Chernozem

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Template:Short description Template:Use dmy dates Template:Infobox soil

Chernozem (Template:IPAc-en Template:Respell),Template:Efn also called black soil, regur soil or black cotton soil, is a black-colored soil containing a high percentage of humus[1] (4% to 16%) and high percentages of phosphorus and ammonia compounds.[2] Chernozem is very fertile soil and can produce high agricultural yields with its high moisture-storage capacity.Template:Efn Chernozems are a Reference Soil Group of the World Reference Base for Soil Resources (WRB).

Distribution

File:Chernozem map.svg
Distribution of chernozem soils according to the World Reference Base for Soil Resources classification: <templatestyles src="Legend/styles.css" />
  Dominant (more than 50% of soil cover)
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  Codominant (25–50%)
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  Associated (5–25%)

The name comes from the Russian terms for black (чёрный čjornyj) and soil, earth or land (земля zemlja).[3][1][4][5]

Studies of the steppe soils of the Poltava region in the Russian Empire in 1883, conducted by geologist Vasily Dokuchaev, showed that the peasants called all soils by color, so the scientist began to use such names.[6] Chernozem was black in color due to the large amount of organic matter. Dokuchaev was the first to describe the chernozem of the European part of the Russian Empire, and discovered its fertility.[7] It is distinct from the similar terra preta of the Amazon rainforest.

Chernozem covers about 230 million hectares of land. There are two "chernozem belts" in the world. One is the Eurasian Steppe that extends from eastern Croatia (Slavonia), along the Danube (northern Serbia, northern Bulgaria (Danubian Plain), southern and eastern Romania (Wallachian Plain and Moldavian Plain), and Moldova, to northeast Ukraine across the Central Black Earth Region of Central and Southern Russia into Siberia. The other stretches from the Canadian Prairies in Manitoba through the Great Plains of the United States as far south as Kansas.[8]

Chernozem layer thickness may vary widely, from several centimetres up to 1.5 metres (60 inches) in Ukraine,[9] as well as the Red River Valley region in the northern United States and Canada (location of the prehistoric Lake Agassiz).

The terrain can also be found in small quantities elsewhere (for example, in 1% of Poland, Hungary, and Texas). It also exists in Northeast China, near Harbin. The only true chernozem in Australia is located around Nimmitabel, some of the richest soils on the continent.[10]

Previously, there was a black market for the soil in Ukraine. The sale of agricultural land was illegal in Ukraine from 1992 to 2020,[11] but the soil, transported by truck, could be traded legally. According to the Kharkiv-based Green Front NGO, the black market for illegally acquired chernozem in Ukraine was projected to reach approximately US$900 million per year in 2011.[12]

Canadian and United States soil classification

Chernozemic soils are a soil type in the Canadian system of soil classification and the World Reference Base for Soil Resources (WRB).

Chernozemic soil type "equivalents", in the Canadian system, WRB, and U.S. Department of Agriculture soil taxonomy:

Canadian WRB United States
Chernozemic Kastanozem, Chernozem, Phaeozem Mollisol
Brown Chernozem Kastanozem (Aridic) Aridic Mollisol subgroups (Xerolls and Ustolls)
Dark Brown Chernozem Haplic Kastanozem Typic Mollisol subgroups
Black Chernozem Chernozem Udic Mollisol subgroups
Dark Grey Chernozem Greyzemic Phaeozem Boralfic Mollisol subgroups, Albolls
Source: Pedosphere.com Template:Webarchive.

Theories of Chernozem origin

As seen in the list above, the 19th and 20th-century discussions on the pedogenesis of Chernozem originally stemmed from climatic conditions from the early Holocene to roughly 5500 BC. However, no single paleo-climate reconstruction could accurately explain geochemical variations found in Chernozems throughout central Europe. Evidence of anthropomorphic origins of stable pyrogenic carbon in Chernozem led to improved formation theories.[19] Vegetation burning could explain Chernozem's high magnetic susceptibility,[22] the highest of the major soil types.[23] Soil magnetism increases when soil minerals goethite and ferrihydrite convert to maghemite on exposure to heat.[24] Temperatures sufficient to elevate maghemite on a landscape scale indicate the influence of fire. Given the rarity of such natural phenomena in the modern day, magnetic susceptibility in Chernozem likely relates to control of fire by early humans.[23]

Humification can darken soils (melanization) absent a pyrogenic carbon component. Given the symphony of pedogenic processes that contribute to the formation of dark earth, Chernozem summarizes different types of black soils with the same appearance but different formation histories.

See also

Notes

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References

  • IUSS Working Group WRB: World Reference Base for Soil Resources, fourth edition. International Union of Soil Sciences, Vienna 2022. Template:ISBN ([1]).

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Further reading

  • W. Zech, P. Schad, G. Hintermaier-Erhard: Soils of the World. Springer, Berlin 2022, Chapter 5.3.2. Template:ISBN

External links

Template:Sister project Template:Sister project

Template:Soil type Template:Authority control

  1. ↑ a b Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
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  3. ↑ Cite error: Invalid <ref> tag; no text was provided for refs named Etymonline
  4. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  5. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  6. ↑ Бережняк М.Ф. Ґрунтознавство: Навч. посіб. /М.Ф. Бережняк, Б.Є. Якубенко, А.М. Чурілов, Р.В. Сендзюк. // За заг. ред. Якубенка Б.Є. – К.: Видавництво Ліра-К, 2017. – 612 с. ISBN 978-617-7507-96-2
  7. ↑ Dokuchaev V. V. Russian Chernozem (1883) // Israel Program for Scientific Translations Ltd. (for USDA-NSF), S. Monson, Jerusalem, 1967. (Translated from Russian into English by N. Kaner)
  8. ↑ Ecology of Arable Land – Perspectives and Challenges by M. Clarholm and L. Bergström Template:ISBN
  9. ↑ Ukraine: Soils in Encyclopædia Britannica
  10. ↑ KG McQueen. "The Tertiary Geology And Geomorphology Of The Monaro: The Perspective In 1994" Centre For Australian Regolith Studies, Canberra 1994
  11. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  12. ↑ Black market for rich black earth, Kyiv Post (9 November 2011)
  13. ↑ Wallerius J. G. Agriculturae fundamenta chemica, åkerbrukets chemiska grunder. Upsaliae, 1761. 8, 4, 322 p.; The natural and chemical elements of agriculture. London, York: Bell, Etherington, 1770. 198 p.
  14. ↑ 'Lomonosov M. V. § 125. // On the strata of the Earth: a translation of "O sloiakh zemnykh" (1763) / translated by S. M. Rowland, S. Korolev. Boulder: Geological Soc. of America, 2012. 41 p. (Special paper; 485) "And so, there is no doubt that black soil is not primordial matter, but that it has been produced by the decomposition of animal and plant bodies over time"
  15. ↑ a b Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  16. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  17. ↑ Dokoutchaief B. Tchernozème (terre noire) de la Russie d'Europe. St.-Ptb.: Soc. Imp. libre économ., 1879. 66 p. (Comptes-rendus Soc. Imp. libre économ. T. 4).
  18. ↑ Dokuchaev V. V. Russian Chernozem (1883) // Israel Program for Scientific Translations Ltd. (for USDA-NSF), S. Monson, Jerusalem, 1967. (Translated from Russian into English by N. Kaner)
  19. ↑ a b Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  20. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  21. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  22. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  23. ↑ a b Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  24. ↑ Script error: No such module "Citation/CS1".
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