Boutros Boutros-Ghali

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Boutros Boutros-GhaliTemplate:Efn (14 November 1922 – 16 February 2016) was an Egyptian politician and diplomat who served as the sixth secretary-general of the United Nations from 1992 to 1996. Prior to his appointment as secretary-general, Boutros-Ghali was the acting minister of foreign affairs of Egypt between 1977 and 1979. He oversaw the United Nations over a period coinciding with several world crises, including the breakup of Yugoslavia and the Rwandan genocide.

Born to a Coptic Christian family in Cairo, Boutros-Ghali was an academic by training and taught international law and international relations at Cairo University from 1949 to 1979. His political career began during the presidency of Anwar Sadat, who appointed him acting foreign minister in 1977. In that capacity, he helped negotiate the Camp David Accords and the Egypt–Israel peace treaty between Sadat and Israeli prime minister Menachem Begin. He was acting foreign minister until early 1991, when he served as deputy foreign minister for a few months.

Boutros-Ghali was elected secretary-general by the United Nations General Assembly in 1991 and began his term in 1992, succeeding Javier Pérez de Cuéllar. His tenure was marked by controversy and crises, which included the Somali Civil War, the Rwandan Civil War, the continuing Angolan Civil War and the Yugoslav Wars. He received criticism over UN inaction in Angola and during the genocide in Rwanda, and the perceived ineffectiveness of the UN peacekeeping operation in Bosnia led to a NATO intervention. In 1996, Boutros-Ghali ran unopposed for a second term as secretary-general, but the United States, long dissatisfied with his leadership, denied his bid by exercising its Security Council veto.

After leaving the UN, Boutros-Ghali served as the first Secretary-General of La Francophonie from 1997 to 2002. He then became chairman of the South Centre, an intergovernmental think tank for developing countries. He died in 2016, in Cairo at the age of 93.

Early life and education

Boutros Boutros-Ghali was born in Cairo, Egypt, on 14 November 1922 into a Coptic Orthodox Christian family.[1][2][3] His father Yusuf Butros Ghali was the son of Boutros Ghali Bey then Pasha (also his namesake), who was Prime Minister of Egypt from 1908 until he was assassinated in 1910.[4]Template:Sfn His mother, Safela Mikhail Sharubim, was daughter of Mikhail Sharubim (1861–1920), a prominent public servant and historian.Template:Sfn The young boy was brought up by a Slovenian nanny, one of the so-called Template:Ill; he was closer to Milena, "his invaluable friend and confidant", than to his own mother.[5]

Boutros-Ghali graduated from Cairo University in 1946.[6] He received a PhD in international law from the Faculty of Law of Paris (University of Paris) and diploma in international relations from Sciences Po in 1949. During 1949–1979, he was appointed Professor of International Law and International Relations at Cairo University. He became President of the Centre of Political and Strategic Studies in 1975 and President of the African Society of Political Studies in 1980. He was a Fulbright Research Scholar at Columbia University from 1954 to 1955, Director of the Centre of Research at The Hague Academy of International Law from 1963 to 1964, and Visiting Professor at the Faculty of Law of Paris from 1967 to 1968. In 1986, he received an honorary doctorate from the Faculty of Law at Uppsala University, Sweden.[7] He was also the Honorary Rector of the Graduate Institute of Peace Studies, a branch of Kyunghee University Seoul.Script error: No such module "Unsubst".

Political career

File:Boutros Boutros-Ghali et Moshe Dayan Strasbourg 10 octobre 1979.jpg
Boutros-Ghali (left) and Moshe Dayan at the Council of Europe in Strasbourg, 1979

Boutros-Ghali's political career developed during the presidency of Anwar Sadat. He was a member of the Central Committee of the Arab Socialist Union from 1974 to 1977. He served as Egypt's Minister of State for Foreign Affairs from 1977 until early 1991. He then became Deputy Minister for Foreign Affairs for several months before moving to the UN. As Minister of State, he played a part in the peace agreements between President Sadat and Israeli prime minister Menachem Begin.[8]

According to investigative journalist Linda Melvern, Boutros-Ghali approved a secret $26 million arms sale to the government of Rwanda in 1990, when he was foreign minister, the weapons stockpiled by the Hutu regime as part of the fairly public, long-term preparations for the subsequent genocide. He was serving as UN secretary-general when the killings occurred four years later.Template:SfnScript error: No such module "Unsubst".[9]

United Nations Secretary-General

1991 selection

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Boutros-Ghali ran for Secretary-General of the United Nations in the 1991 selection. The top post in the UN was opening up as Javier Pérez de Cuéllar of Peru reached the end of his second term, and Africa was next in the rotation. Boutros-Ghali tied Bernard Chidzero of Zimbabwe in the first two rounds of polling, edged ahead by one vote in round 3, and fell behind by one vote in round 4. After several countries withdrew their support for Chidzero, fed by fears that the United States was trying to eliminate both of the leading candidates, Boutros-Ghali won a clear victory in round 5.[10]

Tenure (1992–1996)

File:Boutros-Ghali, Klaus Schwab, Flavio Cotti - World Economic Forum Annual Meeting 1995.jpg
Boutros-Ghali, Klaus Schwab and Flavio Cotti at the World Economic Forum Annual Meeting in Davos, 1995

Boutros-Ghali's term in office remains controversial. In 1992, he submitted An Agenda for Peace, a suggestion for how the UN could respond to violent conflict. He set three goals: for the UN to be more active in promoting democracy, for the UN to conduct preventative diplomacy to avert crises, and to expand the UN's role as peacekeeper.[11] Although the goals were consistent with those of US president George H. W. Bush, he nevertheless repeatedly clashed with the United States, especially with his efforts to enlist the support of the US, to involve UN more deeply in the civil wars in Somalia (1992) and in Rwanda (1994). The United States refused to send peace enforcement units under UN leadership.Template:Sfn Malaysian Prime Minister Mahathir Mohamad called on Boutros-Ghali to resign for failing to take any firm action to help resolve the conflict in Bosnia-Herzegovina.[12]

Boutros-Ghali was criticised for the UN's failure to act during the 1994 Rwandan genocide, during which over a half million people were killed.[13][14] Boutros-Ghali also appeared unable to muster support in the UN for intervention in the continuing Angolan Civil War. One of the hardest tasks during his term was dealing with the crisis of the Yugoslav Wars after the disintegration of the former Yugoslavia. The UN peacekeeping force was ineffective in Bosnia and Herzegovina, leading to the intervention by NATO in December 1995. His reputation became entangled in the larger controversies over the effectiveness of the UN and the role of the United States in the UN.

The US journalist Mark Bowden argues that he was responsible for an escalation of the Somalia crisis by undertaking a personal vendetta against Mohamed Farrah Aidid and his Habar Gidir clan, favouring their rivals, the Darod, the clan of the former dictator Siad Barre. In Bowden's opinion, it was believed that he demanded the 12 July 1993 US helicopter attack on a meeting of Habar Gidir clan leaders, who were meeting to discuss a peace initiative put forward by the leader of the UN Mission in Mogadishu, retired US Admiral Jonathan Howe. Bowden further suggests that most of the clan elders were eager to arrange peace and rein in the subversive activities of their clan leader Aidid. Still, after this attack on a peaceful meeting, the clan was resolved to fight the Americans and the UN, leading to the Battle of Mogadishu on 3–4 October 1993.Template:Sfn

United States blocks second term

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Boutros-Ghali ran unopposed for the customary second term in 1996, despite efforts by the United States to unseat him. US ambassador Madeleine Albright denounced him as "disengaged" and "neglect[ful]" of genocide in Rwanda and demanded Boutros-Ghali resign. He refused and seemingly had the votes. He won 14 of the 15 votes in the Security Council, but the sole opposing vote was a US veto.[15][16] After four deadlocked meetings of the Security Council, France offered a compromise in which Boutros-Ghali would be appointed to a short term of two years, but the United States rejected the French offer. Finally, Boutros-Ghali suspended his candidacy, becoming the second Secretary-General ever to be denied re-election by a veto, with Kurt Waldheim being the first.[17][18]

Later life

File:Naelachohanboutrosghali.jpg
Boutros-Ghali with Naela Chohan at UNESCO in Paris, 2002

From 1997 to 2002, Boutros-Ghali was Secretary-General of La Francophonie, an organisation of French-speaking nations. From 2002 to 2005, he served as the chairman of the board of the South Centre,[19] an intergovernmental research organisation of developing countries. Boutros-Ghali played a "significant role"[20] in creating Egypt's National Council for Human Rights and served as its president until 2012.[21][22]

Boutros-Ghali supported the Campaign for the Establishment of a United Nations Parliamentary Assembly and was one of the initial signatories of the Campaign's appeal in 2007. In a message to the Campaign, he stressed the necessity to establish democratic participation of citizens at the global level.[23] From 2009 to 2015, he also participated as a jury member for the Conflict Prevention Prize, awarded every year by the Fondation Chirac.[24]

Death

Boutros-Ghali died aged 93 in a Cairo hospital after being admitted for a broken pelvis or leg on 16 February 2016.[25][26][27] A military funeral was held for him with prayers led by Pope Tawadros II of Alexandria. He is buried at Petrine Church in Abbassia, Cairo.[28]

Personal life

Boutros-Ghali's wife, Leia Maria Nadler (1924–2024),[29][30] was raised in an Egyptian Jewish family in Alexandria and converted to Catholicism as a young woman.[6][31]

Honorary degrees

File:Stamps of Turkmenistan, 1996 - President Saparmyrat Niyazov of Turkmenistan and Boutros-Ghali.jpg
Boutros-Ghali in a stamp of Turkmenistan with Saparmurat Niyazov, 1996

He received honorary degrees from Sciences Po, Russian Academy of Sciences, Catholic University of Leuven, Script error: No such module "Lang"., Université de Moncton, Carleton University, Université du Québec à Chicoutimi, Charles III University of Madrid, University of Bucharest, Baku State University, Yerevan State University, University of Haifa, University of Vienna, University of Melbourne, Seoul National University, Waseda University, University of Bordeaux, and Uppsala University.[32][33][34][35][36][37][38]

Awards and recognition

Honours

National honours

Year Ribbon Honour
1991 File:EGY Order of the Nile - Grand Cordon BAR.svg Grand Collar of the Order of the Nile
1989 File:EGY Order of the Republic - Grand Cordon BAR.png Grand Cordon of the Order of the Arab Republic of Egypt
1977 File:EGY Order of Merit - Grand Cross BAR.png Grand Cross of the Order of Merit

Foreign honours

Country Year Ribbon Honour
Template:Flagicon Script error: No such module "Unsubst". File:ARG Order of the Liberator San Martin - Grand Cross BAR.svg Grand Cross of the Order of the Liberator General San Martín
Template:Flagicon Script error: No such module "Unsubst". File:BEL - Order of Leopold - Grand Cordon bar.svg Grand Cordon of the Order of Leopold
Template:Flagicon Script error: No such module "Unsubst". File:BRA - Order of the Southern Cross - Grand Cross BAR.svg Grand Cross of the Order of the Southern Cross
Template:Flagicon 2003 File:CAN Order of Canada Companion ribbon.svg Companion of the Order of Canada[39]
Template:Flagicon Script error: No such module "Unsubst". CAR Ordre de la Reconnaissance Centrafricaine GC ribbon Grand Cross of the Order of Central African recognition
Template:Flagicon Script error: No such module "Unsubst". File:CHL Order of Merit of Chile - Grand Cross BAR.svg Grand Cross of the Order of Merit (Chile)
Template:Flagicon Script error: No such module "Unsubst". File:COL Order of Boyaca - Grand Cross BAR.svg Grand Cross of the Order of Boyaca
Template:Flagicon Script error: No such module "Unsubst". File:Order of the Elephant Ribbon bar.svg Knight of the Order of the Elephant
Template:Flagicon Script error: No such module "Unsubst". File:Ribbon bar of Orden Nacional de San Lorenzo.png Grand Cross of the National Order of San Lorenzo
Template:Flagicon Script error: No such module "Unsubst". File:National Order of José Matias Delgado (El Salvador) - ribbon bar.gif Grand Cross with Silver Star of the Order of José Matías Delgado
Template:Flagicon 1994 File:Legion Honneur GC ribbon.svg Grand Cross of the Legion of Honour[40]
Template:Flagicon Script error: No such module "Unsubst". GER Bundesverdienstkreuz 9 Sond des Grosskreuzes Grand Cross of the Order of Merit of the Federal Republic of Germany
Template:Flagicon Script error: No such module "Unsubst". File:GRE Order Redeemer 1Class.svg Grand Cross of the Order of the Redeemer
Template:Flagicon 1982 File:Cordone di gran Croce di Gran Cordone OMRI BAR.svg Knight Grand Cross Order of Merit of the Italian Republic[41]
Template:Flagicon Script error: No such module "Unsubst". File:Cote d'Ivoire Ordre du merite ivoirien GC ribbon.svg Grand Cross of the Order of Ivory Merit
Template:Flagicon Script error: No such module "Unsubst". File:JPN Daikun'i kikkasho BAR.svg Grand Cordon of the Order of the Chrysanthemum
Template:Flagicon Script error: No such module "Unsubst". File:LUX Order of Merit of the Grand Duchy of Luxembourg - Grand Cross BAR.png Grand Cross of the Order of Merit of the Grand Duchy of Luxembourg
Template:Flagicon Script error: No such module "Unsubst". File:Mali Ordre national du Mali GC ribbon.svg Grand Cross of the National Order of Mali
Template:Flagicon Script error: No such module "Unsubst". MEX Order of the Aztec Eagle 1Class BAR Grand Cross of the Order of the Aztec Eagle
Template:Flagicon Script error: No such module "Unsubst". File:Most Refulgent Order of the Star of Nepal.PNG Grand Commander of the Order of the Star of Nepal
Template:Flagicon 1994 File:St Olavs Orden storkors stripe.svg Grand Cross of the Order of St. Olav
Template:Flagicon Script error: No such module "Unsubst". File:PER Order of the Sun of Peru - Grand Cross BAR.png Grand Cross of the Order of the Sun of Peru
Template:Flagicon 1996 File:PRT Order of Prince Henry - Grand Cross BAR.svg Grand Cross of the Order of Prince Henry[42]
Template:Flagicon 2002 File:Ordre de la Pléiade (Francophonie).gif Grand Cross of the Order of La Pléiade
Template:Flagicon 2001 ROU Order of the Star of Romania 1999 GCross BAR Grand Cross of the Order of the Star of Romania
Template:Flagicon Script error: No such module "Unsubst". SEN Order of the Lion – Grand Cross BAR Grand Cross of the National Order of the Lion
Template:Flagicon Script error: No such module "Unsubst". File:Grand Order of Mugunghwa (South Korea) - ribbon bar.svg Grand Order of Mugunghwa
Template:Flagicon Script error: No such module "Unsubst". MaltaBali Grand Cross of the Sovereign Military Order of Malta
Template:Flagicon Script error: No such module "Unsubst". File:Order of the Polar Star (after 1975) - Commander Grand Cross.svg Grand Cross of the Order of the Polar Star
Template:Flagicon 1993 File:VAT Order of Pope Pius IX Cav BAR.svg Knight of the Order of Pope Pius IX

Published works

As Secretary-General, Boutros-Ghali wrote An Agenda for Peace. He also published other memoirs:

In English

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  • The Arab League, 1945–1955: Ten Years of Struggle, ed. Carnegie Endowment for International Peace, New York, 1954
  • New Dimensions of Arms Regulations and Disarmament in the Post Cold War, ed. United Nations, New York, 1992
  • An Agenda for Development, ed. United Nations, New York, 1995
  • Confronting New Challenges, ed. United Nations, New York, 1995
  • Fifty Years of the United Nations, ed. William Morrow, New York, 1995
  • The 50th Anniversary: Annual Report on the Work of the Organization, ed. United Nations, New York, 1996
  • An Agenda for Democratization, ed. United Nations, New York, 1997
  • Egypt's Road to Jerusalem: A Diplomat's Story of the Struggle for Peace in the Middle East, ed. Random House, New York, 1998
  • Essays on Leadership (with George H. W. Bush, Jimmy Carter, Mikhail Gorbachev, and Desmond Tutu), ed. Carnegie Commission on Preventing Deadly Conflict, Washington, 1998
  • Unvanquished: A US-UN Saga, ed. I. B. Tauris, New York, 1999
  • The Papers of United Nations Secretary (with Charles Hill), ed. Yale University Press, New York, 2003
  • The Arab League, 1945–1955: International Conciliation, ed. Literary Licensing Publisher, London, 2013

In French

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  • Contribution à l'étude des ententes régionales, ed. Pedone, Paris, 1949
  • Cours de Diplomatie et de Droit Diplomatique et consulaire, ed. Librairie Anglo-égyptienne, Cairo, 1951
  • Le problème du canal de Suez, ed. Société égyptienne du droit international, Cairo, 1957
  • Le principe d'égalité des États et des organisations internationales, ed. Académie de droit international, Leiden, 1961
  • Contribution à une théorie générale des alliances, ed. Pedone, Paris, 1963
  • Le Mouvement afro-asiatique, ed. Presses universitaires de France, Paris, 1969
  • L'organisation de l'Unité africaine, ed. Armand Colin, Paris, 1969
  • Les difficultés institutionnelles du panafricanisme, ed. Institut Universitaire des Hautes études Internationales, Geneva, 1971
  • Les conflits des frontières en Afrique, ed. Techniques et Économiques, Paris, 1972
  • Contribution à une théorie générale des alliances, ed. Pedone, Paris, 1991
  • L'interaction démocratie et développement [eds.], ed. Unesco, Paris, 2002
  • Démocratiser la mondialisation, ed. Rocher, Paris, 2002
  • Émanciper la Francophonie, ed. L'Harmattan, Paris, 2003
  • 60 Ans de conflit israélo-arabe : Témoignages pour l'Histoire (with Shimon Peres), ed. Complexes, Paris, 2006

See also

Notes

Template:Notelist

References

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  17. ↑ Thomas Blood, Madame Secretary (1997) pp.199–215.
  18. ↑ Linda Fasulo, "Chapter 14, The Coup Against Boutros-Ghali". in Fasulo, An Insider’s Guide to the UN (4th edition, Yale University Press, 2008, pp. 134-138. https://doi.org/10.12987/9780300133516-017
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Bibliography

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  • Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  • Fasulo, Linda. "CHAPTER 14. The Coup Against Boutros-Ghali" in Fasulo, An Insider’s Guide to the UN (Yale University Press, 2008), pp. 134–138. https://doi.org/10.12987/9780300133516-017
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Further reading

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  • Adebajo, Adekeye. Boutros Boutros-Ghali: Afro-Arab Prophet, Proselytiser, Pharoah, and Pope (Routledge, 2023) online review of this book
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External links

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Template:S-intgov
Political offices
Preceded byTemplate:S-bef/check Minister of Foreign Affairs
ActingScript error: No such module "Check for unknown parameters".
1977 Template:S-ttl/check 		Template:S-aft/check Succeeded by
Preceded byTemplate:S-bef/check Minister of Foreign Affairs
ActingScript error: No such module "Check for unknown parameters".
1978–1979 Template:S-ttl/check 		Template:S-aft/check Succeeded by
Preceded byTemplate:S-bef/check Secretary-General of the United Nations
1992–1996 Template:S-ttl/check 		Template:S-aft/check Succeeded by
Preceded byas Secretary-General of the Agence de Coopération Culturelle et Technique Template:S-bef/check Secretary-General of La Francophonie
1997–2002 Template:S-ttl/check 		Template:S-aft/check Succeeded by

Template:LN and UN Secretaries-General Template:Prix Méditerranée winners Script error: No such module "Navbox". Template:Portal bar Template:Authority control

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