Overseas Chinese

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Template:Short description Template:Use dmy dates Template:Use British English Template:Short description Script error: No such module "infobox".Script error: No such module "Check for unknown parameters". Overseas Chinese people or the Chinese diaspora are a diaspora people of Chinese origin who reside outside Greater China (mainland China, Hong Kong, Macau, and Taiwan).[3] As of 2011, there were over 40.3 million overseas Chinese.[4] As of 2023, there were 10.5 million people living outside mainland China who were born in mainland China, corresponding to 0.7 percent of China's population.[5] Overall, China has a low percent of its population living overseas.

File:Terence Tao.jpg
Fields Medal winner Terence Tao is ethnic Chinese math genius working in California.
File:President Arthur Chung.jpg
Guyana President Arthur Chung was the first ethnic Chinese President of Guyana.
File:Samuel Ting.jpg
Nobel Prize winner Samuel Ting traces Chinese ancestry to Shandong peninsula.
File:Brooklyn Chinatown.png
Typical grocery store on 8th Avenue in one of the Brooklyn Chinatowns in New York City, New York. Multiple Chinatowns in Manhattan, Queens, and Brooklyn are thriving as traditionally urban enclaves, as large-scale Chinese immigration continues into New York.[6][7][8][9][10] The New York metropolitan area contains the largest ethnic Chinese population outside of Asia, comprising an estimated 893,697 uniracial individuals as of 2017.[11]

Terminology

Template:Lang-zh (Template:Lang-zh) refers to people of Chinese citizenship residing outside of either the PRC or ROC (Taiwan). The government of China realized that the overseas Chinese could be an asset, a source of foreign investment and a bridge to overseas knowledge; thus, it began to recognize the use of the term Huaqiao.[12]

Ching-Sue Kuik renders Script error: No such module "Lang". in English as "the Chinese sojourner" and writes that the term is "used to disseminate, reinforce, and perpetuate a monolithic and essentialist Chinese identity" by both the PRC and the ROC.[13]

The modern informal internet term Template:Lang-zh (Template:Lang-zh) refers to returned overseas Chinese and guīqiáo qiáojuàn (Template:Lang-zh) to their returning relatives.[14]Script error: No such module "Unsubst".

Template:Lang-zh (Template:Lang-zh) refers to people of Chinese descent or ancestry residing outside of China, regardless of citizenship.[15] Another often-used term is Template:Lang-zh or simply Template:Lang-zh. It is often used by the Government of the People's Republic of China to refer to people of Chinese ethnicities who live outside the PRC, regardless of citizenship (they can become citizens of the country outside China by naturalization).

Overseas Chinese who are southerners, such as the Toisanese, Cantonese or Hokkiens refer to themselves as Template:Zhi (Tángrén).Template:Efn Literally, it means Tang people, a reference to Tang dynasty China when it was ruling. This term is commonly used by the Cantonese as a colloquial reference to southern Han people and has little relevance to the ancient dynasty. For example, in the early 1850s when Chinese shops opened on Sacramento St. in San Francisco, California, United States, the Chinese emigrants, mainly from the Pearl River Delta west of Canton, called it Tang People Street (Template:Zhi)Template:Efn[16][17]Template:Rp and the settlement became known as Tang People Town (Template:Zhi)Template:Efn or Chinatown.[17]Template:Rp

The term Template:Zhi (Template:Zhi) is added to the various terms for the overseas Chinese to indicate those who would be considered ethnic minorities in China. The terms Template:Zhi and Template:Zhi (Template:Zhi) are all in usage. The Overseas Chinese Affairs Office of the PRC does not distinguish between Han and ethnic minority populations for official policy purposes.[14] For example, members of the Tibetan people may travel to China on passes granted to certain people of Chinese descent.[18] Various estimates of the Chinese emigrant minority population include 3.1 million (1993),[19] 3.4 million (2004),[20] 5.7 million (2001, 2010),[21][22] or approximately one tenth of all Chinese emigrants (2006, 2011).[23][24] Cross-border ethnic groups (Template:Zhi) are not considered Chinese emigrant minorities unless they left China after the establishment of an independent state on China's border.[14]

Some ethnic groups who have historic connections with China, such as the Hmong, may not or may identify themselves as Chinese.[25]

History

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The Chinese people have a long history of migrating overseas, as far back as the 10th century. One of the migrations dates back to the Ming dynasty when a Chinese of Iranian ancestry Zheng He (1371–1435) became the envoy of Ming empire. He sent people – many of them Cantonese and Hokkien – to explore and trade in the South China Sea and in the Indian Ocean.

Early emigration

File:ChineseMigration003.jpg
Main sources of Chinese migration from the 19th century to 1949.

In the mid-1800s, outbound migration from China increased as a result of the European colonial powers opening up treaty ports.[26]Template:Rp The British colonization of Hong Kong further created the opportunity for Chinese labor to be exported to plantations and mines.[26]Template:Rp

During the era of European colonialism, many overseas Chinese were coolie laborers.[26]Template:Rp Chinese capitalists overseas often functioned as economic and political intermediaries between colonial rulers and colonial populations.[26]Template:Rp

The area of Taishan, Guangdong Province was the source for many of economic migrants.[15] In the provinces of Fujian and Guangdong in China, there was a surge in emigration as a result of the poverty and village ruin.[27]

San Francisco and California was an early American destination in the mid-1800s because of the California Gold Rush. Many settled in San Francisco forming one of the earliest Chinatowns. For the countries in North America and Australia saw great numbers of Chinese gold diggers finding gold in the gold mining and railway construction. Widespread famine in Guangdong impelled many Cantonese to work in these countries to improve the living conditions of their relatives.

From 1853 until the end of the 19th century, about 18,000 Chinese were brought as indentured workers to the British West Indies, mainly to British Guiana (now Guyana), Trinidad and Jamaica.[28] Their descendants today are found among the current populations of these countries, but also among the migrant communities with Anglo-Caribbean origins residing mainly in the United Kingdom, the United States and Canada.

Some overseas Chinese were sold to South America during the Punti–Hakka Clan Wars (1855–1867) in the Pearl River Delta in Guangdong.

File:Chinese women and children in Brunei.JPG
Chinese women and children in Brunei, c. Template:TrimScript error: No such module "Check for unknown parameters"..

Research conducted in 2008 by German researchers who wanted to show the correlation between economic development and height, used a small dataset of 159 male labourers from Guangdong who were sent to the Dutch colony of Suriname to illustrate their point. They stated that the Chinese labourers were between 161 to 164 cm in height for males.[29] Their study did not account for factors other than economic conditions and acknowledge the limitations of such a small sample.

File:Gu family of Chinese-Indonesian.jpg
1958 old photograph of Indonesian-Chinese of Gu (古) surname, first until third generations
File:Chinese merchants grouped outside their club house on Penang Island, 1881.jpg
Chinese merchants in Penang, Straits Settlements (present-day Malaysia), c. Template:TrimScript error: No such module "Check for unknown parameters"..

The Lanfang Republic in West Kalimantan was established by overseas Chinese.

In 1909, the Qing dynasty established the first Nationality Law of China.[26]Template:Rp It granted Chinese citizenship to anyone born to a Chinese parent.[26]Template:Rp It permitted dual citizenship.[26]Template:Rp

Republic of China (1912–1949)

In the first half of the 20th Century, war and revolution accelerated the pace of migration out of China.[26]Template:Rp The Kuomintang and the Communist Party competed for political support from overseas Chinese.[26]Template:Rp

The military conflicts and economic mayhem under the Beiyang and Nationalist rule pushed increasing numbers of people to migrate, mostly through the coastal regions via the ports of Fujian, Guangdong, Hainan and Shanghai. These migrations are considered to be among the largest in China's history. Many nationals of the Republic of China fled and settled down overseas mainly between 1911 and 1949 before the Nationalist government led by Kuomintang lost the mainland to Communist revolutionaries and relocated. Most of the nationalist and neutral refugees fled mainland China to North America while others fled to Southeast Asia (Singapore, Brunei, Thailand, Malaysia, Indonesia and Philippines).

After World War II

Those who fled during 1912–1949 and settled down in Singapore and Malaysia automatically gained citizenship in 1957 and 1963 as these countries gained independence.[30][31] Kuomintang members who settled in Malaysia and Singapore played a major role in the establishment of the Malaysian Chinese Association and their meeting hall at Sun Yat Sen Villa. There was evidence that some intended to reclaim mainland China from the CCP by funding the Kuomintang.[32][33]

File:Restaurantechino.jpg
Chinese restaurant in La Coruña, Galicia, Spain.

After their defeat in the Chinese Civil War, parts of the Nationalist army retreated south and crossed the border into Burma as the People's Liberation Army entered Yunnan.[26]Template:Rp The United States supported these Nationalist forces because the United States hoped they would harass the People's Republic of China from the southwest, thereby diverting Chinese resources from the Korean War.[26]Template:Rp The Burmese government protested and international pressure increased.[26]Template:Rp Beginning in 1953, several rounds of withdrawals of the Nationalist forces and their families were carried out.[26]Template:Rp In 1960, joint military action by China and Burma expelled the remaining Nationalist forces from Burma, although some went on to settle in the Burma–Thailand borderlands.[26]Template:Rp

During the 1950s and 1960s, the ROC tended to seek the support of overseas Chinese communities through branches of the Kuomintang based on Sun Yat-sen's use of expatriate Chinese communities to raise money for his revolution. During this period, the People's Republic of China tended to view overseas Chinese with suspicion as possible capitalist infiltrators and tended to value relationships with Southeast Asian nations as more important than gaining support of overseas Chinese, and in the Bandung declaration explicitly statedScript error: No such module "Unsubst". that overseas Chinese owed primary loyalty to their home nation.Script error: No such module "Unsubst".

From the mid-20th century onward, emigration has been directed primarily to Western countries such as the United States, Australia, Canada, Brazil, The United Kingdom, New Zealand, Argentina and the nations of Western Europe; as well as to Peru, Panama, and to a lesser extent to Mexico. Many of these emigrants who entered Western countries were themselves overseas Chinese, particularly from the 1950s to the 1980s, a period during which the PRC placed severe restrictions on the movement of its citizens.

Due to the political dynamics of the Cold War, there was relatively little migration from the People's Republic of China to southeast Asia from the 1950s until the mid-1970s.[26]Template:RpStatistics show that between 1949 and 1978, Qingtian, a county in Zhejiang known for its large diasporan communities abroad, only permitted 752 people to go abroad throughout this entire period.[34]

In 1984, Britain agreed to transfer the sovereignty of Hong Kong to the PRC; this triggered another wave of migration to the United Kingdom (mainly England), Australia, Canada, US, South America, Europe and other parts of the world. The 1989 Tiananmen Square protests and massacre further accelerated the migration. The wave calmed after Hong Kong's transfer of sovereignty in 1997. In addition, many citizens of Hong Kong hold citizenships or have current visas in other countries so if the need arises, they can leave Hong Kong at short notice.Script error: No such module "Unsubst".

In recent years, the People's Republic of China has built increasingly stronger ties with African nations. In 2014, author Howard French estimated that over one million Chinese have moved in the past 20 years to Africa.[35]

More recent Chinese presences have developed in Europe, where they number well over 1 million, and in Russia, they number over 200,000, concentrated in the Russian Far East. Russia's main Pacific port and naval base of Vladivostok, once closed to foreigners and belonged to China until the late 19th century, since 2010Template:Dated maintenance category (articles)Script error: No such module "Check for unknown parameters". bristles with Chinese markets, restaurants and trade houses. A growing Chinese community in Germany consists of around 76,000 people since 2010Template:Dated maintenance category (articles)Script error: No such module "Check for unknown parameters"..[36] An estimated 15,000 to 30,000 Chinese live in Austria.[37]

Experience

File:Chinese Thai vendor.jpg
Thai Chinese in the past set up small enterprises such as street vending to eke out a living.

Commercial success

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Chinese emigrants are estimated to control US$2 trillion in liquid assets and have considerable amounts of wealth to stimulate economic power in China.[38][39] The Chinese business community of Southeast Asia, known as the bamboo network, has a prominent role in the region's private sectors.[40][41] In Europe, North America and Oceania, occupations are diverse and impossible to generalize; ranging from catering to significant ranks in medicine, the arts and academia.

Overseas Chinese often send remittances back home to family members to help better them financially and socioeconomically. China ranks second after India of top remittance-receiving countries in 2018 with over US$67 billion sent.[42]

Assimilation

File:East Timor hakka wedding.jpg
Chinese girls in a wedding in East Timor, 2006

Overseas Chinese communities vary widely as to their degree of assimilation, their interactions with the surrounding communities (see Chinatown), and their relationship with China.

Thailand has the largest overseas Chinese community and is also the most successful case of assimilation, with many claiming Thai identity. For over 400 years, descendants of Thai Chinese have largely intermarried and assimilated with their compatriots. The present royal house of Thailand, the Chakri dynasty, was founded by King Rama I who himself was partly of Chinese ancestry. His predecessor, King Taksin of the Thonburi Kingdom, was the son of a Chinese immigrant from Guangdong Province and was born with a Chinese name. His mother, Lady Nok-iang (Template:Langx), was Thai (and was later awarded the noble title of Somdet Krom Phra Phithak Thephamat).

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In the Philippines, the Chinese, known as the Sangley, from Fujian and Guangdong were already migrating to the islands as early as 9th century, where many have largely intermarried with both native Filipinos and Spanish Filipinos (Tornatrás). Early presence of Chinatowns in overseas communities start to appear in Spanish colonial Philippines around 16th century in the form of Parians in Manila, where Chinese merchants were allowed to reside and flourish as commercial centers, thus Binondo, a historical district of Manila, has become the world's oldest Chinatown.[43] Under Spanish colonial policy of Christianization, assimilation and intermarriage, their colonial mixed descendants would eventually form the bulk of the middle class which would later rise to the Principalía and illustrado intelligentsia, which carried over and fueled the elite ruling classes of the American period and later independent Philippines. Chinese Filipinos play a considerable role in the economy of the Philippines[44][45][46][47] and descendants of Sangley compose a considerable part of the Philippine population.[47][48] Ferdinand Marcos, the former president of the Philippines was of Chinese descent, as were many others.[49]

File:East Coast Road 3, Mar 06.JPG
Since their early migration, many of the overseas Chinese of Malay ancestry have adopted local culture, especially in Indonesia, Malaysia, Singapore and Thailand with large Peranakan community. Most of them in Singapore were once concentrated in Katong.

Myanmar shares a long border with China so ethnic minorities of both countries have cross-border settlements. These include the Kachin, Shan, Wa, and Ta'ang.[50]

In Cambodia, between 1965 and 1993, people with Chinese names were prevented from finding governmental employment, leading to a large number of people changing their names to a local, Cambodian name. Ethnic Chinese were one of the minority groups targeted by Pol Pot's Khmer Rouge during the Cambodian genocide.[51]

Indonesia forced Chinese people to adopt Indonesian names after the Indonesian mass killings of 1965–66.[52]

In Vietnam, all Chinese names can be pronounced by Sino-Vietnamese readings. For example, the name of the previous paramount leader Hú Jǐntāo (Script error: No such module "Lang".) would be spelled as "Hồ Cẩm Đào" in Vietnamese. There are also great similarities between Vietnamese and Chinese traditions such as the use Lunar New Year, philosophy such as Confucianism, Taoism and ancestor worship; leads to some Hoa people adopt easily to Vietnamese culture, however many Hoa still prefer to maintain Chinese cultural background. The official census from 2009 accounted the Hoa population at some 823,000 individuals and ranked 6th in terms of its population size. 70% of the Hoa live in cities and towns, mostly in Ho Chi Minh city while the rests live in the southern provinces.[53]

On the other hand, in Malaysia, Singapore, and Brunei, the ethnic Chinese have maintained a distinct communal identity.

In East Timor, a large fraction of Chinese are of Hakka descent.

In Western countries, the overseas Chinese generally use romanised versions of their Chinese names, and the use of local first names is also common.

Discrimination

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Overseas Chinese have often experienced hostility and discrimination. In countries with small ethnic Chinese minorities, the economic disparity can be remarkable. For example, in 1998, ethnic Chinese made up just 1% of the population of the Philippines and 4% of the population in Indonesia, but have wide influence in the Philippine and Indonesian private economies.[54] The book World on Fire, describing the Chinese as a "market-dominant minority", notes that "Chinese market dominance and intense resentment amongst the indigenous majority is characteristic of virtually every country in Southeast Asia except Thailand and Singapore".[55]

This asymmetrical economic position has incited anti-Chinese sentiment among the poorer majorities. Sometimes the anti-Chinese attitudes turn violent, such as the 13 May Incident in Malaysia in 1969 and the Jakarta riots of May 1998 in Indonesia, in which more than 2,000 people died, mostly rioters burned to death in a shopping mall.[56]

During the Indonesian killings of 1965–66, in which more than 500,000 people died,[57] ethnic Chinese Hakkas were killed and their properties looted and burned as a result of anti-Chinese racism on the excuse that Dipa "Amat" Aidit had brought the PKI closer to China.[58][59] The anti-Chinese legislation was in the Indonesian constitution until 1998.

The state of the Chinese Cambodians during the Khmer Rouge regime has been described as "the worst disaster ever to befall any ethnic Chinese community in Southeast Asia." At the beginning of the Khmer Rouge regime in 1975, there were 425,000 ethnic Chinese in Cambodia; by the end of 1979 there were just 200,000.[60]

It is commonly held that a major point of friction is the apparent tendency of overseas Chinese to segregate themselves into a subculture.[61]Script error: No such module "Unsubst". For example, the anti-Chinese Kuala Lumpur racial riots of 13 May 1969 and Jakarta riots of May 1998 were believed to have been motivated by these racially biased perceptions.[62] This analysis has been questioned by some historians, notably Kua Kia Soong, who has put forward the controversial argument that the 13 May incident was a pre-meditated attempt by sections of the ruling Malay elite to incite racial hostility in preparation for a coup.[63][64] In 2006, rioters damaged shops owned by Chinese-Tongans in Nukuʻalofa.[65] Chinese migrants were evacuated from the riot-torn Solomon Islands.[66]

Ethnic politics can be found to motivate both sides of the debate. In Malaysia, many "Bumiputra" ("native sons") Malays oppose equal or meritocratic treatment towards Chinese and Indians, fearing they would dominate too many aspects of the country.[67][68] The question of to what extent ethnic Malays, Chinese, or others are "native" to Malaysia is a sensitive political one. It is currently a taboo for Chinese politicians to raise the issue of Bumiputra protections in parliament, as this would be deemed ethnic incitement.[69]

Many of the overseas Chinese emigrants who worked on railways in North America in the 19th century suffered from racial discrimination in Canada and the United States. Although discriminatory laws have been repealed or are no longer enforced today, both countries had at one time introduced statutes that barred Chinese from entering the country, for example the United States Chinese Exclusion Act of 1882 (repealed 1943) or the Canadian Chinese Immigration Act, 1923 (repealed 1947). In both the United States and Canada, further acts were required to fully remove immigration restrictions (namely United States' Immigration and Nationality Acts of 1952 and 1965, in addition to Canada's).

In Australia, Chinese were targeted by a system of discriminatory laws known as the "White Australia Policy" which was enshrined in the Immigration Restriction Act of 1901. The policy was formally abolished in 1973, and in recent years Australians of Chinese background have publicly called for an apology from the Australian Federal Government[70] similar to that given to the 'stolen generations' of indigenous people in 2007 by the then Prime Minister Kevin Rudd.

In September 2004, the Spanish city of Elche experienced an anti-Chinese riot, where around 500 people demonstrated in the city's Carrus industrial zone chanting "Chinese out" and set fire to the warehouse of a Chinese shoe shop and a container causing losses of 800,000 euros (US$984,000).[71] The locals reported that the Chinese caused resentment not because of their numbers (there are far more North African and Latin American immigrants), but because they felt that the Chinese economic practices threatened their age-old social customs, employment norms, and labor relations in Spain. [72]

In South Korea, the relatively low social and economic statuses of ethnic Korean-Chinese have played a role in local hostility towards them.[73] Such hatred had been formed since their early settlement years, where many Chinese–Koreans hailing from rural areas were accused of misbehaviour such as spitting on streets and littering.[73] More recently, they have also been targets of hate speech for their association with violent crime,[74][75] despite the Korean Justice Ministry recording a lower crime rate for Chinese in the country compared to native South Koreans in 2010.[76]

Relationship with China

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File:Overseas Chinese Museum, Xiamen, China.JPG
Overseas Chinese Museum, Xiamen, China

Both the People's Republic of China and the Republic of China (known more commonly as Taiwan) maintain high level relationships with the overseas Chinese populations. Both maintain cabinet level ministries to deal with overseas Chinese affairs, and many local governments within the PRC have overseas Chinese bureaus.

Before 2018, the PRC's Overseas Chinese Affairs Office (OCAO) under the State Council was responsible for liaising with overseas Chinese.[26]Template:Rp In 2018, the office was merged into the United Front Work Department of the Central Committee of the Chinese Communist Party.[77][26]Template:Rp

Throughout its existence but particularly during the general secretaryship of Xi Jinping, the Chinese Communist Party makes patriotic appeals to overseas Chinese to assist the country's political and economic needs.[26]Template:Rp In a July 2022 meeting with the United Front Work Department, Xi encouraged overseas Chinese to support China's rejuvenation and stated that domestic and overseas Chinese should pool their strengths to realize the Chinese Dream.[26]Template:Rp In the PRC's view, overseas Chinese are an asset to demonstrating a positive image of China internationally.[26]Template:Rp

Citizenship status

The Nationality Law of the People's Republic of China, which does not recognise dual citizenship, provides for automatic loss of PRC citizenship when a former PRC citizen both settles in another country and acquires foreign citizenship. For children born overseas of a PRC citizen, whether the child receives PRC citizenship at birth depends on whether the PRC parent has settled overseas: "Any person born abroad whose parents are both Chinese nationals or one of whose parents is a Chinese national shall have Chinese nationality. But a person whose parents are both Chinese nationals and have both settled abroad, or one of whose parents is a Chinese national and has settled abroad, and who has acquired foreign nationality at birth shall not have Chinese nationality" (Article 5).[78]

By contrast, the Nationality Law of the Republic of China, which both permits and recognises dual citizenship, considers such persons to be citizens of the ROC (if their parents have household registration in Taiwan).

Returning and re-emigration

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In the case of Indonesia and Burma, political strife and ethnic tensions has caused a significant number of people of Chinese origins to re-emigrate back to China. In other Southeast Asian countries with large Chinese communities, such as Malaysia, the economic rise of People's Republic of China has made the PRC an attractive destination for many Malaysian Chinese to re-emigrate. As the Chinese economy opens up, Malaysian Chinese act as a bridge because many Malaysian Chinese are educated in the United States or Britain but can also understand the Chinese language and culture making it easier for potential entrepreneurial and business to be done between the people among the two countries.[79]

Return migration often concentrated in traditional qiao'xiang (侨乡, 'overseas-Chinese hometowns'), in which counties in Guangdong, Fujian, Zhejiang, and Hainan that historically produced large numbers of emigrants. The communities of these provinces developed distinct transnational networks shaped by remittances, circular migration , and hometown associations.

After the Deng Xiaoping reforms, the attitude of the PRC toward the overseas Chinese changed dramatically. Rather than being seen with suspicion, they were seen as people who could aid PRC development via their skills and capital. During the 1980s, the PRC actively attempted to court the support of overseas Chinese by among other things, returning properties that had been confiscated after the 1949 revolution. More recently PRC policy has attempted to maintain the support of recently emigrated Chinese, who consist largely of Chinese students seeking undergraduate and graduate education in the West. Many of the Chinese diaspora are now investing in People's Republic of China providing financial resources, social and cultural networks, contacts and opportunities.[80][81]

The Chinese government estimates that of the 1,200,000 Chinese people who have gone overseas to study in the thirty years since the reform and opening up beginning in 1978; three-quarters of those who left have not returned to China.[82]

Beijing is attracting overseas-trained academics back home, in an attempt to internationalise its universities. However, some professors educated to the PhD level in the West have reported feeling "marginalised" when they return to China due in large part to the country's "lack of international academic peer review and tenure track mechanisms".[83]

Language

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The usage of Chinese by the overseas Chinese has been determined by a large number of factors, including their ancestry, their ancestors' languages, assimilation through generational changes, and official policies of their country of residence. The general trend is that more established Chinese populations in the Western world and in many regions of Asia have Cantonese as either the dominant variety or as a common community vernacular, while Standard Chinese is much more prevalent among new arrivals, making it increasingly common in many Chinatowns.[84][85]

Country statistics

File:Chinese Diaspora By Country.png
Visualization of overseas Chinese populations by country
Country Chinese country or region Number Percentage of the population of a country or region Year
Africa
File:Flag of Algeria.svg Algeria Chinese people in Algeria 3,500 2022[86]
File:Flag of Angola.svg Angola Chinese people in Angola 30,000 2024[87]
File:Flag of Benin.svg Benin Chinese people in Benin 2,000 2024[88]
File:Flag of Botswana.svg Botswana Chinese people in Botswana 15,000 2022[89]
File:Flag of Burkina Faso.svg Burkina Faso Chinese people in Burkina Faso 500 2023[90]
File:Flag of Burundi.svg Burundi Chinese people in Burundi 400 2020[91]
File:Flag of Cameroon.svg Cameroon Chinese people in Cameroon 6,000 2024[92]
File:Flag of Cape Verde.svg Cape Verde Chinese people in Cape Verde 3,000 2020Script error: No such module "Unsubst".
File:Flag of the Central African Republic.svg Central African Republic Chinese people in the Central African Republic 300 2020Script error: No such module "Unsubst".
File:Flag of Chad.svg Chad Chinese people in Chad 500 2024Script error: No such module "Unsubst".
File:Flag of the Comoros.svg Comoros Chinese people in Comoros 150 2023Script error: No such module "Unsubst".
Template:Country data Democratic Republic of Congo Chinese people in the DRC 21,000 2021[93]
File:Flag of Djibouti.svg Djibouti Chinese people in Djibouti 400 2021Script error: No such module "Unsubst".
File:Flag of Egypt.svg Egypt Chinese people in Egypt 20,000 2024[94]
File:Flag of Equatorial Guinea.svg Equatorial Guinea Chinese people in Equatorial Guinea 5,000 2021Script error: No such module "Unsubst".
File:Flag of Eritrea.svg Eritrea Chinese people in Eritrea 200 2020Script error: No such module "Unsubst".
File:Flag of Eswatini.svg Eswatini Chinese people in Eswatini 500 2018Script error: No such module "Unsubst".
File:Flag of Ethiopia.svg Ethiopia Chinese Ethiopians 30,000 2022[95]
File:Flag of Gabon.svg Gabon Chinese people in Gabon 3,000 2021Script error: No such module "Unsubst".
File:Flag of The Gambia.svg Gambia Chinese people in the Gambia 300 2019Script error: No such module "Unsubst".
File:Flag of Ghana.svg Ghana Sino-Ghanéens 30,000 – 50,000 2024[96]
File:Flag of Guinea.svg Guinea Chinese people in Guinea 20,000 2024[97]
File:Flag of Guinea-Bissau.svg Guinea-Bissau Chinese people in Guinea-Bissau 200 2020Script error: No such module "Unsubst".
File:Flag of Côte d'Ivoire.svg Ivory Coast Chinese people in Ivory Coast 4,500 2017[98]
File:Flag of Kenya.svg Kenya Chinese Kenyans 50,000 2024[99]
File:Flag of Lesotho.svg Lesotho Chinese people in Lesotho 2,900 2016Script error: No such module "Unsubst".
File:Flag of Liberia.svg Liberia Chinese people in Liberia 1,000 2024[100]
File:Flag of Libya.svg Libya Chinese people in Libya 300 2014[101]
File:Flag of Madagascar.svg Madagascar Chinese people in Madagascar 50,000 2024[102]
File:Flag of Malawi.svg Malawi Chinese people in Malawi 2,000 2018Script error: No such module "Unsubst".
File:Flag of Mali.svg Mali Chinese people in Mali 3,000 2014[103]
File:Flag of Mauritania.svg Mauritania Chinese people in Mauritania 500 2021Script error: No such module "Unsubst".
File:Flag of Mauritius.svg Mauritius Sino-Mauritians 20,000 2024Script error: No such module "Unsubst".
File:Flag of Morocco.svg Morocco Chinese people in Morocco 2,000 2024[104]
File:Flag of Mozambique.svg Mozambique Ethnic Chinese in Mozambique 3,000 2021[105]
File:Flag of Namibia.svg Namibia Chinese people in Namibia 3,000 2020[106]
File:Flag of Niger.svg Niger Chinese people in Niger 500 2022Script error: No such module "Unsubst".
File:Flag of Nigeria.svg Nigeria Chinese people in Nigeria 100,000 2024[107]
Template:Country data Republic of Congo Chinese Congolese 4,500 2024[108]
File:Flag of France.svg Réunion Chinois Réunionnais 50,000 2023[109]
File:Flag of Rwanda.svg Rwanda Chinese people in Rwanda 3,000 2023Script error: No such module "Unsubst".
File:Flag of São Tomé and Príncipe.svg São Tomé and Príncipe Chinese people in São Tomé and Príncipe 200 2021Script error: No such module "Unsubst".
File:Flag of Senegal.svg Senegal Chinese Senegalese 5,000 2024Script error: No such module "Unsubst".
File:Flag of Seychelles.svg Seychelles Sino-Seychellois 1,000 2023[110]
File:Flag of Sierra Leone.svg Sierra Leone Chinese people in Sierra Leone 1,500 2024[111]
File:Flag of Somalia.svg Somalia Chinese people in Somalia 100 2020Script error: No such module "Unsubst".
File:Flag of South Africa.svg South Africa Chinese South Africans 300,000 – 400,000 <1% 2015[112]
File:Flag of South Sudan.svg South Sudan Chinese people in South Sudan 2,000 2023Script error: No such module "Unsubst".
File:Flag of Sudan.svg Sudan Chinese people in Sudan 1,500 2023[113]
File:Flag of Tanzania.svg Tanzania Chinese Tanzanians 30,000 2024[114]
File:Flag of Togo (3-2).svg Togo Chinese people in Togo 850 2022Script error: No such module "Unsubst".
File:Flag of Tunisia.svg Tunisia Chinese people in Tunisia 2,000 2024Script error: No such module "Unsubst".
File:Flag of Uganda.svg Uganda Chinese Ugandans 20,000 2024[115]
File:Flag of Zambia.svg Zambia Chinese Zambians 13,000 2019[116]
File:Flag of Zimbabwe.svg Zimbabwe Chinese people in Zimbabwe 10,000 2017[117]
Asia/Middle East 29,000,000
File:Flag of Thailand.svg Thailand Thai Chinese, Peranakan 9,300,000 14% 2015[118]
File:Flag of Malaysia.svg Malaysia Malaysian Chinese, Peranakan 7,527,793 23.2% 2020[119]
File:Flag of Indonesia.svg Indonesia Chinese Indonesian (Chindo), Peranakan 2,832,510 1.20% (Official) 2010[120]
File:Flag of Singapore.svg Singapore Chinese Singaporean, Peranakan
Chinese nationals in Singapore		 2,675,521 (Chinese Singaporeans)
514,110 (Chinese nationals)		 76% (Official)
No percentage available		 2015[121]
2020[122]
File:Flag of Myanmar.svg Myanmar Chinese people in Myanmar, Panthay 1,725,794 3% 2012[123][124]
File:Flag of the Philippines.svg Philippines Chinese Filipino, Tornatras, Sangley 1,146,250–1,400,000 2% 2013[125]
File:Flag of South Korea.svg South Korea Chinese in South Korea 1,070,566 2% 2018[126]
File:Flag of Japan.svg Japan Chinese in Japan 1,000,000 <1% 2024[127]
File:Flag of Vietnam.svg Vietnam Hoa people 749,466 <1% 2019[128]
File:Flag of Cambodia.svg Cambodia Chinese Cambodian 343,855 2% 2014[129]
File:Flag of Laos.svg Laos Laotian Chinese 185,765 1% 2005[130]
File:Flag of the United Arab Emirates.svg United Arab Emirates Chinese people in the United Arab Emirates 180,000 2% 2009[131]
File:Flag of Saudi Arabia.svg Saudi Arabia 105,000 <1% [132]
File:Flag of Pakistan.svg Pakistan Chinese people in Pakistan 60,000 2018[133]
File:Flag of Brunei.svg Brunei Ethnic Chinese in Brunei 42,100 10% 2015[134]
File:Flag of Israel.svg Israel Chinese people in Israel 10,000 2010[135]
File:Flag of North Korea.svg North Korea Chinese in North Korea 10,000 2009[136]
File:Flag of India.svg India Chinese people in India 9,000–85,000 (including Tibetan) 2018[137]
File:Flag of Mongolia.svg Mongolia Ethnic Chinese in Mongolia 8,688 <1% 2010[138]
File:Flag of Bangladesh.svg Bangladesh Chinese people in Bangladesh 98,000 Script error: No such module "Unsubst".
File:Flag of Qatar.svg Qatar 6,000 2014[139]
Template:Country data East Timor Chinese people in East Timor 4,000–20,000 (historically) 2021[140]
File:Flag of Turkmenistan.svg Turkmenistan 3,700 [141]
File:Flag of Sri Lanka.svg Sri Lanka Chinese people in Sri Lanka 3,500 <1%[142]
File:Flag of Kazakhstan.svg Kazakhstan Chinese in Kazakhstan 3,424 2009[143]
File:Flag of Iran.svg Iran Chinese people in Iran 3,000 <1% Script error: No such module "Unsubst".
File:Flag of Kyrgyzstan.svg Kyrgyzstan Chinese people in Kyrgyzstan 1,813 2009[144]
File:Flag of Uzbekistan.svg Uzbekistan 1,400 [145]
File:Flag of Nepal.svg   Nepal 1,344 2001Script error: No such module "Unsubst".
Europe 1,670,000
File:Flag of France.svg France Chinese diaspora in France 800,000-1,200,000 (by ancestry) (116,000 Chinese nationals) 1% 2025[146]
File:Flag of the United Kingdom.svg United Kingdom British Chinese 488,847 <1% 2021Script error: No such module "Unsubst".
File:Flag of Italy.svg Italy Chinese people in Italy 308,984 <1% 2024[147]
File:Flag of Spain.svg Spain Chinese people in Spain 223,999 <1% 2022[148]
File:Flag of Germany.svg Germany Chinese people in Germany 163,000 <1% 2024[149]
File:Flag of the Netherlands.svg Netherlands Chinese people in the Netherlands 84,453 <1% 2022[150]
File:Flag of Sweden.svg Sweden Chinese people in Sweden 41,777 2024[151]
File:Flag of Portugal.svg Portugal Chinese people in Portugal 27,873 <1% 2023[152]
File:Flag of Switzerland (Pantone).svg  Switzerland 19,712 <1% 2019[153]
File:Flag of Russia.svg Russia Chinese people in Russia 19,644 <1% 2021[154]
File:Flag of Ireland.svg Ireland Chinese people in Ireland 19,447 <1% 2016[155]
File:Flag of Hungary.svg Hungary 18,851 2018Script error: No such module "Unsubst".
File:Flag of Austria.svg Austria 16,331 <1% 2015[156]
File:Flag of Turkey.svg Turkey Chinese people in Turkey, Uyghurs in Turkey 15,107–60,000 (including Uyghurs) 2024[157]
File:Flag of Denmark.svg Denmark Chinese people in Denmark 15,103 2020Script error: No such module "Unsubst".
File:Flag of Belgium (civil).svg Belgium Chinese people in Belgium 14,490 <1% 2024[158]
File:Flag of Norway.svg Norway Chinese people in Norway 13,350 2020Script error: No such module "Unsubst".
File:Flag of Finland.svg Finland 17,011 2023[159]
File:Flag of Poland.svg Poland Chinese people in Poland 8,656 2019Script error: No such module "Unsubst".
File:Flag of the Czech Republic.svg Czech Republic Chinese people in the Czech Republic 7,485 2018Script error: No such module "Unsubst".
File:Flag of Romania.svg Romania Chinese of Romania 5,000 2017Script error: No such module "Unsubst".
File:Flag of Luxembourg.svg Luxembourg 4,000 2020[160]
File:Flag of Slovakia.svg Slovakia 2,346 2016Script error: No such module "Unsubst".
File:Flag of Ukraine.svg Ukraine 2,213 2001Script error: No such module "Unsubst".
File:Flag of Greece.svg Greece Chinese people in Greece 20,000-25,000 2024[161]
File:Flag of Serbia.svg Serbia Chinese people in Serbia 14,500 2023[162]
File:Flag of Cyprus.svg Cyprus 1,300 [163]
File:Flag of Slovenia.svg Slovenia 1,285 [164]
File:Flag of Bulgaria.svg Bulgaria Chinese people in Bulgaria 1,236 2015Script error: No such module "Unsubst".
File:Flag of Malta.svg Malta 1,090 2017[165][166]Template:Better source needed
File:Flag of Iceland.svg Iceland 686 2019Script error: No such module "Unsubst".
File:Flag of Croatia.svg Croatia 500 [167]
File:Flag of Albania.svg Albania 200 [168]
File:Flag of Latvia.svg Latvia 128 2019[169]
File:Flag of Estonia.svg Estonia 104 <1% 2013[170]
File:Flag of Lithuania.svg Lithuania 97 2021[171]
Americas 8,215,000
File:Flag of the United States.svg United States Chinese American, American-born Chinese 5,457,033 1–2% 2023[172]
File:Flag of Canada (Pantone).svg Canada Chinese Canadian, Canadian-born Chinese 1,715,770 4–5% 2021[173]
File:Flag of Brazil.svg Brazil Chinese Brazilian 250,000 2017[130]
File:Flag of Argentina.svg Argentina Chinese people in Argentina 120,000–200,000[174] <1% 2016[174]
File:Flag of Panama.svg Panama Chinese people in Panama 80,000 2% 2018[175]
File:Flag of Mexico.svg Mexico Chinese immigration to Mexico 24,489 <1% 2019[176]
File:Flag of Peru.svg Peru Chinese-Peruvian 14,223

1,000,000–3,000,000

3–10% [177][178] 2015

[179]

File:Flag of Chile.svg Chile Chinese people in Chile 17,021 <1% 2017[180]
File:Flag of Venezuela.svg Venezuela Chinese Venezuelans 15,358 2011Script error: No such module "Unsubst".
File:Flag of the Dominican Republic.svg Dominican Republic Ethnic Chinese in the Dominican Republic 15,000 2017[181]
File:Flag of Nicaragua.svg Nicaragua Chinese people in Nicaragua 15,000 [182]
File:Flag of France.svg French Guiana Chinese people in French Guiana 10,000 [183]
File:Flag of Costa Rica.svg Costa Rica Chinese people in Costa Rica 9,170 2011[184]Template:Circular reference
File:Flag of Suriname.svg Suriname Chinese-Surinamese 7,885 1–2% 2012[185]
File:Flag of Jamaica.svg Jamaica Chinese Jamaicans 50,228 2011Script error: No such module "Unsubst".
File:Flag of Trinidad and Tobago.svg Trinidad & Tobago Chinese Trinidadian and Tobagonian 3,984 2011Script error: No such module "Unsubst".
File:Flag of Guyana.svg Guyana Chinese Guyanese 2,377 2012Script error: No such module "Unsubst".
File:Flag of Colombia.svg Colombia 2,176 2017[186]
File:Flag of Belize.svg Belize Ethnic Chinese in Belize 1,716 <1% 2000[187]
File:Flag of Cuba.svg Cuba Chinese Cuban 1,300 2008[188]
File:Flag of the Bahamas.svg Bahamas 800 [189]
File:Flag of Haiti.svg Haiti Chinese Haitians 230 2010[190]
File:Flag of Barbados.svg Barbados 100 [191]
File:Flag of Saint Lucia.svg Saint Lucia 100 [192]
Oceania 1,500,000
File:Flag of Australia (converted).svg Australia Chinese Australian 1,390,639 6% 2021[193]
File:Flag of New Zealand.svg New Zealand Chinese New Zealander 279,039 5% 2023[194]
File:Flag of Papua New Guinea.svg Papua New Guinea Chinese people in Papua New Guinea 20,000 2008Script error: No such module "Unsubst".
File:Flag of Fiji.svg Fiji Chinese in Fiji 8,000 2012[195]
File:Flag of Tonga.svg Tonga Chinese in Tonga 3,000 2001[196][197]
File:Flag of Palau.svg Palau Chinese in Palau 1,030 2012[198]
File:Flag of Samoa.svg Samoa Chinese in Samoa 620 2015[199]Template:Circular reference
Template:Country data Micronesia 500 [200][201]
File:Flag of Nauru.svg Nauru Chinese in Nauru 151 1–2% 2011[202]
File:Flag of the Marshall Islands.svg Marshall Islands 100 [203][204]

See also

References

Template:Notelist

<templatestyles src="Reflist/styles.css" />

  1. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  2. ↑ Script error: No such module "Citation/CS1".
  3. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  4. ↑ Script error: No such module "Citation/CS1".
  5. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  6. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  7. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  8. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  9. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  10. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  11. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  12. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  13. ↑ Template:Cite thesis
  14. ↑ a b c Script error: No such module "Citation/CS1".
  15. ↑ a b Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  16. ↑ Script error: No such module "Citation/CS1".
  17. ↑ a b Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  18. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  19. ↑ Script error: No such module "Citation/CS1".
  20. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  21. ↑ Script error: No such module "Citation/CS1".
  22. ↑ Script error: No such module "Citation/CS1".
  23. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  24. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  25. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  26. ↑ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s t Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  27. ↑ The Story of California From the Earliest Days to the Present, by Henry K. Norton. 7th ed. Chicago: A.C. McClurg & Co., 1924. Chapter XXIV, pp. 283–296.
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  29. ↑ Script error: No such module "Citation/CS1".
  30. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  31. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  32. ↑ Template:Cite thesis Script error: No such module "Unsubst".
  33. ↑ Script error: No such module "Citation/CS1".
  34. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  35. ↑ Script error: No such module "Citation/CS1".
  36. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  37. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  38. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  39. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  40. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  41. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  42. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  43. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  44. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  45. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  46. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  47. ↑ a b Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  48. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  49. ↑ Script error: No such module "Citation/CS1".
  50. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  51. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  52. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  53. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1". (description page: The 2009 Vietnam Population and Housing census: Completed results Template:Webarchive)
  54. ↑ Amy Chua, "World on Fire", 2003, Doubleday, pp. 3, 43.
  55. ↑ Amy Chua, World on Fire, 2003, Doubleday, p. 61. Template:ISBN
  56. ↑ Malaysia's race rules Template:Webarchive. The Economist Newspaper Limited (25 August 2005). Requires login.
  57. ↑ Indonesian academics fight burning of books on 1965 coup Template:Webarchive, The Sydney Morning Herald
  58. ↑ Vickers (2005), p. 158
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  60. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  61. ↑ Script error: No such module "Citation/CS1".
  62. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  63. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  64. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  65. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  66. ↑ Spiller, Penny: "Riots highlight Chinese tensions ", BBC, 21 April 2006
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  68. ↑ Script error: No such module "Citation/CS1".
  69. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  70. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  71. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  72. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  73. ↑ a b Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  74. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  75. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  76. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  77. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  78. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  79. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  80. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  81. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  82. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  83. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  84. ↑ West (2010), pp. 289–290
  85. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  86. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  87. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  88. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  89. ↑ Script error: No such module "Citation/CS1".
  90. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  91. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  92. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  93. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  94. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  95. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  96. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  97. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  98. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  99. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  100. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  101. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  102. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  103. ↑ Script error: No such module "Citation/CS1".
  104. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  105. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  106. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  107. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  108. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  109. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  110. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  111. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  112. ↑ Script error: No such module "Citation/CS1".
  113. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  114. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  115. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  116. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  117. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  118. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  119. ↑ Script error: No such module "Citation/CS1".
  120. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  121. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  122. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  123. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  124. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  125. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  126. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  127. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  128. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1". (description page: Completed results of the 2019 Viet Nam population and housing census Template:Webarchive)
  129. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  130. ↑ a b Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  131. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  132. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  133. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  134. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  135. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  136. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  137. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  138. ↑ Mongolia National Census 2010 Provision Results. National Statistical Office of Mongolia Template:Webarchive (in Mongolian.)
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  140. ↑ Script error: No such module "Citation/CS1".
  141. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  142. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  143. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  144. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  145. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  146. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  147. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  148. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  149. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
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  151. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
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  153. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
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  155. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  156. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  157. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  158. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  159. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  160. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  161. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  162. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  163. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  164. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  165. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  166. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  167. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  168. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  169. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  170. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  171. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  172. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  173. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  174. ↑ a b Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  175. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  176. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  177. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  178. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  179. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  180. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  181. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  182. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  183. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  184. ↑ Demographics of Costa Rica#Ethnic groups
  185. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  186. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  187. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  188. ↑ CIA World Factbook. Cuba. Template:Webarchive 15 May 2008.
  189. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  190. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  191. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  192. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  193. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  194. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  195. ↑ Fiji Template:Webarchive, The World Factbook. Retrieved 23 March 2012
  196. ↑ "Tonga announces the expulsion of hundreds of Chinese immigrants" Template:Webarchive, John Braddock, wsws.org, 18 December 2001
  197. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  198. ↑ Palau Template:Webarchive, The World Factbook. Retrieved 23 March 2012
  199. ↑ Chinese in Samoa
  200. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  201. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  202. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  203. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  204. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".

Script error: No such module "Check for unknown parameters".

Bibliography

  • Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".

Further reading

Template:Library resources box

  • Barabantseva, Elena. Overseas Chinese, Ethnic Minorities and Nationalism: De-centering China, Oxon/New York: Routledge, 2011.
  • Brauner, Susana, and Rayén Torres. "Identity Diversity among Chinese Immigrants and Their Descendants in Buenos Aires." in Migrants, Refugees, and Asylum Seekers in Latin America (Brill, 2020) pp. 291–308.
  • Chin, Ung Ho. The Chinese of South East Asia (London: Minority Rights Group, 2000). Template:ISBN
  • Chuah, Swee Hoon, et al. "Is there a spirit of overseas Chinese capitalism?." Small Business Economics 47.4 (2016): 1095–1118 online
  • Fitzgerald, John. Big White Lie: Chinese Australians in White Australia, (UNSW Press, Sydney, 2007). Template:ISBN
  • Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  • Kuhn, Philip A. Chinese Among Others: Emigration in Modern Times, (Rowman & Littlefield, 2008).
  • Le, Anh Sy Huy. "The Studies of Chinese Diasporas in Colonial Southeast Asia: Theories, Concepts, and Histories." China and Asia 1.2 (2019): 225–263.
  • López-Calvo, Ignacio. Imaging the Chinese in Cuban Literature and Culture, Gainesville, Florida: University Press of Florida, 2008. Template:ISBN
  • Ngai, Mae. The Chinese Question: The Gold Rushes and Global Politics (2021), Mid 19c in California, Australia and South Africa excerpt
  • Script error: No such module "Citation/CS1".
  • Pan, Lynn. The Encyclopedia of the Chinese Overseas, (Harvard University press, 1998). Template:ISBN
  • Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  • Sai, Siew-Min. "Mandarin lessons: modernity, colonialism and Chinese cultural nationalism in the Dutch East Indies, c. 1900s." Inter-Asia Cultural Studies 17.3 (2016): 375–394. online Template:Webarchive
  • Sai, Siew-Min. "Dressing Up Subjecthood: Straits Chinese, the Queue, and Contested Citizenship in Colonial Singapore." Journal of Imperial and Commonwealth History 47.3 (2019): 446–473. online Template:Webarchive
  • Tan, Chee-Beng. Chinese Overseas: Comparative Cultural Issues, Hong Kong University Press, 2004.
  • Taylor, Jeremy E. ""Not a Particularly Happy Expression":"Malayanization" and the China Threat in Britain's Late-Colonial Southeast Asian Territories." Journal of Asian Studies 78.4 (2019): 789–808. online
  • Van Dongen, Els, and Hong Liu. "The Chinese in Southeast Asia." in Routledge Handbook of Asian Migrations (2018). online Template:Webarchive

External links

Template:Chinese diaspora Template:Asian diaspora Template:Authority control

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