopter Tiger have seen many European nations design, build and operate a single weapons platform. 60% of overall combat fleet was developed and manufactured by member states, 32% are US-origin, but some of these were assembled in Europe, while remaining 8% are soviet-made aircraft. As of 2014, it is estimated that the European Union had around 2,000 serviceable combat aircraft (fighter aircraft and ground-attack aircraft).[46]

The EUs air-lift capabilities are evolving with the future introduction of the Airbus A400M (another example of EU defence cooperation). The A400M is a tactical airlifter with strategic capabilities.[47] Around 140 are initially expected to be operated by 5 member states (Luxembourg, France, Germany, Spain and Belgium).

Guide to tables:

  • The tables are sourced from figures provided by Flight International for the year 2020.
  • Aircraft are grouped into three main types (indicated by colours): red for combat aircraft, green for aerial refueling aircraft, and yellow for strategic and tactical transport aircraft.
  • The two "other" columns include additional aircraft according to their type sorted by colour (i.e. the "other" category in red includes combat aircraft, while the "other" category in grey includes both aerial refueling and transport aircraft). This was done because it was not feasible allocate every aircraft type its own column.
  • Other aircraft such as trainers, helicopters, UAVs and reconnaissance or surveillance aircraft are not included in the below tables or figures.
Fighter and ground-attack
Member state TyphoonScript error: No such module "Check for unknown parameters". GripenScript error: No such module "Check for unknown parameters". Rafale Mirage 2000Script error: No such module "Check for unknown parameters". TornadoScript error: No such module "Check for unknown parameters". F-35Script error: No such module "Check for unknown parameters". F-16Script error: No such module "Check for unknown parameters". F/A-18Script error: No such module "Check for unknown parameters". OtherScript error: No such module "Check for unknown parameters". TotalScript error: No such module "Check for unknown parameters".
Template:Flagicon AustriaScript error: No such module "Check for unknown parameters".[46] 15 15
Template:Flagicon BelgiumScript error: No such module "Check for unknown parameters".[46] (37 ordered) 51 51
Template:Flagicon BulgariaScript error: No such module "Check for unknown parameters".[46] (16 ordered) 12 MiG-29
7 Su-25		 19
Template:Flagicon CroatiaScript error: No such module "Check for unknown parameters".[46] 6 (6 ordered) 6 MiG-21 12
Template:Flagicon CyprusScript error: No such module "Check for unknown parameters".[46]
Template:Flagicon Czech RepublicScript error: No such module "Check for unknown parameters".[46] 14 (24 ordered) 24 L-159 38
Template:Flagicon DenmarkScript error: No such module "Check for unknown parameters".[46] 10 (17 ordered) 41 51
Template:Flagicon EstoniaScript error: No such module "Check for unknown parameters".[46]
Template:Flagicon FinlandScript error: No such module "Check for unknown parameters".[46] (64 ordered) 61 61
Template:Flagicon FranceScript error: No such module "Check for unknown parameters".[46] 139 (63 ordered) 93 232
Template:Flagicon GermanyScript error: No such module "Check for unknown parameters".[46] 129 (35 ordered) 65 IDS & 21 Tornado ECR (35 ordered) 212
Template:Flagicon GreeceScript error: No such module "Check for unknown parameters".[46] 19 (5 ordered) 29 (40 ordered) 152[48] 17 F-4 217[48]
Template:Flagicon HungaryScript error: No such module "Check for unknown parameters".[46] 14 (4 ordered) 14
Template:Flagicon IrelandScript error: No such module "Check for unknown parameters".[46]
Template:Flagicon ItalyScript error: No such module "Check for unknown parameters".[46] 89 33 IDS & 13 Tornado ECR 30 (60 ordered) 12 Harrier II 177[49]
Template:Flagicon LatviaScript error: No such module "Check for unknown parameters".[46]
Template:Flagicon LithuaniaScript error: No such module "Check for unknown parameters".[46]
Template:Flagicon LuxembourgScript error: No such module "Check for unknown parameters".[46]
Template:Flagicon MaltaScript error: No such module "Check for unknown parameters".[46]
Template:Flagicon NetherlandsScript error: No such module "Check for unknown parameters".[46] 40 (12 ordered) 40
Template:Flagicon PolandScript error: No such module "Check for unknown parameters".[46] (32 ordered) 48 12 T-50 (36 ordered)
28 MiG-29

32 Su-22

120
Template:Flagicon PortugalScript error: No such module "Check for unknown parameters".[46] 25 25
Template:Flagicon RomaniaScript error: No such module "Check for unknown parameters".[46] (32 ordered) 26 (23 ordered) 26
Template:Flagicon SlovakiaScript error: No such module "Check for unknown parameters".[46] 2 (12 ordered) 2
Template:Flagicon SloveniaScript error: No such module "Check for unknown parameters".[46]
Template:Flagicon SpainScript error: No such module "Check for unknown parameters".[46] 68 (45 ordered) 81 12 Harrier II 161
Template:Flagicon SwedenScript error: No such module "Check for unknown parameters".[46] 94 (70 ordered) 94
Template:Flagicon EUScript error: No such module "Check for unknown parameters".[46] 301 (80) 122 (74) 164 (74) 122 132 80 (353) 345 (51) 142 162 1567
Aerial refueling and transport
Member state A330 MRTT KC-130 KC-767 A400MScript error: No such module "Check for unknown parameters". C-130Script error: No such module "Check for unknown parameters". CN-235Script error: No such module "Check for unknown parameters".C-295Script error: No such module "Check for unknown parameters". C-27JScript error: No such module "Check for unknown parameters". C-390Script error: No such module "Check for unknown parameters". L-410 OtherScript error: No such module "Check for unknown parameters". TotalScript error: No such module "Check for unknown parameters".
Template:Flagicon AustriaScript error: No such module "Check for unknown parameters".[46] 3 (4 ordered) 8 PC-6 11
Template:Flagicon BelgiumScript error: No such module "Check for unknown parameters".[46] 7 7
Template:Flagicon BulgariaScript error: No such module "Check for unknown parameters".[46] 3 2 1 PC-12 6
Template:Flagicon CroatiaScript error: No such module "Check for unknown parameters".[46]
Template:Flagicon CyprusScript error: No such module "Check for unknown parameters".[46]
Template:Flagicon Czech RepublicScript error: No such module "Check for unknown parameters".[46] 6 6 12
Template:FlagiconDenmarkScript error: No such module "Check for unknown parameters".[46] 4 4
Template:Flagicon EstoniaScript error: No such module "Check for unknown parameters".[46] 2 An-28/M28 2
Template:Flagicon FinlandScript error: No such module "Check for unknown parameters".[46] 3 3 Learjet 35

6 PC-12NG

12
Template:Flagicon FranceScript error: No such module "Check for unknown parameters".[46] 12 2 24 (26 ordered) 16 27 2 KC-135
1 A330
5 DHC-6
25 TBM 700
5 PC-6
10 EMB-121
6 Falcon 10		 135
Template:Flagicon GermanyScript error: No such module "Check for unknown parameters".[46] 3 45 (8 ordered) 3 2 A321 53
Template:Flagicon GreeceScript error: No such module "Check for unknown parameters".[46] 5 8 2 King Air 350 15
Template:Flagicon HungaryScript error: No such module "Check for unknown parameters".[46] 1 (1 ordered) 2 A319 3
Template:Flagicon IrelandScript error: No such module "Check for unknown parameters".[46] 2 (1 ordered) 4 PC-12NG 6
Template:Flagicon ItalyScript error: No such module "Check for unknown parameters".[46] 4 4 9 10 11 P180

3 Dornier 228

41
Template:Flagicon LatviaScript error: No such module "Check for unknown parameters".[46]
Template:Flagicon LithuaniaScript error: No such module "Check for unknown parameters".[46] 3 (3 ordered) 2 5
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Multinational

Established at Union level

File:Nordic Battle Group ISTAR Training (5014209533).jpg
Irish Army personnel from the Nordic Battle Group at an exercise in 2010

The Helsinki Headline Goal Catalogue is a listing of rapid reaction forces composed of 60,000 troops managed by the European Union, but under control of the countries who deliver troops for it.

Forces introduced at Union level include:

  • The battle groups (BG) adhere to the CSDP, and are based on contributions from a coalition of member states. Each of the eighteen Battlegroups consists of a battalion-sized force (1,500 troops) reinforced with combat support elements.[50][51] The groups rotate actively, so that two are ready for deployment at all times. The forces are under the direct control of the Council of the European Union. The Battlegroups reached full operational capacity on 1 January 2007, although, as of January 2013 they are yet to see any military action.[52] They are based on existing ad hoc missions that the European Union (EU) has undertaken and has been described by some as a new "standing army" for Europe.[51] The troops and equipment are drawn from the EU member states under a "lead nation". In 2004, United Nations Secretary-General Kofi Annan welcomed the plans and emphasised the value and importance of the Battlegroups in helping the UN deal with troublespots.[53]
  • The Medical Command (EMC) is a planned medical command centre in support of EU missions, formed as part of the Permanent Structured Cooperation (PESCO).[54] The EMC will provide the EU with a permanent medical capability to support operations abroad, including medical resources and a rapidly deployable medical task force. The EMC will also provide medical evacuation facilities, triage and resuscitation, treatment and holding of patients until they can be returned to duty, and emergency dental treatment. It will also contribute to harmonising medical standards, certification and legal (civil) framework conditions.[55]
  • The Force Crisis Response Operation Core (EUFOR CROC) is a flagship defence project under development as part of Permanent Structured Cooperation (PESCO). EURFOR CROC will contribute to the creation of a "full spectrum force package" to speed up provision of military forces and the EU's crisis management capabilities.[56] Rather than creating a standing force, the project involves creating a concrete catalogue of military force elements that would speed up the establishment of a force when the EU decides to launch an operation. It is land-focused and aims to generate a force of 60,000 troops from the contributing states alone. While it does not establish any form of "European army", it foresees an deployable, interoperable force under a single command.[57] Germany is the lead country for the project, but the French are heavily involved and it is tied to President Emmanuel Macron's proposal to create a standing intervention force. The French see it as an example of what PESCO is about.[58]

Provided through Article 42.3 TEU

File:Eurocorps Strasbourg passage de commandement 28 juin 2013 14.jpg
Personnel of the European Corps in Strasbourg, France, during a change of command ceremony in 2013

This section presents an incomplete list of forces and bodies established intergovernmentally amongst a subset of member states. These organisations will deploy forces based on the collective agreement of their member states. They are typically technically listed as being able to be deployed under the auspices of NATO, the United Nations, the European Union (EU) through Article 42.3 of TEU, the Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe, or any other international entity.

However, with the exception of the Eurocorps, very few have actually been deployed for any real military operation, and none under the CSDP at any point in its history.

Land Forces:

Aerial:

  • The European Air Transport Command exercises operational control of the majority of the aerial refueling capabilities and military transport fleets of its participating nations. Located at Eindhoven Airbase in the Netherlands, the command also bears a limited responsibility for exercises, aircrew training and the harmonisation of relevant national air transport regulations.[61][62] The command was established in 2010 to provide a more efficient management of the participating nations' assets and resources in this field.

Naval:

Participation, relationship with NATO

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Template:Participation in Euro-Atlantic defence arrangements The Berlin Plus agreement is the short title of a comprehensive package of agreements made between NATO and the EU on 16 December 2002.[66] These agreements were based on conclusions of NATO's 1999 Washington summit, sometimes referred to as the CJTF mechanism,[67] and allowed the EU to draw on some of NATO's military assets in its own peacekeeping operations.

File:CSDP utility.svg
Chart presented in 2012 by then Director General of the Military Staff Lt. gen. Ton van Osch, asserting that the utility of the combined civilian and military components of the EU policy could be considered more effective than NATO for a limited level of conflict.


EUCAP Somalia

The EUCAP Somalia[68] is an example of an unarmed, non-executive, civilian Common Security and Defence Policy (CSDP) Mission. aimed at strengthening maritime security capacities, police sector, as well as promoting the Rule of Law in Somalia.[69] It provides strategic level advice, mentoring and training, on issues ranging from coast guard and police functions to police-prosecution cooperation and the drafting of laws. Initially launched as EUCAP Nestor[70] in 2012, the mission was reconfigured to focus on Somalia, thus renamed by the Council of the European Union, EUCAP Somalia in 2016.

In December 2024, the Council of European Union extended the Mission’s mandate to February 2027.

The most prominent goals of the Mission are to help Somalia to generate well trained police forces in line with the Somali Transition Plan, contribute to secure one of the EU’s vital maritime trade routes, and assist to draft and implement sound legislative frameworks, including accountability systems.

Background

The mission was established in response to the persistent challenges posed by maritime insecurity in the Western Indian Ocean, particularly piracy, illegal fishing, human trafficking, and arms smuggling. These issues severely impacted both the security and economic stability of Somalia and the surrounding region. Somalia’s extensive coastline (the longest in mainland Africa) was unprotected for years due to the collapse of the government in the early 1990s.[71] Piracy flourished in the absence of effective maritime governance, leading to international efforts to assist the country in reclaiming control over its waters. EUCAP Somalia emerged as part of these efforts, complementing other international missions such as Operation Atalanta and EUTM Somalia.

Mandates

From 2012 to 2016

EUCAP Nestor's mandate is divided into two objectives: strengthening the maritime capacities of the beneficiary countries (excluding Somalia) and training a coastal police force and judges in Somalia, the primary aim being to get the countries in the region to work together to strengthen action at sea. EUCAP Nestor operates in five countries: Djibouti, Kenya, Seychelles, Somalia (Puntland/Somaliland) and Tanzania. This is why it is relatively large in terms of staff numbers, with almost 200 people spread across the different countries. These experts provide legal, strategic and operational advice on maritime safety.[72]

From 2016 to 2021

When the name was changed in December 2016, so too was the mandate. EUCAP Somalia will drop its regional ambitions and focus solely on Somalia, and more specifically on the Coast Guard, with a view to strengthening ‘Somali maritime law enforcement capabilities’. The mandate is not limited to piracy, but covers any criminal activity or offence committed on the coast or in the sea.[73]

From 2021 to 2024

In December 2020, the Council of the European Union extended EUCAP's mandate until 31 December 2024. From 2021 onwards, the mission will also be helping Somalia to strengthen its police capabilities, in particular by developing the Federal Darwish police force and reinforcing the INTERPOL National Central Bureau in Mogadishu.[74] The EU's budget for the period 2023-2024 allocated is 81 million €.[75]

Current mandate from 2025 to 2027

In December 2024, the Council of European Union extended the Mission’s mandate to February 2027. EUCAP Somalia is tasked to advise, train, and equip the Somali Police Force and to support the development of a legal framework for Somalia’s internal security architecture. The mission’s work also includes providing monitoring support to regional maritime police forces, including the Somaliland and Puntland Maritime Police Forces, to bolster maritime law enforcement and security. The Mission’s budget for its current mandate is €110 million and total staff of 169 members.

Three pillars of EUCAP Somalia

  1. Support the development of Somali Police Forces by enhancing their capabilities through advising, training and equipping Somali Police Forces in line with the Somali Security Sector Development Plan, ensuring the police are better prepared to maintain security and stability across the country.
  2. Strengthen Maritime Police Capacities in and around the three main Somali ports (Mogadishu, Berbera and Bossaso) by providing capacity building on coast guard functions.
  3. Promote the rule of law by working with Somali authorities to enhance accountability within the police force and across the criminal justice chain. This includes supporting the development of legal frameworks necessary for the effective functioning of law enforcement, and security actors in both land and maritime domains, fostering governance and accountability.

Achievements

Since its reconfiguration in 2016, EUCAP Somalia has made significant strides in enhancing Somalia’s maritime security capabilities. Recent achievements include improving the Somali Police Force's (SPF) command, control, and communication capabilities, as well as enhancing their ability to manage security incidents in Mogadishu. EUCAP has deployed a specialized multinational team to support the SPF's Maritime Police Unit and has played a key role in the development of Somaliland’s Coast Guard, conducting joint exercises with EUNAVFOR Operation ATALANTA. The mission also trained and equipped the Puntland Maritime Police Force, enhancing their capacity to enforce maritime law. Additionally, EUCAP has supported the Somali Attorney General’s Maritime Crimes Unit by providing training in internal procedures and investigations and launching an internship program for young lawyers. Despite the progress, Somalia continues to face challenges in maritime governance due to political instability and resource limitations, but EUCAP remains committed to addressing these issues with Somali authorities and international partners.[76]

Mission's achievements during mandate 2022 - 24

  • Increased the Somali Police Force command, control and communication capability.
  • Trained Somali Police Force trainers for co-training activities.
  • Enabling the establishment of the Maritime Rescue and Coordination Center in Mogadishu to enhance maritime security coordination along the Somali coastline and in regional waters.
  • Supported the development of Somaliland Coast Guard, including through joint exercises with EUNAVFOR Operation ATALANTA and the provision of maritime equipment.
  • Trained mobile training units for Somaliland Coast Guard and Somaliland Police.
  • Trained and equipped the Puntland Maritime Police Force - Maritime Police Unit, enhancing their law enforcement capabilities.
  • Supporting the maritime crimes unit of the Somali Attorney General's Office in internal procedures and maritime crimes investigations as well as an internship program for young lawyers in Mogadishu and Puntland.

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See also

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Defence-related EU initiatives

Pan-European defence organisations (intergovernmental)

Regional, integorvernmental defence organisations in Europe

Atlanticist intergovernmental defence organisations

Notes

Template:Notelist

References

Template:Reflist

Further reading

External links

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