Arctic: Difference between revisions

Latest revision as of 15:55, 14 November 2025

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The Arctic (Template:IPAc-en;^[1]Template:Refn Template:Etymology) is the polar region of Earth that surrounds the North Pole, lying north of the Arctic Circle. The Arctic region, from the IERS Reference Meridian travelling east, consists of parts of northern Norway (Nordland, Troms, Finnmark, Svalbard and Jan Mayen), northernmost Sweden (Västerbotten, Norrbotten and Lappland), northern Finland (North Ostrobothnia, Kainuu and Lappi), Russia (Murmansk, Siberia, Nenets Okrug, Novaya Zemlya), the United States (Alaska), Canada (Yukon, Northwest Territories, Nunavut), Danish Realm (Greenland), and northern Iceland (Grímsey and Kolbeinsey), along with the Arctic Ocean and adjacent seas.

Land within the Arctic region has seasonally varying snow and ice cover, with predominantly treeless permafrost under the tundra. Arctic seas contain seasonal sea ice in many places.

The Arctic region is a unique area among Earth's ecosystems. The cultures in the region and the Arctic indigenous peoples have adapted to its cold and extreme conditions. Life in the Arctic includes zooplankton and phytoplankton, fish and marine mammals, birds, land animals, plants, and human societies.^[2] Arctic land is bordered by the subarctic.

Definition and etymology

The word Arctic comes from the Greek word Template:Wikt-lang arktikos "near the Bear, northern"^[3] and from the word Template:Wikt-lang arktos meaning "bear" for either to the constellation known as Ursa Major, the "Great Bear", which is prominent in the northern portion of the celestial sphere,^[4]^[5] or the constellation Ursa Minor, the "Little Bear", which contains the celestial north pole (currently very near Polaris, the current north Pole Star, or North Star).^[6]

There are several definitions of what area is contained within the Arctic. The area can be defined as north of the Arctic Circle (about 66° 34'N), the approximate southern limit of the midnight sun and the polar night. Another definition of the Arctic, which is popular with ecologists, is the region in the Northern Hemisphere where the average temperature for the warmest month (July) is below Template:Convert; the northernmost tree line roughly follows the isotherm at the boundary of this region.^[7]^[8]

Climate

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File:Laponie001.jpg

A snowy landscape of Inari located in Lapland (Finland)

The climate of the Arctic region is characterized by cold winters and cool summers. Its precipitation mostly comes in the form of snow and is low, with most of the area receiving less than Template:Cvt. High winds often stir up snow, creating the illusion of continuous snowfall. Average winter temperatures can go as low as Template:Convert, and the coldest recorded temperature is approximately Template:Convert. Coastal Arctic climates are moderated by oceanic influences, having generally warmer temperatures and heavier snowfalls than the colder and drier interior areas. The Arctic is affected by current global warming, leading to climate change in the Arctic, including Arctic sea ice decline, diminished ice in the Greenland ice sheet, and Arctic methane emissions as the permafrost thaws.^[9]^[10] The melting of Greenland's ice sheet is linked to polar amplification.^[11]

Due to the poleward migration of the planet's isotherms (about Template:Cvt per decade during the past 30 years as a consequence of global warming), the Arctic region (as defined by tree line and temperature) is currently shrinking.^[12] Perhaps the most alarming result of this is Arctic sea ice shrinkage. There is a large variance in predictions of Arctic sea ice loss, with models showing near-complete to complete loss in September from 2035 to sometime around 2067.^[13]^[14]

Flora and fauna

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File:Lake Seydozero, Sacred Sami Lake in Murmansk Oblast, Russia.jpg

Arctic vegetation in autumn displays some of the most intense and vivid colors seen on Earth (Lake Seydozero, Murmansk Oblast, Russia)

Arctic life is characterized by adaptation to short growing seasons with long periods of sunlight, and cold, dark, snow-covered winter conditions.

Plants

File:Arctic poppy among rocks.jpg

Arctic poppy in bloom within the Qausuittuq National Park on Bathurst Island

Arctic vegetation is composed of plants such as dwarf shrubs, graminoids, herbs, lichens, and mosses, which all grow relatively close to the ground, forming tundra. An example of a dwarf shrub is the bearberry. As one moves northward, the amount of warmth available for plant growth decreases considerably. In the northernmost areas, plants are at their metabolic limits, and small differences in the total amount of summer warmth make large differences in the amount of energy available for maintenance, growth, and reproduction. Colder summer temperatures cause the size, abundance, productivity, and variety of plants to decrease. Trees cannot grow in the Arctic, but in its warmest parts, shrubs are common and can reach Template:Cvt in height; sedges, mosses and lichens can form thick layers. In the coldest parts of the Arctic, much of the ground is bare; non-vascular plants such as lichens and mosses predominate, along with a few scattered grasses and forbs (like the Arctic poppy).

Animals

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File:Muskus.jpg

Muskox

File:Snowy Owl Portrait.jpg

A snowy owl

Herbivores on the tundra include the Arctic hare, lemming, muskox, and reindeer (caribou). They are preyed on by the snowy owl, Arctic fox, grizzly bear, and Arctic wolf. The polar bear is also a predator, though it prefers to hunt for marine life from the ice. There are also many birds and marine species endemic to the colder regions. Other terrestrial animals include wolverines, moose, Dall sheep, ermines, and Arctic ground squirrels. Marine mammals include seals, walruses, and several species of cetacean—baleen whales and also narwhals, orcas, and belugas.

Natural resources

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There are copious natural resources in the Arctic (oil, gas, minerals, freshwater, fish, and, if the subarctic is included, forest) to which modern technology and the economic opening up of Russia have given significant new opportunities. The interest in the tourism industry is also on the increase.

The Arctic contains some of the last and most extensive continuous wilderness areas in the world, and its significance in preserving biodiversity and genotypes is considerable. The increasing presence of humans fragments vital habitats. The Arctic is particularly susceptible to the abrasion of groundcover and to the disturbance of the rare breeding grounds of the animals that are characteristic of the region. The Arctic also holds 1/5 of the Earth's water supply.^[15]

Paleontology

During the Cretaceous period, the Arctic still had seasonal snows, though only a light dusting and not enough to permanently hinder plant growth. Animals such as the Chasmosaurus, Hypacrosaurus, Troodon, and Edmontosaurus may have all migrated north to take advantage of the summer growing season, and migrated south to warmer climes when winter came. A similar situation may also have been found amongst dinosaurs that lived in Antarctic regions, such as the Muttaburrasaurus of Australia.

However, others claim that dinosaurs lived year-round at very high latitudes, such as near the Colville River, which is now at about 70° N but at the time (70 million years ago) was 10° further north.^[16]

Indigenous population

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File:Dorset, Norse, and Thule cultures 900-1500.svg

Maps showing the decline of the Dorset culture and expansion of the Thule from Template:Circa

File:Circumpolar coastal human population distribution ca. 2009.png

Circumpolar coastal human population distribution Template:Circa (includes indigenous and non-indigenous).

The earliest inhabitants of North America's central and eastern Arctic are referred to as the Arctic small tool tradition (AST) and existed Template:Circa. AST consisted of several Paleo-Eskimo cultures, including the Independence cultures and Pre-Dorset cultures.^[17]^[18] The Dorset culture (Inuktitut: Tuniit or Tunit) refers to the next inhabitants of central and eastern Arctic. The Dorset culture evolved because of technological and economic changes during 1050–550 BCE. With the exception of the Quebec / Labrador peninsula, the Dorset culture vanished around 1500 CE.^[19] Supported by genetic testing, evidence shows that descendants of the Dorset culture, known as the Sadlermiut, survived in Aivilik, Southampton and Coats Islands, until the beginning of the 20th century.^[20]

The Dorset / Thule culture transition dates around the ninth–10th centuries CE. Scientists theorize that there may have been cross-contact between the two cultures with the sharing of technology, such as fashioning harpoon heads, or the Thule may have found Dorset remnants and adapted their ways with the predecessor culture.^[21] The evidence suggested that Inuit descend from the Birnirk of Siberia, through the Thule culture expanded into northern Canada and Greenland, where they genetically and culturally completely replaced the Indigenous Dorset people sometime after 1300 CE.^[22] The question of why the Dorset disappeared so completely has led some to suggest that Thule invaders wiped out the Dorset people in "an example of prehistoric genocide."^[23]

By 1300 CE, the Inuit, present-day Arctic inhabitants and descendants of Thule culture, had settled in west Greenland and moved into east Greenland over the following century (Inughuit, Kalaallit and Tunumiit are modern Greenlandic Inuit groups descended from Thule). Over time, the Inuit have migrated throughout the Arctic regions of Eastern Russia, the United States, Canada, and Greenland.^[24]

Other Circumpolar North indigenous peoples include the Chukchi, Evenks, Iñupiat, Khanty, Koryaks, Nenets, Sámi, Yukaghir, Gwichʼin, and Yupik.

International cooperation and politics

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File:Polar bears near north pole.jpg

Polar bears on the sea ice of the Arctic Ocean, near the North Pole. USS Honolulu pictured.

The eight Arctic nations (Canada, Kingdom of Denmark [Greenland & The Faroe Islands], Finland, Iceland, Norway, Sweden, Russia, and US) are all members of the Arctic Council, as are organizations representing six indigenous populations (The Aleut International Association, Arctic Athabaskan Council, Gwich'in Council International, Inuit Circumpolar Council, Russian Association of Indigenous Peoples of the North, and Saami Council). The council operates on a consensus basis, mostly dealing with environmental treaties and not addressing boundary or resource disputes.

Though Arctic policy priorities differ, every Arctic nation is concerned about sovereignty/defense, resource development, shipping routes, and environmental protection.^[25] Much work remains on regulatory agreements regarding shipping, tourism, and resource development in Arctic waters.^[26] Arctic shipping is subject to some regulatory control through the International Code for Ships Operating in Polar Waters, adopted by the International Maritime Organization on 1 January 2017 and applies to all ships in Arctic waters over 500 tonnes.^[27]^[28]

Research in the Arctic has long been a collaborative international effort, evidenced by the International Polar Year. The International Arctic Science Committee, hundreds of scientists and specialists of the Arctic Council, and the Barents Euro-Arctic Council are more examples of collaborative international Arctic research.^[29]

Territorial claims

Script error: No such module "Labelled list hatnote". While there are several ongoing territorial claims in the Arctic, no country owns the geographic North Pole or the region of the Arctic Ocean surrounding it. The surrounding six Arctic states that border the Arctic Ocean—Canada, the Kingdom of Denmark (with Greenland), Iceland, Norway, Russia, and the United States—are limited to a Template:Convert exclusive economic zone (EEZ) off their coasts. Two Arctic states (Finland and Sweden) do not have direct access to the Arctic Ocean.

Upon ratification of the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea, a country has ten years to make claims to an extended continental shelf beyond its 200 nautical mile zone.^[25]^[30] Due to this, Norway (which ratified the convention in 1996),^[31] Russia (ratified in 1997),^[31] Canada (ratified in 2003)^[31] and the Kingdom of Denmark (ratified in 2004)^[31] launched projects to establish claims that certain sectors of the Arctic seabed should belong to their territories.

On 2 August 2007, two Russian bathyscaphes, MIR-1 and MIR-2, for the first time in history descended to the Arctic seabed beneath the North Pole and placed there a Russian flag made of rust-proof titanium alloy. The flag-placing, during Arktika 2007, generated commentary on and concern for a race for control of the Arctic's vast hydrocarbon resources.^[32]

File:Map of the Arctic region showing the Northeast Passage, the Northern Sea Route and Northwest Passage, and bathymetry.png

Map of the Arctic region showing the Northeast Passage, the Northern Sea Route within it, and the Northwest Passage.

Foreign ministers and other officials representing Canada, the Kingdom of Denmark, Norway, Russia, and the United States met in Ilulissat, Greenland on 28 May 2008 at the Arctic Ocean Conference and announced the Ilulissat Declaration,^[33]^[34] blocking any "new comprehensive international legal regime to govern the Arctic Ocean," and pledging "the orderly settlement of any possible overlapping claims."^[25]^[35]

As of 2012, the Kingdom of Denmark is claiming the continental shelf based on the Lomonosov Ridge between Greenland and over the North Pole to the northern limit of the exclusive economic zone of Russia.^[36]

The Russian Federation is also claiming a large swath of seabed along the Lomonosov Ridge but, unlike Denmark, confined its claim to its side of the Arctic region. In August 2015, Russia made a supplementary submission for the expansion of the external borders of its continental shelf in the Arctic Ocean, asserting that the eastern part of the Lomonosov Ridge and the Mendeleyev Ridge is an extension of the Eurasian continent. In August 2016, the UN Commission on the Limits of the Continental Shelf began to consider Russia's submission.^[37]

Canada claims the Northwest Passage as part of its internal waters belonging to Canada, while the United States and most maritime nations^[38] regards it as an international strait, which means that foreign vessels have right of transit passage.^[39]

Exploration

Script error: No such module "Labelled list hatnote". Script error: No such module "Labelled list hatnote". Since 1937, the larger portion of the Asian-side Arctic region has been extensively explored by Soviet and Russian crewed drifting ice stations. Between 1937 and 1991, 88 international polar crews established and occupied scientific settlements on the drift ice and were carried thousands of kilometers by the ice flow.^[40] Modern day scientists now rely more heavily on unmanned buoys and ice-tethered observatories than crewed stations for Arctic research and exploration^[41]^[42]

Pollution

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File:Contamination pathways large.jpg

Long-range pollution pathways to the Arctic

The Arctic is comparatively clean, although there are certain ecologically difficult localized pollution problems that present a serious threat to people's health living around these pollution sources. Due to the prevailing worldwide sea and air currents, the Arctic area is the fallout region for long-range transport pollutants, and in some places, the concentrations exceed the levels of densely populated urban areas. An example of this is the phenomenon of Arctic haze, which is commonly blamed on long-range pollutants. Another example is with the bioaccumulation of PCBs (polychlorinated biphenyls) in Arctic wildlife and people.

Preservation

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The Arctic has climate change rates that are amongst the highest in the world. Due to the major impacts to the region from climate change the near climate future of the region will be extremely different under all scenarios of warming.^[44]

Climate change

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File:2007 Arctic Sea Ice.jpg

Arctic sea ice coverage as of 2007 compared to 2005 and compared to 1979–2000 average

The effects of climate change in the Arctic include rising temperatures, loss of sea ice, and melting of the Greenland ice sheet. The Arctic near-surface temperature is increasing at a rate that is 2–3 times faster than the global average, which is referred to as Arctic amplification.^[45] Potential methane release from the region, especially through the thawing of permafrost and methane clathrates, is also a concern.^[46] Because of the amplified response of the Arctic to global warming, it is often seen as a leading indicator of global warming. The melting of Greenland's ice sheet is linked to polar amplification.^[47]^[48]

The Arctic region is especially vulnerable to the effects of any climate change, as has become apparent with the reduction of sea ice in recent years. Climate models predict much greater climate change in the Arctic than the global average,^[49] resulting in significant international attention to the region. In particular, there are concerns that Arctic shrinkage, a consequence of melting glaciers and other ice in Greenland, could soon contribute to a substantial rise in sea levels worldwide.^[50]

The current Arctic warming is leading to ancient carbon being released from thawing permafrost, leading to methane and carbon dioxide production by micro-organisms.^[51]^[52] Release of methane and carbon dioxide stored in permafrost could cause abrupt and severe global warming,^[53] as they are potent greenhouse gases.^[54]

File:Svolvær Harbor (15226568739).jpg

The shrinking Arctic: Parts of Norway north of the Arctic Circle has a temperate climate with the 1991–2020 normals, such as Skrova near Svolvær with mean annual temperature of Template:Convert, four months above 10°C and no month below Template:Convert.^[55]

Climate change is also predicted to have a large impact on tundra vegetation, causing an increase of shrubs,^[56] and having a negative impact on bryophytes and lichens.^[57]

Apart from concerns regarding the detrimental effects of warming in the Arctic, some potential opportunities have gained attention. The melting of the ice is making the Northwest Passage, shipping routes through the northernmost latitudes, more navigable, raising the possibility that the Arctic region will become a prime trade route.^[58] One harbinger of the opening navigability of the Arctic took place in the summer of 2016 when the Crystal Serenity successfully navigated the Northwest Passage, a first for a large cruise ship.^[59]

In addition, it is believed that the Arctic seabed may contain substantial oil fields which may become accessible if the ice covering them melts.^[60] These factors have led to recent international debates as to which nations can claim sovereignty or ownership over the waters of the Arctic.^[61]^[62]^[63]^[64]

Arctic waters

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Arctic lands

File:Plane buzzes Pangnirtung.jpg

Baffin Island, Nunavut

File:Salliaruseq-uummannaq-aerial.jpg

Uummannaq Island, Greenland

File:Стойбище ненцев.jpg

Nenets reindeer herders in the Yamalo-Nenets Autonomous Okrug

File:The bush village of Kotzebue, gateway to Kobuk Valley (8029761188).jpg

Kotzebue, Alaska

File:Photographing Murmansk from Omni Hotel Murmansk.jpg

Murmansk on Russia's Kola Peninsula is the largest city in the world north of the Arctic Circle.

Geographic designation	National affiliation	Designation
Alaska	United States	State
Aleutian Islands	United States	American archipelago
Arkhangelsk Oblast	Russia	Federal subject
Arctic Archipelago	Canada	Canadian archipelago
Chukotka Autonomous Okrug	Russia	Federal subject
Diomede Island (Big)	Russia	Island
Diomede Island (Little)	United States	Island
Finnmark	Norway	Counties of Norway
Franz Josef Land	Russia	Federal subject archipelago
Greenland	Kingdom of Denmark	Autonomous country
Grímsey	Iceland	Island
Inuvik Region	Canada	Administrative region of the Northwest Territories
Jan Mayen	Norway	Island
Kainuu	Finland	Regions of Finland
Kitikmeot Region	Canada	Administrative region of Nunavut
Kivalliq Region	Canada	Administrative region of Nunavut
Kolbeinsey	Iceland	Island
Krasnoyarsk Krai	Russia	Federal subjects of Russia
Lappi	Finland	Regions of Finland
Lappland	Sweden	Provinces of Sweden
Murmansk Oblast	Russia	Federal subjects of Russia
Nenets Autonomous Okrug	Russia	Federal subjects of Russia
New Siberian Islands	Russia	Archipelago
Nordland	Norway	Counties of Norway
Norrbotten	Sweden	Provinces of Sweden
North Ostrobothnia	Finland	Regions of Finland
Northwest Territories	Canada	Territory of Canada
Novaya Zemlya	Russia	Federal subject archipelago
Nunavik	Canada	Northern part of Quebec
Nunatsiavut	Canada	Autonomous region of Labrador (Newfoundland and Labrador)
Nunavut	Canada	Territory of Canada
Qikiqtaaluk Region (Baffin)	Canada	Administrative region of Nunavut
Russian Arctic islands	Russia	Islands
Sápmi	Norway, Sweden, Finland, Russia	Fennoscandia region
Sakha Republic	Russia	Federal subject
Severnaya Zemlya	Russia	Federal subject archipelago
Siberia	Russia	Region
Svalbard	Norway	Governor of Svalbard archipelago
Troms	Norway	Counties of Norway
Västerbotten	Sweden	Provinces of Sweden
Wrangel Island	Russia	Zapovednik (nature reserve)
Yamalo-Nenets Autonomous Okrug	Russia	Federal subjects of Russia
Yukon	Canada	Territory of Canada

Notes

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References

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Bibliography

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External links

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↑ Liddell, Henry George and Scott, Robert. "Arktikos." Template:Webarchive A Greek-English Lexicon. Perseus Digital Library.
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↑ Stars launch campaign to save the Arctic Template:Webarchive. Greenpeace (21 June 2012).
↑ IPCC. Cross-Chapter Paper 6: Polar Regions. IPCC WGII Sixth Assessment Report. 1 October 2021. https://report.ipcc.ch/ar6wg2/pdf/IPCC_AR6_WGII_CrossChapterPaper6.pdf Template:Webarchive.
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↑ Galera, L. A., Eckhardt, T., Beer, C., Pfeiffer, E.-M., & Knoblauch, C. (2023). "Ratio of in situ CO2 to CH4 production and its environmental controls in polygonal tundra soils of Samoylov Island, Northeastern Siberia". Journal of Geophysical Research: Biogeosciences, 128, e2022JG006956. https://doi.org/10.1029/2022JG006956 Template:Webarchive
↑ Study links 2015 melting Greenland ice to faster Arctic warming Template:Webarchive 9 June 2016 University of Georgia
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↑ Skrova climate statistics Template:Webarchive. yr.no. Retrieved 2021-11-09.
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↑ "Will ice melt open fabled Northwest Passage?" Template:Webarchive CNN. 29 August 2002.
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↑ Demos, Telis. "The great Arctic Circle oil rush." Template:Webarchive CNN. 8 August 2007.
↑ Shaw, Rob. "New patrol ships will reassert northern sovereignty: PM". Template:Webarchive Victoria Times Colonist. 9 July 2007.
↑ Halpin, Tony. "Russia stakes its claim the North Pole in the underwater search for oil". Template:Webarchive The Times. 28 July 2007.
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[46] Galera, L. A., Eckhardt, T., Beer, C., Pfeiffer, E.-M., & Knoblauch, C. (2023). "Ratio of in situ CO2 to CH4 production and its environmental controls in polygonal tundra soils of Samoylov Island, Northeastern Siberia". Journal of Geophysical Research: Biogeosciences, 128, e2022JG006956. https://doi.org/10.1029/2022JG006956 Template:Webarchive

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[55] Skrova climate statistics Template:Webarchive. yr.no. Retrieved 2021-11-09.

[56] Script error: No such module "Citation/CS1".

[57] Script error: No such module "Citation/CS1".

[58] "Will ice melt open fabled Northwest Passage?" Template:Webarchive CNN. 29 August 2002.

[59] Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".

[60] Demos, Telis. "The great Arctic Circle oil rush." Template:Webarchive CNN. 8 August 2007.

[Canada_sovereignty-61] Shaw, Rob. "New patrol ships will reassert northern sovereignty: PM". Template:Webarchive Victoria Times Colonist. 9 July 2007.

[62] Halpin, Tony. "Russia stakes its claim the North Pole in the underwater search for oil". Template:Webarchive The Times. 28 July 2007.

[63] Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".Template:Dead link

[64] Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".

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@@ Line 2: / Line 2: @@
 {{other uses}}
 {{Use dmy dates|date=June 2015}}
-[[File:Arctic (orthographic projection with highlights).svg|thumb|upright=1.5|The [[Arctic Circle]], currently at roughly 66° north of the [[Equator]], defines the boundary of the [[Arctic seas]] and lands]]
+{{more citations needed|date=July 2025}}
-[[File:Political Map of the Arctic.pdf|thumb|upright=1.5|A political map showing land ownership within the Arctic region]]
+{{multiple image
-[[File:Arctica surface.jpg|thumb|Artificially coloured topographical map of the Arctic region]]
+| border = thumb
-[[File:Sunny Skies over the Arctic in Late June 2010.jpg|thumb|[[Moderate Resolution Imaging Spectroradiometer|MODIS]] image of the Arctic]]
+| perrow = 1/2/2
+| total_width = 320
+| image1 = Arctic (orthographic projection with highlights).svg
+| image2 = Political Map of the Arctic.pdf
+| image3 = Arctica surface.jpg
+| image4 = Sunny Skies over the Arctic in Late June 2010.jpg
+| image5 = Aerial photograph Greenland 2023-10-14-3.jpg
+| caption1 = The [[Arctic Circle]], currently at roughly 66° north of the [[Equator]], defines the boundary of the [[Arctic seas]] and lands
+| caption2 = A political map showing land ownership within the Arctic region
+| caption3 = Artificially coloured topographical map of the Arctic region
+| caption4 = [[Moderate Resolution Imaging Spectroradiometer|MODIS]] image of the Arctic
+| caption5 = Aerial photo of the [[Greenlandic Ice Sheet]]
+}}
-The '''Arctic''' ({{IPAc-en|ˈ|ɑr|(|k|)|t|ɪ|k}};<ref name=ahd>{{cite American Heritage Dictionary|arctic |access-date=2019-01-04}} {{Cite web |url=https://www.ahdictionary.com/word/search.html?q=arctic |title=The American Heritage Dictionary entry: Arctic |access-date=11 November 2016 |archive-date=12 June 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180612142909/https://www.ahdictionary.com/word/search.html?q=arctic |url-status=bot: unknown }}.</ref>{{refn|The word was originally pronounced without the {{IPA|/k/}} sound, but the pronunciation with the /k/ sound is nowadays very common. The ''c'' was added to the spelling for etymological reasons<ref name=ahd /><ref>{{OEtymD|arctic |access-date=2011-11-16}} {{Cite web |url=http://www.etymonline.com/index.php?term=arctic&allowed_in_frame=0 |title=Arctic - Etymology, Origin & Meaning |access-date=27 November 2015 |archive-date=13 January 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120113183224/http://www.etymonline.com/index.php?term=arctic&allowed_in_frame=0 |url-status=bot: unknown }}.</ref> and then began to be pronounced.|group="Note"}} {{etymology|grc|''{{wikt-lang|grc|ἄρκτος}}'' ({{grc-transl|ἄρκτος}})|[[polar bear|bear]]}}) is the [[polar regions of Earth|polar region]] of [[Earth]] that surrounds the [[North Pole]], lying within the [[Arctic Circle]]. The Arctic region, from the [[IERS Reference Meridian]] travelling east, consists of parts of northern Norway ([[Nordland]], [[Troms]], [[Finnmark]], [[Svalbard]] and [[Jan Mayen]]), northernmost Sweden ([[Västerbotten]], [[Norrbotten]] and [[Lapland (Sweden)|Lappland]]), northern Finland ([[North Ostrobothnia]], [[Kainuu]] and [[Lapland (Finland)|Lappi]]), Russia ([[Murmansk Oblast|Murmansk]], [[Siberia]], [[Nenets Autonomous Okrug|Nenets Okrug]], [[Novaya Zemlya]]), the United States ([[Alaska]]), Canada ([[Yukon]], [[Northwest Territories]], [[Nunavut]]), [[Danish Realm]] ([[Greenland]]), and northern Iceland ([[Grímsey]] and [[Kolbeinsey]]), along with the [[Arctic Ocean]] and adjacent seas.
+The '''Arctic''' ({{IPAc-en|ˈ|ɑr|(|k|)|t|ɪ|k}};<ref name=ahd>{{cite American Heritage Dictionary|arctic |access-date=2019-01-04}} {{Cite web |url=https://www.ahdictionary.com/word/search.html?q=arctic |title=The American Heritage Dictionary entry: Arctic |access-date=11 November 2016 |archive-date=12 June 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180612142909/https://www.ahdictionary.com/word/search.html?q=arctic |url-status=bot: unknown }}.</ref>{{refn|The word was originally pronounced without the {{IPA|/k/}} sound, but the pronunciation with the /k/ sound is nowadays very common. The ''c'' was added to the spelling for etymological reasons<ref name=ahd /><ref>{{OEtymD|arctic |access-date=2011-11-16}} {{Cite web |url=http://www.etymonline.com/index.php?term=arctic&allowed_in_frame=0 |title=Arctic - Etymology, Origin & Meaning |access-date=27 November 2015 |archive-date=13 January 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120113183224/http://www.etymonline.com/index.php?term=arctic&allowed_in_frame=0 |url-status=bot: unknown }}.</ref> and then began to be pronounced.|group="Note"}} {{etymology|grc|''{{wikt-lang|grc|ἄρκτος}}'' ({{grc-transl|ἄρκτος}})|[[polar bear|bear]]}}) is the [[polar regions of Earth|polar region]] of [[Earth]] that surrounds the [[North Pole]], lying north of the [[Arctic Circle]]. The Arctic region, from the [[IERS Reference Meridian]] travelling east, consists of parts of northern Norway ([[Nordland]], [[Troms]], [[Finnmark]], [[Svalbard]] and [[Jan Mayen]]), northernmost Sweden ([[Västerbotten]], [[Norrbotten]] and [[Lapland (Sweden)|Lappland]]), northern Finland ([[North Ostrobothnia]], [[Kainuu]] and [[Lapland (Finland)|Lappi]]), Russia ([[Murmansk Oblast|Murmansk]], [[Siberia]], [[Nenets Autonomous Okrug|Nenets Okrug]], [[Novaya Zemlya]]), the United States ([[Alaska]]), Canada ([[Yukon]], [[Northwest Territories]], [[Nunavut]]), [[Danish Realm]] ([[Greenland]]), and northern Iceland ([[Grímsey]] and [[Kolbeinsey]]), along with the [[Arctic Ocean]] and adjacent seas.
 Land within the Arctic region has seasonally varying [[cryosphere|snow and ice cover]], with predominantly treeless [[permafrost]] under the [[tundra]]. Arctic seas contain seasonal [[sea ice]] in many places.
@@ Line 21: / Line 33: @@
 {{Main|Climate of the Arctic|Climate change in the Arctic}}
 [[File:Laponie001.jpg|thumb|A snowy landscape of [[Inari, Finland|Inari]] located in [[Lapland (Finland)|Lapland]] ([[Finland]])]]
-The [[climate of the Arctic]] region is characterized by cold winters and cool summers. Its precipitation mostly comes in the form of [[snow]] and is low, with most of the area receiving less than {{cvt|50|cm}}. High winds often stir up snow, creating the illusion of continuous snowfall. Average winter temperatures can go as low as {{convert|-40|C}}, and the coldest recorded temperature is approximately {{convert|-68|C}}. Coastal Arctic climates are moderated by oceanic influences, having generally warmer temperatures and heavier snowfalls than the colder and drier interior areas. The Arctic is affected by current [[Climate change|global warming]], leading to [[climate change in the Arctic]], including [[Arctic sea ice decline]], diminished ice in the [[Greenland ice sheet]], and [[Arctic methane emissions]] as the [[permafrost]] thaws.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Radford |first=Tim |date=2020-09-02 |title=Arctic heating races ahead of worst case estimates |url=https://climatenewsnetwork.net/arctic-heating-races-ahead-of-worst-case-estimates/ |access-date=2020-09-03 |website=Climate News Network |language=en-GB |archive-date=4 September 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200904083815/https://climatenewsnetwork.net/arctic-heating-races-ahead-of-worst-case-estimates/ |url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Dormann |first1=C. F. |last2=Woodin |first2=S. J. |date=February 2002 |title=Climate change in the Arctic: using plant functional types in a meta-analysis of field experiments: Meta-analysis of arctic experiments |url=http://doi.wiley.com/10.1046/j.0269-8463.2001.00596.x |journal=Functional Ecology |language=en |volume=16 |issue=1 |pages=4–17 |doi=10.1046/j.0269-8463.2001.00596.x |access-date=16 February 2023 |archive-date=30 June 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230630102048/https://besjournals.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1046/j.0269-8463.2001.00596.x |url-status=live|url-access=subscription }}</ref> The melting of Greenland's ice sheet is linked to [[polar amplification]].<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Tedesco |first1=M. |last2=Mote |first2=T. |last3=Fettweis |first3=X. |last4=Hanna |first4=E. |last5=Jeyaratnam |first5=J. |last6=Booth |first6=J. F. |last7=Datta |first7=R. |last8=Briggs |first8=K. |date=2016-06-09 |title=Arctic cut-off high drives the poleward shift of a new Greenland melting record |journal=Nature Communications |volume=7 |page=11723 |doi=10.1038/ncomms11723 |issn=2041-1723 |pmc=4906163 |pmid=27277547 |bibcode=2016NatCo...711723T}}</ref>
+The [[climate of the Arctic]] region is characterized by cold winters and cool summers. Its precipitation mostly comes in the form of [[snow]] and is low, with most of the area receiving less than {{cvt|50|cm}}. High winds often stir up snow, creating the illusion of continuous snowfall. Average winter temperatures can go as low as {{convert|-40|C}}, and the coldest recorded temperature is approximately {{convert|-68|C}}. Coastal Arctic climates are moderated by oceanic influences, having generally warmer temperatures and heavier snowfalls than the colder and drier interior areas. The Arctic is affected by current [[Climate change|global warming]], leading to [[climate change in the Arctic]], including [[Arctic sea ice decline]], diminished ice in the [[Greenland ice sheet]], and [[Arctic methane emissions]] as the [[permafrost]] thaws.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Radford |first=Tim |date=2020-09-02 |title=Arctic heating races ahead of worst case estimates |url=https://climatenewsnetwork.net/arctic-heating-races-ahead-of-worst-case-estimates/ |access-date=2020-09-03 |website=Climate News Network |language=en-GB |archive-date=4 September 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200904083815/https://climatenewsnetwork.net/arctic-heating-races-ahead-of-worst-case-estimates/ |url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Dormann |first1=C. F. |last2=Woodin |first2=S. J. |date=February 2002 |title=Climate change in the Arctic: using plant functional types in a meta-analysis of field experiments: Meta-analysis of arctic experiments |url=http://doi.wiley.com/10.1046/j.0269-8463.2001.00596.x |journal=Functional Ecology |language=en |volume=16 |issue=1 |pages=4–17 |doi=10.1046/j.0269-8463.2001.00596.x |access-date=16 February 2023 |archive-date=30 June 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230630102048/https://besjournals.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1046/j.0269-8463.2001.00596.x |url-status=live|url-access=subscription }}</ref> The melting of Greenland's ice sheet is linked to [[polar amplification]].<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Tedesco |first1=M. |last2=Mote |first2=T. |last3=Fettweis |first3=X. |last4=Hanna |first4=E. |last5=Jeyaratnam |first5=J. |last6=Booth |first6=J. F. |last7=Datta |first7=R. |last8=Briggs |first8=K. |date=2016-06-09 |title=Arctic cut-off high drives the poleward shift of a new Greenland melting record |journal=Nature Communications |volume=7 |article-number=11723 |doi=10.1038/ncomms11723 |issn=2041-1723 |pmc=4906163 |pmid=27277547 |bibcode=2016NatCo...711723T}}</ref>
-Due to the poleward migration of the planet's isotherms (about {{cvt|35|mi|order=flip}} per decade during the past 30 years as a consequence of global warming), the Arctic region (as defined by [[tree line]] and temperature) is currently shrinking.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://yaleglobal.yale.edu/content/planet-peril-%E2%80%93-part-i |last=Hansen |first=Jim |title=The Planet in Peril – Part I |publisher=Yale Center for the Study of Globalization |date=19 October 2006 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20091015173024/http://yaleglobal.yale.edu/content/planet-peril-%E2%80%93-part-i |archive-date=15 October 2009}}</ref> Perhaps the most alarming result of this is Arctic sea ice shrinkage. There is a large variance in predictions of Arctic [[sea ice]] loss, with models showing near-complete to complete loss in September from 2035 to sometime around 2067.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Kirby |first=Alex |date=2020-08-11 |title=End of Arctic sea ice by 2035 possible, study finds |url=https://climatenewsnetwork.net/end-of-arctic-sea-ice-by-2035-possible-study-finds/ |access-date=2020-09-03 |website=Climate News Network |language=en-GB |archive-date=15 September 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200915162323/https://climatenewsnetwork.net/end-of-arctic-sea-ice-by-2035-possible-study-finds/ |url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Reich |first=Katharine |date=2019-11-15 |title=Arctic Ocean could be ice-free for part of the year as soon as 2044 |url=https://phys.org/news/2019-11-arctic-ocean-ice-free-year.html |access-date=2020-09-03 |website=phys.org |language=en |archive-date=30 September 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200930154138/https://phys.org/news/2019-11-arctic-ocean-ice-free-year.html |url-status=live}}</ref>
+Due to the poleward migration of the planet's isotherms (about {{cvt|35|mi|order=flip}} per decade during the past 30 years as a consequence of global warming), the Arctic region (as defined by [[tree line]] and temperature) is currently shrinking.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://yaleglobal.yale.edu/content/planet-peril-%E2%80%93-part-i |last=Hansen |first=Jim |title=The Planet in Peril – Part I |publisher=Yale Center for the Study of Globalization |date=19 October 2006 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20091015173024/http://yaleglobal.yale.edu/content/planet-peril-%E2%80%93-part-i |archive-date=15 October 2009}}</ref> Perhaps the most alarming result of this is Arctic sea ice shrinkage. There is a large variance in predictions of Arctic [[sea ice]] loss, with models showing near-complete to complete loss in September from 2035 to sometime around 2067.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Kirby |first=Alex |date=2020-08-11 |title=End of Arctic sea ice by 2035 possible, study finds |url=https://climatenewsnetwork.net/end-of-arctic-sea-ice-by-2035-possible-study-finds/ |access-date=2020-09-03 |website=Climate News Network |language=en-GB |archive-date=15 September 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200915162323/https://climatenewsnetwork.net/end-of-arctic-sea-ice-by-2035-possible-study-finds/ |url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Reich |first=Katharine |date=2019-11-15 |title=Arctic Ocean could be ice-free for part of the year as soon as 2044 |url=https://phys.org/news/2019-11-arctic-ocean-ice-free-year.html |access-date=2020-09-03 |website=phys.org |language=en |archive-date=30 September 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200930154138/https://phys.org/news/2019-11-arctic-ocean-ice-free-year.html |url-status=live}}</ref>
 == Flora and fauna ==
+{{more citations needed|section|date=July 2025}}
+[[File:Lake Seydozero, Sacred Sami Lake in Murmansk Oblast, Russia.jpg|thumb|Arctic vegetation in autumn displays some of the most intense and vivid colors seen on Earth ([[Lake Seydozero]], Murmansk Oblast, Russia)]]
 Arctic life is characterized by adaptation to short growing seasons with long periods of sunlight, and cold, dark, snow-covered winter conditions.
@@ Line 70: / Line 84: @@
 Though [[Arctic cooperation and politics|Arctic policy priorities differ]], every Arctic nation is concerned about sovereignty/defense, resource development, shipping routes, and environmental protection.<ref name="Buixade Farre 2014">{{cite journal |first1=Albert |last1=Buixadé Farré |first2=Scott R. |last2=Stephenson |first3=Linling |last3=Chen |first4=Michael |last4=Czub |first5=Ying |last5=Dai |first6=Denis |last6=Demchev |first7=Yaroslav |last7=Efimov |first8=Piotr |last8=Graczyk |first9=Henrik |last9=Grythe |first10=Kathrin |last10=Keil |first11=Niku |last11=Kivekäs |first12=Naresh |last12=Kumar |first13=Nengye |last13=Liu |first14=Igor |last14=Matelenok |first15=Mari |last15=Myksvoll |first16=Derek |last16=O'Leary |first17=Julia |last17=Olsen |first18=Sachin |last18=Pavithran, A. P. |first19=Edward |last19=Petersen |first20=Andreas |last20=Raspotnik |first21=Ivan |last21=Ryzhov |first22=Jan |last22=Solski |first23=Lingling |last23=Suo |first24=Caroline |last24=Troein |first25=Vilena |last25=Valeeva |first26=Jaap |last26=van Rijckevorsel |first27=Jonathan |last27=Wighting |date=16 October 2014 |title=Commercial Arctic shipping through the Northeast Passage: Routes, resources, governance, technology, and infrastructure |journal=[[Polar Geography]] |volume=37 |issue=4 |page=298 |doi=10.1080/1088937X.2014.965769 |doi-access=free|bibcode=2014PolGe..37..298B |hdl=2440/112024 |hdl-access=free }}</ref> Much work remains on regulatory agreements regarding shipping, tourism, and [[Arctic resources race|resource development]] in Arctic waters.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Berkman |first1=Paul |title=Stability and Peace in the Arctic Ocean through Science Diplomacy |journal=Science & Diplomacy |date=23 June 2014 |volume=3 |issue=2 |url=http://www.sciencediplomacy.org/perspective/2014/stability-and-peace-in-arctic-ocean-through-science-diplomacy |access-date=23 June 2014 |archive-date=26 April 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220426152211/https://www.sciencediplomacy.org/perspective/2014/stability-and-peace-in-arctic-ocean-through-science-diplomacy |url-status=live}}</ref> Arctic shipping is subject to some regulatory control through the [[International Code for Ships Operating in Polar Waters]], adopted by the [[International Maritime Organization]] on 1 January 2017 and applies to all ships in Arctic waters over 500 tonnes.<ref name="IMOPolar">{{cite web |url=https://www.imo.org/en/MediaCentre/HotTopics/Pages/Polar-default.aspx |title=Shipping in polar waters |publisher=IMO |access-date=2 August 2021 |archive-date=2 August 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210802101244/https://www.imo.org/en/MediaCentre/HotTopics/Pages/Polar-default.aspx |url-status=live}}</ref><ref name="IMOPolar1Year">{{cite web |url=https://www.maritime-executive.com/magazine/the-polar-code-one-year-on |title=The Polar Code, One Year On |publisher=The Maritime Executive |access-date=2 August 2021 |archive-date=2 August 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210802101829/https://www.maritime-executive.com/magazine/the-polar-code-one-year-on |url-status=live}}</ref>
-Research in the Arctic has long been a collaborative international effort, evidenced by the [[International Polar Year]]. The [[International Arctic Science Committee]], hundreds of scientists and specialists of the [[Arctic Council]], and the Barents Euro-Arctic Council are more examples of collaborative international Arctic research.<ref>{{cite journal |last=King |first=Lorenz |date=1992 |title=Polarregionen, vom Neuland zum wissenschaftlichen Brennpunkt |trans-title=Polar regions, from uncharted territory to scientific focus |url= |language=German |journal=Giessener Diskurse: Wissenschaft und Neues Weltbild |volume=6/7 |issue= |pages=231–256 |isbn=3-927835-25-0 |doi= |access-date=}}</ref>
+Research in the Arctic has long been a collaborative international effort, evidenced by the [[International Polar Year]]. The [[International Arctic Science Committee]], hundreds of scientists and specialists of the [[Arctic Council]], and the Barents Euro-Arctic Council are more examples of collaborative international Arctic research.<ref>{{cite journal |last=King |first=Lorenz |date=1992 |title=Polarregionen, vom Neuland zum wissenschaftlichen Brennpunkt |trans-title=Polar regions, from uncharted territory to scientific focus |url= |language=German |journal=Giessener Diskurse: Wissenschaft und Neues Weltbild |volume=6/7 |issue= |pages=231–256 |isbn=3-927835-25-0 |doi= }}</ref>
 === Territorial claims ===
@@ Line 81: / Line 95: @@
 [[File:Map of the Arctic region showing the Northeast Passage, the Northern Sea Route and Northwest Passage, and bathymetry.png|thumb|upright=1.5|Map of the Arctic region showing the [[Northeast Passage]], the [[Northern Sea Route]] within it, and the [[Northwest Passage]].]]
-Foreign ministers and other officials representing Canada, the Kingdom of Denmark, Norway, Russia, and the United States met in [[Ilulissat|Ilulissat, Greenland]] on 28 May 2008 at the [[Arctic Ocean Conference]] and announced the [[Ilulissat Declaration]],<ref>{{cite news |title=Conference in Ilulissat, Greenland: Landmark political declaration on the future of the Arctic |url=http://www.um.dk/en/servicemenu/news/newsarchives2008/conferenceinilulissatgreenlandlandmarkpoliticaldeclarationonthefutureofthearctic.htm |publisher=[[Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Denmark]] |date=28 May 2008 |access-date=30 April 2009}}{{dead link|date=June 2016|bot=medic}}{{cbignore|bot=medic}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.um.dk/NR/rdonlyres/BE00B850-D278-4489-A6BE-6AE230415546/0/ArcticOceanConference.pdf |title=The Ilulissat Declaration |date=28 May 2008 |publisher=Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Denmark |access-date=6 June 2008 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080626152700/http://www.um.dk/NR/rdonlyres/BE00B850-D278-4489-A6BE-6AE230415546/0/ArcticOceanConference.pdf |archive-date=26 June 2008 |url-status=dead}}</ref> blocking any "new comprehensive international legal regime to govern the Arctic Ocean," and pledging "the orderly settlement of any possible overlapping claims."<ref name="Buixade Farre 2014"/><ref>{{cite news |first=Randy |last=Boswell |title=Conference could mark start of Arctic power struggle |url=http://www.canada.com/topics/news/world/story.html?id=d0135cd8-c15a-48a3-9579-0df5f8e185c1 |publisher=canada.com |date=28 May 2008 |access-date=6 June 2008 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090304204151/http://www.canada.com/topics/news/world/story.html?id=d0135cd8-c15a-48a3-9579-0df5f8e185c1 |archive-date=4 March 2009}}</ref>
+Foreign ministers and other officials representing Canada, the Kingdom of Denmark, Norway, Russia, and the United States met in [[Ilulissat|Ilulissat, Greenland]] on 28 May 2008 at the [[Arctic Ocean Conference]] and announced the [[Ilulissat Declaration]],<ref>{{cite news |title=Conference in Ilulissat, Greenland: Landmark political declaration on the future of the Arctic |url=http://www.um.dk/en/servicemenu/news/newsarchives2008/conferenceinilulissatgreenlandlandmarkpoliticaldeclarationonthefutureofthearctic.htm |publisher=[[Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Denmark]] |date=28 May 2008 |access-date=30 April 2009}}{{dead link|date=June 2016|bot=medic}}{{cbignore|bot=medic}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.um.dk/NR/rdonlyres/BE00B850-D278-4489-A6BE-6AE230415546/0/ArcticOceanConference.pdf |title=The Ilulissat Declaration |date=28 May 2008 |publisher=Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Denmark |access-date=6 June 2008 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080626152700/http://www.um.dk/NR/rdonlyres/BE00B850-D278-4489-A6BE-6AE230415546/0/ArcticOceanConference.pdf |archive-date=26 June 2008 }}</ref> blocking any "new comprehensive international legal regime to govern the Arctic Ocean," and pledging "the orderly settlement of any possible overlapping claims."<ref name="Buixade Farre 2014"/><ref>{{cite news |first=Randy |last=Boswell |title=Conference could mark start of Arctic power struggle |url=http://www.canada.com/topics/news/world/story.html?id=d0135cd8-c15a-48a3-9579-0df5f8e185c1 |publisher=canada.com |date=28 May 2008 |access-date=6 June 2008 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090304204151/http://www.canada.com/topics/news/world/story.html?id=d0135cd8-c15a-48a3-9579-0df5f8e185c1 |archive-date=4 March 2009}}</ref>
 As of 2012, the Kingdom of Denmark is claiming the [[continental shelf]] based on the [[Lomonosov Ridge]] between Greenland and over the North Pole to the northern limit of the [[exclusive economic zone of Russia]].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.nrk.no/nyheter/verden/1.8261208 |title=Dansker vil dokumentere territorialkrav i Arktis |publisher=[[NRK]] |language=no |date=28 July 2012 |access-date=15 June 2015 |archive-date=31 August 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120831051058/http://www.nrk.no/nyheter/verden/1.8261208 |url-status=live}}</ref>
@@ Line 87: / Line 101: @@
 The Russian Federation is also [[Continental shelf of Russia#2001 extension claim|claiming a large swath of seabed]] along the Lomonosov Ridge but, unlike Denmark, confined its claim to its side of the Arctic region. In August 2015, Russia made a supplementary submission for the expansion of the external borders of its continental shelf in the [[Arctic Ocean]], asserting that the eastern part of the Lomonosov Ridge and the [[Mendeleyev Ridge]] is an extension of the [[Eurasia]]n continent. In August 2016, the [[United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea|UN Commission on the Limits of the Continental Shelf]] began to consider Russia's submission.<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.maritimeherald.com/2017/russia-claims-the-application-for-expansion-of-danish-borders-in-the-arctic-shelf/ |title=Russia claims the application for expansion of Danish borders in the Arctic shelf |date=2017-01-23 |access-date=22 January 2018 |archive-date=22 January 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180122125538/http://www.maritimeherald.com/2017/russia-claims-the-application-for-expansion-of-danish-borders-in-the-arctic-shelf/ |url-status=live}}</ref>
-Canada claims the [[Northwest Passage]] as part of its [[Canadian Internal Waters|internal waters]] belonging to Canada, while the United States and most maritime nations<ref>{{cite web |author=The Edmonton Journal |url=http://www.canada.com/ottawacitizen/news/story.html?id=6d4815ac-4fdb-4cf3-a8a6-4225a8bd08df&k=73925 |url-status=dead |title=Northwest Passage gets political name change |publisher=Canada.com |date=9 April 2006 |access-date=31 May 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160402114448/http://www.canada.com/ottawacitizen/news/story.html?id=6d4815ac-4fdb-4cf3-a8a6-4225a8bd08df&k=73925 |archive-date=2 April 2016}}</ref> regards it as an [[Territorial waters|international strait]], which means that foreign vessels have right of transit passage.<ref>{{cite news |title=The US is picking a fight with Canada over a thawing Arctic shipping route |url=https://qz.com/1653831/the-us-is-picking-a-fight-with-canada-over-an-arctic-shipping-route/ |work=Quartz |date=June 27, 2019 |access-date=20 August 2019 |archive-date=14 August 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210814025007/https://qz.com/1653831/the-us-is-picking-a-fight-with-canada-over-an-arctic-shipping-route/ |url-status=live}}</ref>
+Canada claims the [[Northwest Passage]] as part of its [[Canadian Internal Waters|internal waters]] belonging to Canada, while the United States and most maritime nations<ref>{{cite web |author=The Edmonton Journal |url=http://www.canada.com/ottawacitizen/news/story.html?id=6d4815ac-4fdb-4cf3-a8a6-4225a8bd08df&k=73925 |title=Northwest Passage gets political name change |publisher=Canada.com |date=9 April 2006 |access-date=31 May 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160402114448/http://www.canada.com/ottawacitizen/news/story.html?id=6d4815ac-4fdb-4cf3-a8a6-4225a8bd08df&k=73925 |archive-date=2 April 2016}}</ref> regards it as an [[Territorial waters|international strait]], which means that foreign vessels have right of transit passage.<ref>{{cite news |title=The US is picking a fight with Canada over a thawing Arctic shipping route |url=https://qz.com/1653831/the-us-is-picking-a-fight-with-canada-over-an-arctic-shipping-route/ |work=Quartz |date=June 27, 2019 |access-date=20 August 2019 |archive-date=14 August 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210814025007/https://qz.com/1653831/the-us-is-picking-a-fight-with-canada-over-an-arctic-shipping-route/ |url-status=live}}</ref>
 === Exploration ===
@@ Line 112: / Line 126: @@
 }}
 [[File:2007 Arctic Sea Ice.jpg |thumb |[[Arctic shrinkage|Arctic sea ice coverage]] as of 2007 compared to 2005 and compared to 1979–2000 average]]
-The [[effects of climate change]] in the Arctic include rising temperatures, loss of [[sea ice]], and melting of the [[Greenland ice sheet]]. Potential [[Arctic methane emissions|methane release]] from the region, especially through the thawing of [[permafrost]] and [[methane clathrate]]s, is also a concern.<ref>Galera, L. A., Eckhardt, T., Beer, C., Pfeiffer, E.-M., & Knoblauch, C. (2023). "Ratio of in situ CO2 to CH4 production and its environmental controls in polygonal tundra soils of Samoylov Island, Northeastern Siberia". ''Journal of Geophysical Research: Biogeosciences'', 128, e2022JG006956. https://doi.org/10.1029/2022JG006956 {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230630102551/https://agupubs.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1029/2022JG006956 |date=30 June 2023 }}</ref> Because of the [[Polar amplification|amplified response of the Arctic]] to global warming, it is often seen as a leading indicator of global warming. The melting of Greenland's ice sheet is linked to polar amplification.<ref>[http://news.uga.edu/releases/article/study-2015-melting-greenland-ice-faster-arctic-warming-0616/ Study links 2015 melting Greenland ice to faster Arctic warming] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171118204819/http://news.uga.edu/releases/article/study-2015-melting-greenland-ice-faster-arctic-warming-0616/ |date=18 November 2017 }} 9 June 2016 University of Georgia</ref><ref>{{cite journal |doi=10.1038/ncomms11723 |pmid=27277547 |pmc=4906163 |volume=7 |title=Arctic cut-off high drives the poleward shift of a new Greenland melting record |journal=Nature Communications |page=11723 |bibcode=2016NatCo...711723T |last1=Tedesco |first1=M. |last2=Mote |first2=T. |last3=Fettweis |first3=X. |last4=Hanna |first4=E. |last5=Jeyaratnam |first5=J. |last6=Booth |first6=J. F. |last7=Datta |first7=R. |last8=Briggs |first8=K. |year=2016}}</ref>
+The [[effects of climate change]] in the Arctic include rising temperatures, loss of [[sea ice]], and melting of the [[Greenland ice sheet]].  The Arctic near-surface temperature is increasing at a rate that is 2–3 times faster than the global average, which is referred to as Arctic amplification.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Overland |first=James |last2=Dunlea |first2=Edward |last3=Box |first3=Jason E. |last4=Corell |first4=Robert |last5=Forsius |first5=Martin |last6=Kattsov |first6=Vladimir |last7=Olsen |first7=Morten Skovgård |last8=Pawlak |first8=Janet |last9=Reiersen |first9=Lars-Otto |last10=Wang |first10=Muyin |date=2019-09-01 |title=The urgency of Arctic change |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1873965218301543 |journal=Polar Science |series=ISAR-5/ Fifth International Symposium on Arctic Research |volume=21 |pages=6–13 |doi=10.1016/j.polar.2018.11.008 |issn=1873-9652|hdl=10138/348015 |hdl-access=free }}</ref> Potential [[Arctic methane emissions|methane release]] from the region, especially through the thawing of [[permafrost]] and [[methane clathrate]]s, is also a concern.<ref>Galera, L. A., Eckhardt, T., Beer, C., Pfeiffer, E.-M., & Knoblauch, C. (2023). "Ratio of in situ CO2 to CH4 production and its environmental controls in polygonal tundra soils of Samoylov Island, Northeastern Siberia". ''Journal of Geophysical Research: Biogeosciences'', 128, e2022JG006956. https://doi.org/10.1029/2022JG006956 {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230630102551/https://agupubs.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1029/2022JG006956 |date=30 June 2023 }}</ref> Because of the [[Polar amplification|amplified response of the Arctic]] to global warming, it is often seen as a leading indicator of global warming. The melting of Greenland's ice sheet is linked to polar amplification.<ref>[http://news.uga.edu/releases/article/study-2015-melting-greenland-ice-faster-arctic-warming-0616/ Study links 2015 melting Greenland ice to faster Arctic warming] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171118204819/http://news.uga.edu/releases/article/study-2015-melting-greenland-ice-faster-arctic-warming-0616/ |date=18 November 2017 }} 9 June 2016 University of Georgia</ref><ref>{{cite journal |doi=10.1038/ncomms11723 |pmid=27277547 |pmc=4906163 |volume=7 |title=Arctic cut-off high drives the poleward shift of a new Greenland melting record |journal=Nature Communications |article-number=11723 |bibcode=2016NatCo...711723T |last1=Tedesco |first1=M. |last2=Mote |first2=T. |last3=Fettweis |first3=X. |last4=Hanna |first4=E. |last5=Jeyaratnam |first5=J. |last6=Booth |first6=J. F. |last7=Datta |first7=R. |last8=Briggs |first8=K. |year=2016}}</ref>
-The Arctic region is especially vulnerable to the effects of any [[climate change]], as has become apparent with the reduction of sea ice in recent years. [[Climate model]]s predict much greater [[climate change in the Arctic]] than the global average,<ref name="HassolArctic Climate Impact Assessment2004">{{Cite book |title=Impacts of a warming Arctic: Arctic Climate Impact Assessment |url=https://archive.org/details/impactsofwarming0000hass |date=February 2005 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |location=Cambridge, UK |isbn=978-0-521-61778-9 |access-date=20 November 2006 |df=dmy-all |url-access=registration}}</ref> resulting in significant international attention to the region. In particular, there are concerns that Arctic shrinkage, a consequence of melting glaciers and other ice in Greenland, could soon contribute to a substantial rise in sea levels worldwide.<ref>Grinberg, Emanuella (17 December 2008). [http://edition.cnn.com/2008/TECH/science/12/16/melting.ice/index.html "Ice melting across globe at accelerating rate, NASA says."] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220330054019/http://edition.cnn.com/2008/TECH/science/12/16/melting.ice/index.html |date=30 March 2022 }} CNN. Retrieved 30 March 2022</ref>
+The Arctic region is especially vulnerable to the effects of any [[climate change]], as has become apparent with the reduction of sea ice in recent years. [[Climate model]]s predict much greater [[climate change in the Arctic]] than the global average,<ref name="HassolArctic Climate Impact Assessment2004">{{Cite book |title=Impacts of a warming Arctic: Arctic Climate Impact Assessment |url=https://archive.org/details/impactsofwarming0000hass |date=February 2005 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |location=Cambridge, UK |isbn=978-0-521-61778-9 |access-date=20 November 2006 |url-access=registration}}</ref> resulting in significant international attention to the region. In particular, there are concerns that Arctic shrinkage, a consequence of melting glaciers and other ice in Greenland, could soon contribute to a substantial rise in sea levels worldwide.<ref>Grinberg, Emanuella (17 December 2008). [http://edition.cnn.com/2008/TECH/science/12/16/melting.ice/index.html "Ice melting across globe at accelerating rate, NASA says."] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220330054019/http://edition.cnn.com/2008/TECH/science/12/16/melting.ice/index.html |date=30 March 2022 }} CNN. Retrieved 30 March 2022</ref>
 The current Arctic warming is leading to ancient carbon being released from thawing [[permafrost]], leading to [[methane]] and [[carbon dioxide]] production by micro-organisms.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Lenton |first1=T. M. |last2=Held |first2=H. |last3=Kriegler |first3=E. |last4=Hall |first4=J. W. |last5=Lucht |first5=W. |last6=Rahmstorf |first6=S. |last7=Schellnhuber |first7=H. J. |doi=10.1073/pnas.0705414105 |title=Inaugural Article: Tipping elements in the Earth's climate system |journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences |volume=105 |issue=6 |pages=1786–93 |year=2008 |pmid=18258748 |pmc=2538841 |bibcode=2008PNAS..105.1786L |doi-access=free}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Turetsky |first=Merritt R. |date=2019-04-30 |title=Permafrost collapse is accelerating carbon release |journal=Nature |volume=569 |issue=7754 |pages=32–34 |doi=10.1038/d41586-019-01313-4 |pmid=31040419 |bibcode=2019Natur.569...32T |doi-access=free}}</ref> Release of methane and carbon dioxide stored in permafrost could cause abrupt and severe global warming,<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2008/09/080918192943.htm |title=Abrupt Climate Change Focus Of U.S. National Laboratories |work=Science Daily |date=23 September 2008 |url-status=live |access-date=28 February 2018 |archive-date=23 June 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170623010338/https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2008/09/080918192943.htm}}</ref> as they are potent [[greenhouse gas]]es.<ref>{{Cite news |url=https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2019/jun/18/arctic-permafrost-canada-science-climate-crisis |title=Scientists shocked by Arctic permafrost thawing 70 years sooner than predicted |agency=Reuters |date=2019-06-18 |work=The Guardian |access-date=2019-07-02 |language=en-GB |issn=0261-3077 |archive-date=6 October 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191006020220/https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2019/jun/18/arctic-permafrost-canada-science-climate-crisis |url-status=live}}</ref>
-[[File:Svolvær_Harbor_(15226568739).jpg|thumb|The shrinking Arctic: Parts of Norway inside the Arctic Circle has a temperate climate with the 1991–2020 normals, such as [[Skrova]] near [[Svolvær]] with mean annual temperature of {{Convert|6|C}}, four months above 10°C and no month below {{Convert|0|C}}.<ref>[https://www.yr.no/en/statistics/table/5-85380/Norway/Nordland/V%C3%A5gan/Skrova%20fyr?q=last-13-months Skrova climate statistics] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211109172300/https://www.yr.no/en/statistics/table/5-85380/Norway/Nordland/V%C3%A5gan/Skrova%20fyr?q=last-13-months |date=9 November 2021 }}. yr.no. Retrieved 2021-11-09.</ref>]]
+[[File:Svolvær_Harbor_(15226568739).jpg|thumb|The shrinking Arctic: Parts of Norway north of the Arctic Circle has a temperate climate with the 1991–2020 normals, such as [[Skrova]] near [[Svolvær]] with mean annual temperature of {{Convert|6|C}}, four months above 10°C and no month below {{Convert|0|C}}.<ref>[https://www.yr.no/en/statistics/table/5-85380/Norway/Nordland/V%C3%A5gan/Skrova%20fyr?q=last-13-months Skrova climate statistics] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211109172300/https://www.yr.no/en/statistics/table/5-85380/Norway/Nordland/V%C3%A5gan/Skrova%20fyr?q=last-13-months |date=9 November 2021 }}. yr.no. Retrieved 2021-11-09.</ref>]]
-Climate change is also predicted to have a large impact on tundra vegetation, causing an increase of shrubs,<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Myers-Smith |first1=Isla H. |last2=Forbes |first2=Bruce C. |last3=Wilmking |first3=Martin |last4=Hallinger |first4=Martin |last5=Lantz |first5=Trevor |last6=Blok |first6=Daan |last7=Tape |first7=Ken D. |last8=Macias-Fauria |first8=Marc |last9=Sass-Klaassen |first9=Ute |date=2011-01-01 |title=Shrub expansion in tundra ecosystems: dynamics, impacts and research priorities |journal=Environmental Research Letters |language=en |volume=6 |issue=4 |page=045509 |doi=10.1088/1748-9326/6/4/045509 |issn=1748-9326 |bibcode=2011ERL.....6d5509M |doi-access=free|hdl=10536/DRO/DU:30114246 |hdl-access=free }}</ref> and having a negative impact on bryophytes and lichens.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Alatalo |first1=Juha M. |last2=Jägerbrand |first2=Annika K. |last3=Molau |first3=Ulf |date=2015-11-01 |title=Testing reliability of short-term responses to predict longer-term responses of bryophytes and lichens to environmental change |journal=Ecological Indicators |volume=58 |pages=77–85 |doi=10.1016/j.ecolind.2015.05.050}}</ref>
+Climate change is also predicted to have a large impact on tundra vegetation, causing an increase of shrubs,<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Myers-Smith |first1=Isla H. |last2=Forbes |first2=Bruce C. |last3=Wilmking |first3=Martin |last4=Hallinger |first4=Martin |last5=Lantz |first5=Trevor |last6=Blok |first6=Daan |last7=Tape |first7=Ken D. |last8=Macias-Fauria |first8=Marc |last9=Sass-Klaassen |first9=Ute |date=2011-01-01 |title=Shrub expansion in tundra ecosystems: dynamics, impacts and research priorities |journal=Environmental Research Letters |language=en |volume=6 |issue=4 |article-number=045509 |doi=10.1088/1748-9326/6/4/045509 |issn=1748-9326 |bibcode=2011ERL.....6d5509M |doi-access=free|hdl=10536/DRO/DU:30114246 |hdl-access=free }}</ref> and having a negative impact on bryophytes and lichens.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Alatalo |first1=Juha M. |last2=Jägerbrand |first2=Annika K. |last3=Molau |first3=Ulf |date=2015-11-01 |title=Testing reliability of short-term responses to predict longer-term responses of bryophytes and lichens to environmental change |journal=Ecological Indicators |volume=58 |pages=77–85 |doi=10.1016/j.ecolind.2015.05.050 |bibcode=2015EcInd..58...77A }}</ref>
 Apart from concerns regarding the detrimental effects of warming in the Arctic, some potential opportunities have gained attention. The melting of the ice is making the [[Northwest Passage]], shipping routes through the northernmost latitudes, more navigable, raising the possibility that the Arctic region will become a prime [[trade route]].<ref>[http://archives.cnn.com/2002/TECH/science/08/29/northwest.passage/ "Will ice melt open fabled Northwest Passage?"] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071109062759/http://archives.cnn.com/2002/TECH/science/08/29/northwest.passage/ |date=9 November 2007 }} CNN. 29 August 2002.</ref> One harbinger of the opening navigability of the Arctic took place in the summer of 2016 when the [[Crystal Serenity]] successfully navigated the Northwest Passage, a first for a large cruise ship.<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://newyork.cbslocal.com/2016/09/16/crystal-serenity-docks-in-nyc/ |title=Largest Cruise Ship Ever To Sail Northwest Passage Docks In NYC |access-date=2016-09-24 |date=2016-09-16 |archive-date=27 September 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160927065229/http://newyork.cbslocal.com/2016/09/16/crystal-serenity-docks-in-nyc/ |url-status=live}}</ref>
-In addition, it is believed that the Arctic seabed may contain substantial [[Petroleum reservoir#Oil field|oil fields]] which may become accessible if the ice covering them melts.<ref>Demos, Telis. [https://money.cnn.com/2007/08/07/news/international/arctic_oil.fortune/index.htm?postversion=2007080810 "The great Arctic Circle oil rush."] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200918134845/https://money.cnn.com/2007/08/07/news/international/arctic_oil.fortune/index.htm?postversion=2007080810 |date=18 September 2020 }} CNN. 8 August 2007.</ref> These factors have led to recent international debates as to which nations can claim sovereignty or ownership over the waters of the Arctic.<ref name="Canada sovereignty">Shaw, Rob. [http://www.canada.com/victoriatimescolonist/news/story.html?id=497c719f-a5be-4691-86f4-30ec877101a7&k=77 "New patrol ships will reassert northern sovereignty: PM".] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070929213616/http://www.canada.com/victoriatimescolonist/news/story.html?id=497c719f-a5be-4691-86f4-30ec877101a7&k=77 |date=29 September 2007 }} Victoria Times Colonist. 9 July 2007.</ref><ref>Halpin, Tony. [http://www.timesonline.co.uk/tol/news/world/europe/article2155477.ece "Russia stakes its claim the North Pole in the underwater search for oil".] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081007151839/http://www.timesonline.co.uk/tol/news/world/europe/article2155477.ece |date=7 October 2008 }} ''The Times''. 28 July 2007.</ref><ref>{{cite news |title=Arctic melt stuns scientists |work=CBS News |date=9 October 2007 |url=http://www.webcastr.com/videos/news/arctic-melt-stuns-scientists.html}}{{dead link|date=July 2017 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref><ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.canada.com/topics/news/world/story.html?id=d0135cd8-c15a-48a3-9579-0df5f8e185c1 |title=Conference could mark start of Arctic power struggle |publisher=Canada.com |date=28 May 2008 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090304204151/http://www.canada.com/topics/news/world/story.html?id=d0135cd8-c15a-48a3-9579-0df5f8e185c1 |archive-date=4 March 2009}}</ref>
+In addition, it is believed that the Arctic seabed may contain substantial [[Petroleum reservoir#Oil field|oil fields]] which may become accessible if the ice covering them melts.<ref>Demos, Telis. [https://money.cnn.com/2007/08/07/news/international/arctic_oil.fortune/index.htm?postversion=2007080810 "The great Arctic Circle oil rush."] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200918134845/https://money.cnn.com/2007/08/07/news/international/arctic_oil.fortune/index.htm?postversion=2007080810 |date=18 September 2020 }} CNN. 8 August 2007.</ref> These factors have led to recent international debates as to which nations can claim sovereignty or ownership over the waters of the Arctic.<ref name="Canada sovereignty">Shaw, Rob. [http://www.canada.com/victoriatimescolonist/news/story.html?id=497c719f-a5be-4691-86f4-30ec877101a7&k=77 "New patrol ships will reassert northern sovereignty: PM".] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070929213616/http://www.canada.com/victoriatimescolonist/news/story.html?id=497c719f-a5be-4691-86f4-30ec877101a7&k=77 |date=29 September 2007 }} Victoria Times Colonist. 9 July 2007.</ref><ref>Halpin, Tony. [http://www.timesonline.co.uk/tol/news/world/europe/article2155477.ece "Russia stakes its claim the North Pole in the underwater search for oil".] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081007151839/http://www.timesonline.co.uk/tol/news/world/europe/article2155477.ece |date=7 October 2008 }} ''The Times''. 28 July 2007.</ref><ref>{{cite news |title=Arctic melt stuns scientists |work=CBS News |date=9 October 2007 |url=http://www.webcastr.com/videos/news/arctic-melt-stuns-scientists.html}}{{dead link|date=July 2017 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref><ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.canada.com/topics/news/world/story.html?id=d0135cd8-c15a-48a3-9579-0df5f8e185c1 |title=Conference could mark start of Arctic power struggle |publisher=Canada.com |date=28 May 2008 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090304204151/http://www.canada.com/topics/news/world/story.html?id=d0135cd8-c15a-48a3-9579-0df5f8e185c1 |archive-date=4 March 2009}}</ref>
 == Arctic waters ==
@@ Line 361: / Line 375: @@
 * [http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/14751798.2014.948276#.VEC8BLkcSpo/ Konyshev, Valery & Sergunin, Alexander: Is Russia a revisionist military power in the Arctic?] Defense & Security Analysis, September 2014.
 * [http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/2154896X.2014.913930#.VEDDnrkcSpo/ Konyshev, Valery & Sergunin, Alexander. Russia in search of its Arctic strategy: between hard and soft power?] Polar Journal, April 2014.
+* Lavelle, Kathryn C.  Reluctant Conquest:  American Wealth, Power, and Science in the Arctic.  New Haven:  Yale University Press, 2025.  {{ISBN|978-0-300-27221-5 }}
 * McCannon, John. ''A History of the Arctic: Nature, Exploration and Exploitation''. Reaktion Books and University of Chicago Press, 2012. {{ISBN|9781780230184}}
 * {{cite book |last1=O'Rourke |first1=Ronald |title=Changes in the Arctic: Background and Issues for Congress |date=14 October 2016 |publisher=Congressional Research Service |location=Washington, DC |url=https://fas.org/sgp/crs/misc/R41153.pdf |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/https://fas.org/sgp/crs/misc/R41153.pdf |archive-date=2022-10-09 |url-status=live |access-date=20 October 2016}}

Arctic: Difference between revisions

Latest revision as of 15:55, 14 November 2025

Contents

Definition and etymology

Climate

Flora and fauna

Plants

Animals

Natural resources

Paleontology

Indigenous population

International cooperation and politics

Territorial claims

Exploration

Pollution

Preservation

Climate change

Arctic waters

Arctic lands

See also

Notes

References

Bibliography

Further reading

External links

Navigation menu

Arctic: Difference between revisions

Latest revision as of 15:55, 14 November 2025

Definition and etymology

Climate

Flora and fauna

Plants

Animals

Natural resources

Paleontology

Indigenous population

International cooperation and politics

Territorial claims

Exploration

Pollution

Preservation

Climate change

Arctic waters

Arctic lands

See also

Notes

References

Bibliography

Further reading

External links

Navigation menu

Search