.us

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to navigation Jump to search

Template:Short description Template:Use American English Template:Use mdy datesScript error: No such module "Infobox".Template:Template otherScript error: No such module "Check for unknown parameters".

us is the Internet country code top-level domain (ccTLD) for the United States. It was established in February 1985. Registrants of us domains must be U.S. citizens, residents, or organizations – or foreign entities with a presence in the United States or a territory of the United States.[1] Most registrants in the U.S. have registered for .com, .net, .org and other gTLDs, instead of us, which has primarily been used by state and local governments, even though private entities may also register us domains.[2] The domain is managed by Registry Services, LLC, an acquired subsidiary domain name registry of GoDaddy, on behalf of the United States Department of Commerce.[3]

Domain us is less commonly used by American businesses and enterprises than the internationally more common com.[4]

History

On February 15, 1985, us was created as the Internet's first ccTLD.[5][6] Its original administrator was Jon Postel of the Information Sciences Institute (ISI) at the University of Southern California (USC). He administered us under a subcontract that the ISI and USC had from SRI International (which held the us and the gTLD contract with the United States Department of Defense) and later Network Solutions (which held the us and the gTLD contract with the National Science Foundation).

Postel and his colleague Ann Westine Cooper[7] codified the us ccTLD's policies in December 1992 as RFC 1386[8] and revised them the following June in RFC 1480. Registrants could only register third-level domains or higher in a geographic and organizational hierarchy. From June 1993 to June 1997, Postel delegated the vast majority of the geographic subdomains under us to various public and private entities. us registrants could register with the delegated manager for the specific zone they wished to register in, but not directly with the us administrator. In July 1997, Postel instituted a "50/500 rule" that limited each delegated manager to 500 localities maximum, 50 in a given state.[9]

In June 1998, Postel raised the possibility of covering IANA operating costs by charging locality name registrars, who would pass the costs along to individual registrants. In September 1998, the United States Postal Service proposed funding the operations in order to assume control of us, as part of a plan to diversify away from postage revenue.Template:Sfn On October 1, 1998, the NSF transferred oversight of the us domain to the National Telecommunications and Information Administration (NTIA) of the United States Department of Commerce.[10] Postel died that month, leaving his domain administration responsibilities with ISI. In December 2000, these responsibilities were transferred to Network Solutions, which had recently been acquired by Verisign.[9][11][12]

On October 26, 2001, Neustar was awarded the contract to administer us. On April 24, 2002, second-level domains under us became available for registration. One of the first us domain hacks, icio.us, was registered on May 3, 2002, for the creation of the subdomain del.icio.us.[13][14] A moratorium was placed on additional delegations of locality-based namespaces, and Neustar became the default delegate for undelegated localities.[15] Neustar's contract was renewed by the National Telecommunications and Information Administration (NTIA) in 2007 and most recently in 2014.[9][16]

On March 31, 2019, the us registry made it clear that under its Acceptable Use Policy it would not allow the sale of opioids through the us top level domain.[17]

In Q2 2020, GoDaddy acquired Neustar's registry business.[18]

Locality namespace

The us ccTLD is historically organized under a complex locality namespace hierarchy. Until second-level registrations were introduced in 2002, us permitted only fourth-level domain registrations of the form Template:Var.Template:Var.Template:Var.us, with some exceptions for government entities. Registrants of locality-based domains must meet the same criteria as in the rest of the us ccTLD. Though the locality namespace is most commonly used for government entities, it is also open to registrations by private businesses and individuals. Since 2002, second-level domain registrations have eclipsed those in the locality namespace, and many local governments have transitioned to .org and other TLDs.[9] In the 2010s, the first top-level domains for U.S. cities became available as paid alternatives to third-level locality domains, including .nyc as an alternative to .new-york.ny.us.

Many locality-based zones of us are delegated to various public and private entities known as delegated managers. Domains in these zones are registered through the delegated manager, rather than through GoDaddy. As the delegated managers are expected to receive requests directly from registrants, few if any domain name registrars serve this space, possibly contributing to its lower visibility and utilization. RFC 1480 describes the rationale for the locality namespace's deep hierarchy and local delegation:[9]

<templatestyles src="Template:Blockquote/styles.css" />

One concern is that things will continue to grow dramatically, and this will require more subdivision of the domain name management. Maybe the plan for the US Domain is overkill on growth planning, but there has never been overplanning for growth yet.

Script error: No such module "Check for unknown parameters".

This hierarchical system has proven unappealing to companies that operate nationally or globally.Template:Sfn

As of October 31, 2013, 12,979 domains were registered under the locality namespace, of which 3,653 were managed by about 1,300 delegated managers while 9,326 were managed by Neustar as the de facto manager.[19] According to a 2013 survey of 539 delegated managers, 282 were state or local government agencies, while 98 were private individuals and 85 were commercial Internet service providers. Nearly 90% of the respondents offer domain registrations for free.[9]

The .au and .ca ccTLDs have also established third- and fourth-level locality namespaces, though the .ca locality namespace is no longer open to registrations. The .cn ccTLD maintains a third-level locality namespace in general use.

States and territories Script error: No such module "anchor".

A two-letter second-level domain is formally reserved for each U.S. state, federal territory, and the District of Columbia. Each domain corresponds to a USPS abbreviation. For example, .ny.us is reserved for websites affiliated with New York, while .va.us is for those affiliated with Virginia. Second-level domains are also reserved for five U.S. territories: .as.us for American Samoa, .gu.us for Guam, .mp.us for the Northern Mariana Islands, .pr.us for Puerto Rico, and .vi.us for the U.S. Virgin Islands. However, these domains go unused because each territory has its own ccTLD per ISO 3166-1 alpha-2: respectively, .as, .gu, .mp, .pr, and .vi.

File:Pennsylvanian license plate, 2000.jpg
Vehicle registration plates of Pennsylvania bore the URL Script error: No such module "URL".Script error: No such module "Check for unknown parameters". from September 1999 to December 2004.

A state's main government portal is usually found at the third-level domain state.Template:Var.us, which is reserved for this purpose. However, some state administrations prefer .gov domains: for example, California's government portal is located at Script error: No such module "URL".Script error: No such module "Check for unknown parameters".. Other than for state governments, no third-level domain registrations are permitted under state or territory second-level domains.

A few additional names are reserved at the second level for government agencies that are not subordinate to a state government:

  • isa.us for interstate authorities created by interstate compacts
    • Example: Script error: No such module "URL".Script error: No such module "Check for unknown parameters". (Interstate Mining Compact Commission)
  • nsn.us for Native Sovereign Nations (which may also use -nsn.gov)
    • Example: Script error: No such module "URL".Script error: No such module "Check for unknown parameters". (Mohegan Tribe)
  • dni.us for distributed national institutes

Locality domains

A large number of third-level domains are reserved for localities within states. Each fourth-level domain registration under this namespace follows the format Template:Var.Template:Var.Template:Var.us, where Template:Var is a state's two-letter postal abbreviation and Template:Var is a hyphenated name that corresponds to a ZIP code or appears in a well-known atlas.[9] Some delegated managers alternatively register domains under common abbreviations of locality names, such as:

Two values of Template:Var are formally reserved across the entire locality namespace for city and county governments:[9]

Delegated managers often reserve additional names for different kinds of local governments:[9]

In some cases, a local government that serves as the delegated manager for its own locality may locate its website directly under the Template:Var, omitting the Template:Var. For example, the website of the City of Brunswick, Ohio, is located at Script error: No such module "URL".Script error: No such module "Check for unknown parameters". rather than www.ci.brunswick.oh.us, and the website of Delhi Township, Ohio, is located at Script error: No such module "URL".Script error: No such module "Check for unknown parameters". instead of www.twp.delhi.oh.us. Unusually, Lima, Ohio, is located at Script error: No such module "URL".Script error: No such module "Check for unknown parameters"..

Many large cities use .gov extensions, for example Chicago (Script error: No such module "URL".Script error: No such module "Check for unknown parameters".); Rochester, New York (Script error: No such module "URL".Script error: No such module "Check for unknown parameters".); and Atlanta (Script error: No such module "URL".Script error: No such module "Check for unknown parameters".). Although most New York City websites have moved to Script error: No such module "URL".Script error: No such module "Check for unknown parameters"., us redirects exist for individual city agencies, such as the Independent Budget Office at Script error: No such module "URL".Script error: No such module "Check for unknown parameters". and the Board of Elections at Script error: No such module "URL".Script error: No such module "Check for unknown parameters"..

Private organizations and individuals may register fourth-level domains parallel to these government domains, for example:

Affinity namespaces

Directly beneath the Template:Var.us zone, several affinity namespaces are reserved for specific purposes:

Some of these affinity namespaces have been supplanted by more convenient sponsored top-level domains. The first sTLD, .museum, became available in October 2001 as an alternative to the .mus namespace. Since April 2003, the .edu top-level domain has been available as an alternative for community colleges, technical and vocational schools, and other tertiary educational institutions that might have previously used the .cc or .tec affinity namespaces.[23]

Although the Kentucky Department of Education operates the .k12.ky.us namespace for Kentucky school districts, most districts instead use subdomains of the less formal domain kyschools.us, which the department operates in a similar manner. For example, Gallatin county schools have a website at Script error: No such module "URL".Script error: No such module "Check for unknown parameters"., while Paducah Public Schools are located at Script error: No such module "URL".Script error: No such module "Check for unknown parameters". and the McCracken County Public Schools use Script error: No such module "URL".Script error: No such module "Check for unknown parameters". as a redirect to Script error: No such module "URL".Script error: No such module "Check for unknown parameters"..

Kids.us

The Dot Kids Implementation and Efficiency Act of 2002 (Pub. L. Template:Trim/public/Template:Trim?link-type=html Template:Trim–Template:Trim (text) Template:Trim/public/Template:Trim?link-type=pdf&.pdf (PDF)) established a .kids.us second-level domain. The general public could register third-level domains under .kids.us for educational content that met strict requirements, including conformance to the Children's Online Privacy Protection Act and adherence to Children's Advertising Review Unit standards. Webpages were prohibited from linking outside the .kids.us namespace. On July 27, 2012, in response to declining usage and a petition by Neustar the previous year, the NTIA suspended .kids.us registrations. By that time, 651 domains were registered under .kids.us, and only five registrants (Nickelodeon, Nick Jr., PBS Kids, the Smithsonian Center for Education and Museum Studies, and Super-Fun Sports Inc., operating trampoline.kids.us and trampolines.kids.us) were operating active websites.[24]

Restrictions on use

Under us nexus requirements, us domains may be registered only by the following qualified entities:

  • Any United States citizen or resident,
  • Any United States entity, such as organizations or corporations,
  • Any foreign entity or organization with a bona fide presence in the United States

To ensure that these requirements are met, GoDaddy frequently conducts "spot checks" on registrant information.

To prevent anonymous registrations that do not meet these requirements, in 2005 the National Telecommunications and Information Administration ruled that registrants of us domains may not secure private domain name registration via anonymizing proxies, and that their contact information must be made public.[25] Registrants are required to provide complete contact information without omissions.[26]

Under the locality namespace, delegated managers may impose additional requirements.[9] For example, the former Texas Regional Hostmaster restricted each of its delegated localities to organizations that had a mailing address in that locality.[27]

Other top-level domains related to the United States

Some sponsored top-level domains (sTLDs) are restricted to U.S.-based entities, other than some grandfathered registrations. These domains are much more popular than the equivalent domains under us.

sTLD Allowed use us alternative
edu Community colleges cc.Template:Var.us
Technical and vocational schools tec.Template:Var.us
gov Federal government agencies fed.us
Tribal governments Template:Var.nsn.us
State governments state.Template:Var.us
Local governments Template:Var.Template:Var.Template:Var.us
mil Armed forces —

Territories of the United States use their own country code top-level domains (ccTLDs). Identical domains are reserved under us but in practice go unused.

ccTLD Territory us alternative
as File:Flag of American Samoa.svg American Samoa as.us
gu File:Flag of Guam.svg Guam gu.us
mp File:Flag of the Northern Mariana Islands.svg Northern Mariana Islands mp.us
pr File:Flag of Puerto Rico.svg Puerto Rico pr.us
um (deprecated) Template:Country data United States Minor Outlying Islands um.us
vi File:Flag of the United States Virgin Islands.svg United States Virgin Islands vi.us

Some U.S. cities are the focus of generic top-level domains under the New gTLD Program. These gTLDs are not necessarily affiliated with the delegated managers of the corresponding third-level domains within the us locality namespace.

gTLD City us alternative
boston Template:Country data Boston boston.ma.us
miami Template:Country data Miami miami.fl.us
nyc File:Flag of New York City.svg New York City new-york.ny.us
nyc.ny.us
vegas Template:Country data Las Vegas las-vegas.nv.us

Unofficially, some ccTLDs belonging to other countries are used by U.S.-based private organizations and state government agencies based on their similarity to postal state abbreviations or informal city name abbreviations.

ccTLD Intended for Informal use us alternative
la File:Flag of Laos.svg Laos File:Flag of Louisiana.svg Louisiana la.us
Template:Country data Los Angeles[28] la.ca.us
los-angeles.ca.us
mn File:Flag of Mongolia.svg Mongolia File:Flag of Minnesota.svg Minnesota[29] mn.us
ms File:Flag of Montserrat.svg Montserrat File:Flag of Mississippi.svg Mississippi[30] ms.us

See also

References

<templatestyles src="Reflist/styles.css" />

  1. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  2. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  3. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  4. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  5. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  6. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  7. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  8. ↑ Script error: No such module "Citation/CS1".
  9. ↑ a b c d e f g h i j Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  10. ↑ Requesting comments on draft statement of work regarding us
  11. ↑ Amendment 21 to the NSI Cooperative Agreement
  12. ↑ THE GLOBALISATION OF REGULATION AND ITS IMPACT ON THE DOMAIN NAME SYSTEM : DOMAIN NAMES AND A NEW REGULATORY ECONOMY by ELIZABETH A WILLIAMS
  13. ↑ Whois query for the domain names "DELICIO.US" and "ICIO.US". Whois database last updated March 29, 2015. Accessed March 29, 2015.
  14. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  15. ↑ Manheim, Karl M. and Solum, Lawrence B., "An Economic Analysis of Domain Name Policy" (2004). University of San Diego Law and Economics Research Paper Series. 1. http://digital.sandiego.edu/lwps_econ/art1
  16. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  17. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  18. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  19. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  20. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  21. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  22. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  23. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  24. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  25. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  26. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  27. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  28. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  29. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  30. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".

Script error: No such module "Check for unknown parameters".

Further reading

  • Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".

External links

Template:United States top-level domains Script error: No such module "Navbox". Script error: No such module "navbox". Template:Americas topic

sv:Toppdomän#U

Retrieved from "http://debianws.lexgopc.com/wiki143/index.php?title=.us&oldid=5088234"