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The '''Chambal River''' is a [[tributary]] of the [[Yamuna River]] in [[Central India|Central]] and [[North India|Northern India]], and thus forms part of the drainage system of the [[Ganges]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=Chambal River - Origin Tributaries Dams Flora {{!}} Fauna |url=https://www.riversofindia.com/2022/07/chambal-river-origin-tributaries-dams.html |access-date=2022-07-18 |website=Rivers Of India - All About Rivers |language=en}}</ref> The river flows north-northeast through [[Madhya Pradesh]], running for a brief time through [[Rajasthan]], then forming the boundary between Rajasthan and Madhya Pradesh before turning southeast to join the Yamuna in [[Uttar Pradesh]] state.<ref name=hy>{{cite book |title=Hydrology and water resources of India- Volume 57 of Water science and technology library - Tributaries of Yamuna river|last=Jain |first=Sharad K.|author2=Pushpendra K. Agarwal|author3=Vijay P. Singh |year=2007|publisher=Springer|isbn=978-1-4020-5179-1|page=350 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ZKs1gBhJSWIC&q=Yamuna+River&pg=RA1-PA345 }}</ref>   
The '''Chambal River''' is a [[tributary]] of the [[Yamuna River]] in [[Central India|Central]] and [[North India|Northern India]], and thus forms part of the drainage system of the [[Ganges]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=Chambal River - Origin Tributaries Dams Flora {{!}} Fauna |url=https://www.riversofindia.com/2022/07/chambal-river-origin-tributaries-dams.html |access-date=2022-07-18 |website=Rivers Of India - All About Rivers |language=en}}</ref> The river flows north-northeast through [[Madhya Pradesh]], running for a brief time through [[Rajasthan]], then forming the boundary between Rajasthan and Madhya Pradesh before turning southeast to join the Yamuna in [[Uttar Pradesh]] state.<ref name=hy>{{cite book |title=Hydrology and water resources of India- Volume 57 of Water science and technology library - Tributaries of Yamuna river|last=Jain |first=Sharad K.|author2=Pushpendra K. Agarwal|author3=Vijay P. Singh |year=2007|publisher=Springer|isbn=978-1-4020-5179-1|page=350 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ZKs1gBhJSWIC&q=Yamuna+River&pg=RA1-PA345 }}</ref>   


It is a legendary river and finds mention in ancient Hindu scriptures. The Hindu epic [[Mahabharata]] refers to the Chambal River as Charmanyavati: originating from the blood of thousands of animals sacrificed by the King [[Rantideva]].
It is a river that finds mention in ancient Hindu scriptures. The Hindu epic [[Mahabharata]] refers to the Chambal River as Charmanyavati: originating from the blood of thousands of animals sacrificed by the King [[Rantideva]].


==History==
==History==
During the [[Vedic era]], the ancient name of Chambal river was [[Charmanvati]], meaning the river on whose banks leather is dried. In due course of time, this river became famous as the river of ‘charman’ (skin) and was named as ''Charmanvati''.<ref>{{cite book |title=Hydrology and water resources of India- Volume 57 of Water science and technology library - Tributaries of Yamuna river |last=Jain |first=Sharad K.|author2=Pushpendra K. Agarwal|author3=Vijay P. Singh |year=2007 |publisher=Springer|isbn=978-1-4020-5179-1 |page=350 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ZKs1gBhJSWIC&dq=Yamuna+River&pg=RA1-PA345}}</ref>
===Vedic era===
During the [[Vedic era]], the ancient name of Chambal river was [[Charmanvati]], meaning the river on whose banks leather is dried. In due course of time, this river became famous as the river of ‘charman’ (skin) and was named as ''Charmanvati''.<ref>{{cite book |title=Hydrology and water resources of India- Volume 57 of Water science and technology library - Tributaries of Yamuna river |last=Jain |first=Sharad K.|author2=Pushpendra K. Agarwal|author3=Vijay P. Singh |year=2007 |publisher=Springer|isbn=978-1-4020-5179-1 |page=350 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ZKs1gBhJSWIC&dq=Yamuna+River&pg=RA1-PA345}}</ref><ref name="hy"/>
The epic [[Sanskrit]] narrative the [[Mahabharata]], refers to the Chambal river as the ''[[Charmanwati|Charmanyavati]]'' : originating from the blood of thousands of animals sacrificed by the King [[Rantideva]].
:"So large was the number of animals sacrificed in the [[Agnihotra]] of that king that the secretions flowing from his kitchen from the heaps of skins deposited there caused a veritable river which from this circumstance, came to be called the ''Charmanwati''."<ref>{{cite web|url=http://ancientvoice.wikidot.com/mbh:charmanwati|title=charmanwati, Mbh.7.65.2817|work=Ancient Voice|publisher=  Jijith Nadumuri Ravi|access-date=29 December 2010}}</ref>


==Origin, drainage and mouth==
Chambal area was part of [[Shakuni]]'s kingdom and the dice-game played thereabouts. After the attempted disrobing of [[Draupadi]] (the daughter of Drupada) she cursed anyone who would drink the water of the Charmanwati river.<ref name="ST">
[[File:Chambal River near Kota, Rajasthan.jpg|thumb|Chambal River near Kota, Rajasthan]]
{{cite web |date=2010 |title=Charms of Chambal |work=The Sunday Tribune, Spectrum |url=http://www.tribuneindia.com/2010/20100418/spectrum/main3.htm |url-status=live |access-date=29 December 2010|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111005203651/http://www.tribuneindia.com:80/2010/20100418/spectrum/main3.htm |archive-date=2011-10-05 }}</ref> Thus it is believed that due to the curse by Draupadi, have helped the Chambal to survive unpolluted by man, and its many animal inhabitants to thrive relatively untouched. The Chambal remains one of India's most pristine rivers.<ref>{{cite web|access-date=2025-05-16 |language=en |title=Keeping the river clean: Chambal River, India |url=https://wwf.panda.org/es/?97000/Keeping-the-river-clean-Chambal-River-India |website=wwf.panda.org}}<!-- auto-translated from Portuguese by Module:CS1 translator --></ref>
The {{cvt|1024|km}} long Chambal River originates from the Bhadakla Falls in Janapav Hills on the northern slopes of the [[Vindhyas|Vindhyan escarpment]] near [[Mandav]], {{cvt|67.5|km}} South-West of [[Mhow]] in [[Indore]] District, [[Madhya Pradesh]] state, at an elevation of about {{cvt|843|m}}. The river flows first in a northerly direction through Madhya Pradesh (M.P.) for about {{cvt|376|km}} and then in a generally north-easterly direction for {{cvt|249|km}} through [[Rajasthan]]. The Chambal flows for another {{cvt|216|km}} between M.P. and Rajasthan and a further {{cvt|150|km}} between M.P. and [[Uttar Pradesh]] (U.P.). It enters U.P. and flows for about {{cvt|33|km}} before joining the [[Yamuna River]] in [[Jalaun]] District at an elevation of {{cvt|123|m}}, to form a part of the greater Gangetic drainage system.<ref name="Jain, Sharad K. 2007 p. 350">Jain, Sharad K.; Pushpendra K. Agarwal, Vijay P. Singh (2007). Hydrology and water resources of India- Volume 57 of Water science and technology library - Tributaries of Yamuna river. Springer. p. 350. {{ISBN|1-4020-5179-4}}.</ref>
 
From its source down to its junction with the Yamuna, the Chambal has a fall of about {{cvt|717.6|m}}. Of this, around {{cvt|305|m}} is within the first {{cvt|26|km}} reach from its source. It falls for another {{cvt|195|m}} in the next {{cvt|312|km}}, where it enters the gorge past the Chaurasigarh Fort. During the next {{cvt|157|km}} of its run from the Chaurasigarh Fort to [[Kota District|Kota]] city, the bed falls by another {{cvt|91|m}}. For the rest of its {{cvt|529|km}} run, the river passes through the flat terrain of the [[Malwa Plateau]] and later the [[Gangetic Plain]] with an average gradient of 0.21&nbsp;m/km.<ref name="Jain, Sharad K. 2007 p. 350"/>


==Chambal ==
===Basin===
The Chambal is a rainfed catchment with a total drained area up to its confluence with the Yamuna of {{convert|144,591|km2}}. The drainage area resembles a rectangle up to the junction of the Parvathi and Banas Rivers with the Chambal flowing along its major axis. The Chambal Basin lies between latitudes 22° 27' N and 27° 20' N and longitudes 73° 20' E and 79° 15' E. On its south, east and west, the basin is bounded by the [[Vindhya Range|Vindhyan]] mountain ranges and on the north-west by the [[Aravalli Range|Aravallis]]. Below the confluence of the Parvathi and Banas, the catchment becomes narrower and elongated. In this reach, it is bounded by the Aravalli mountain ranges on the North and the Vindhyan hill range on the south.<ref name="Jain, Sharad K. 2007 p. 350"/>
The Chambal is a rainfed catchment with a total drained area up to its confluence with the Yamuna of {{convert|144,591|km2}}. The drainage area resembles a rectangle up to the junction of the Parvathi and Banas Rivers with the Chambal flowing along its major axis. The Chambal Basin lies between latitudes 22° 27' N and 27° 20' N and longitudes 73° 20' E and 79° 15' E. On its south, east and west, the basin is bounded by the [[Vindhya Range|Vindhyan]] mountain ranges and on the north-west by the [[Aravalli Range|Aravallis]]. Below the confluence of the Parvathi and Banas, the catchment becomes narrower and elongated. In this reach, it is bounded by the Aravalli mountain ranges on the North and the Vindhyan hill range on the south.<ref name="Jain, Sharad K. 2007 p. 350"/>


The Vindhyan scarps, in the northwest, flank the left bank of the Chambal, and subsequently, is mainly drained by it. The Chambal rising within about 16&nbsp;km of the Narmada river, appears as a consequent on the Mesozoic surface, superimposed on the scarps, and cuts straight through them, with subsequent tributaries on the softer shales. The River Chambal and its tributaries [[Kali Sindh]] and [[Parbati]] have formed a triangular alluvial basin, about {{cvt|200|–|270|m}} above the narrow trough of the lower Chambal in [[Kota District|Kota]]. It is a typical anterior-drainage pattern river, being much older than the rivers Yamuna and Ganges, into which it eventually flows.<ref>Mani, M.S. 1974. Ecology and Biogeography of India. W. Junk. The Hague.</ref>
The Vindhyan scarps, in the northwest, flank the left bank of the Chambal, and subsequently, is mainly drained by it. The Chambal rising within about 16&nbsp;km of the Narmada river, appears as a consequent on the Mesozoic surface, superimposed on the scarps, and cuts straight through them, with subsequent tributaries on the softer shales. The River Chambal and its tributaries [[Kali Sindh]] and [[Parbati]] have formed a triangular alluvial basin, about {{cvt|200|–|270|m}} above the narrow trough of the lower Chambal in [[Kota District|Kota]]. It is a typical anterior-drainage pattern river, being much older than the rivers Yamuna and Ganges, into which it eventually flows.<ref>Mani, M.S. 1974. Ecology and Biogeography of India. W. Junk. The Hague.</ref>


===Course===
[[File:Chambal River near Kota, Rajasthan.jpg|thumb|Chambal River near Kota, Rajasthan]]
The {{cvt|1024|km}} long Chambal River originates from the Bhadakla Falls in Janapav Hills on the northern slopes of the [[Vindhyas|Vindhyan escarpment]] near [[Mandav]], {{cvt|67.5|km}} south-west of [[Mhow]] in [[Indore]] District, [[Madhya Pradesh]] at an elevation of about {{cvt|843|m}}. The river flows first in a northerly direction through Madhya Pradesh for about {{cvt|376|km}} and then in a generally north-easterly direction for {{cvt|249|km}} through [[Rajasthan]]. Then it flows for another {{cvt|216|km}} between Madhya Pradesh and Rajasthan and a further {{cvt|150|km}} between Madhya Pradesh and [[Uttar Pradesh]]. It flows for about {{cvt|33|km}} before joining the [[Yamuna River]] in [[Jalaun]] District at an elevation of {{cvt|123|m}}, to form a part of the greater Gangetic drainage system.<ref name="Jain, Sharad K. 2007 p. 350">Jain, S. K.; Pushpendra K., Agarwal, V., P. Singh (2007). Hydrology and water resources of India- Volume 57 of Water science and technology library - Tributaries of Yamuna river. Springer. p. 350. {{ISBN|1-4020-5179-4}}.</ref>
From its source to its junction with the Yamuna, the Chambal has a fall of about {{cvt|717.6|m}}. Of this, around {{cvt|305|m}} is within the first {{cvt|26|km}} reach from its source. It falls for another {{cvt|195|m}} in the next {{cvt|312|km}}, where it enters the gorge past the Chaurasigarh Fort. During the next {{cvt|157|km}} of its run from the Chaurasigarh Fort to [[Kota District|Kota]] city, the bed falls by another {{cvt|91|m}}. For the rest of its {{cvt|529|km}} run, the river passes through the flat terrain of the [[Malwa Plateau]] and later the [[Gangetic Plain]] with an average gradient of 0.21&nbsp;m/km.<ref name="Jain, Sharad K. 2007 p. 350"/>
===Tributaries ===
The tributaries of the Chambal include [[Shipra]], Choti Kalisindh, [[Shivna River|Shivna]], Retam, Ansar, Kalisindh, Banas, Parbati, Seep, Kuwari, Kuno, Alnia, Mej, Chakan, Parwati, Chamla, Gambhir, Lakhunder, Khan, Bangeri, Kedel and Teelar.<ref name="Jain, Sharad K. 2007 p. 350"/><ref name="Lallanji Gopal 2008">Lallanji Gopal, Vinod Chandra Srivastava (2008). History of agriculture in India (up to c. 1200 A.D.). In History of Science, Philosophy and Culture in Indian Civilization. Project of History of Indian Science, Philosophy and Culture. Centre for Studies in Civilizations.</ref>
The tributaries of the Chambal include [[Shipra]], Choti Kalisindh, [[Shivna River|Shivna]], Retam, Ansar, Kalisindh, Banas, Parbati, Seep, Kuwari, Kuno, Alnia, Mej, Chakan, Parwati, Chamla, Gambhir, Lakhunder, Khan, Bangeri, Kedel and Teelar.<ref name="Jain, Sharad K. 2007 p. 350"/><ref name="Lallanji Gopal 2008">Lallanji Gopal, Vinod Chandra Srivastava (2008). History of agriculture in India (up to c. 1200 A.D.). In History of Science, Philosophy and Culture in Indian Civilization. Project of History of Indian Science, Philosophy and Culture. Centre for Studies in Civilizations.</ref>


According to Crawford (1969), the Chambal river valley is part of the Vindhyan system which consists of massive sandstone, slate and limestone, of perhaps pre-Cambrian age, resting on the surface of older rocks.<ref>Crawford, A.R. 1969. India, Ceylon and Pakistan: new age data and comparisons with Australia. Nature 223: 380 – 384, in Chowdhury, S., 1981. Some Studies on the Biology and Ecology of ''Gavialis gangetics'', the Indian gharial (Crocodilia; Gavialidae). PhD Thesis, University of Lucknow.</ref>
According to Crawford (1969), the Chambal river valley is part of the Vindhyan system which consists of massive sandstone, slate and limestone, of perhaps pre-Cambrian age, resting on the surface of older rocks.<ref>Crawford, A.R. 1969. India, Ceylon and Pakistan: new age data and comparisons with Australia. Nature 223: 380 – 384, in Chowdhury, S., 1981. Some Studies on the Biology and Ecology of ''Gavialis gangetics'', the Indian gharial (Crocodilia; Gavialidae). PhD Thesis, University of Lucknow.</ref>
Hillocks and plateaus represent the major landforms of the Chambal valley. The Chambal basin is characterised by an undulating floodplain, gullies and ravines.<ref name="Lallanji Gopal 2008"/> The Hadauti plateau in Rajasthan occurs in the upper catchment of the Chambal River to the southeast of the Mewar Plains. It occurs with the Malwa plateau in the east. Physiographically, it can be divided into Vindhyan scarp land and Deccan Lava (Malwa) plateau.<ref>Sinha-Roy S., Malhotra G. and Mohanty M. 1998. Geology of Rajasthan, Geological Society of india, Bangalore.</ref> According to Heron (1953), the eastern pediplain, occurring between the Vindhyan plateau and the [[Aravalli Hill Range|Aravalli hill range]], contains a thin veneer of Quaternary sediments, reworked soil and river channel fills. At least two erosional surfaces can be recognised within the pediplain are the Tertiary age. The Vindhyan upland, the adjoining Chambal valley and the Indo-Gangetic alluvial tract (older alluvium) are of Pleistocene to Sub-recent age. Badland topography is a characteristic feature of the Chambal valley, whereas kankar has extensively developed in the older alluvium.<ref>Heron A.M. 1953.‘The Geology of Central Rajaputana’, Memoir of Geological Survey of India, Vol. 79: 389.</ref>
Hillocks and plateaus represent the major landforms of the Chambal valley. The Chambal basin is characterised by an undulating floodplain, gullies and ravines.<ref name="Lallanji Gopal 2008"/> The Hadauti plateau in Rajasthan occurs in the upper catchment of the Chambal River to the southeast of the Mewar Plains. It occurs with the Malwa plateau in the east. Physiographically, it can be divided into Vindhyan scarp land and Deccan Lava (Malwa) plateau.<ref>Sinha-Roy S., Malhotra G. and Mohanty M. 1998. Geology of Rajasthan, Geological Society of india, Bangalore.</ref> According to Heron (1953), the eastern pediplain, occurring between the Vindhyan plateau and the [[Aravalli Hill Range|Aravalli hill range]], contains a thin veneer of Quaternary sediments, reworked soil and river channel fills. At least two erosional surfaces can be recognised within the pediplain are the Tertiary age. The Vindhyan upland, the adjoining Chambal valley and the Indo-Gangetic alluvial tract (older alluvium) are of Pleistocene to Sub-recent age. Badland topography is a characteristic feature of the Chambal valley, whereas kankar has extensively developed in the older alluvium.<ref>Heron A.M. 1953.‘The Geology of Central Rajaputana’, Memoir of Geological Survey of India, Vol. 79: 389.</ref>
{{Further|Chakan River}}
==Vegetation==
[[File:Bar-headed Geese- Bharatpur I IMG 8337.jpg|thumb|Keoladeo National Park is supplied with water from Chambal river irrigation project]]
[[File:Lesser Whistling Duck (8450582630).jpg|thumb|Lesser Whistling Duck (''[[Lesser whistling duck|Dendrocygna javanica]]'') in [[Keoladeo National Park]]. Chambal embankment is a major birding area]]
The area lies within the semi-arid zone of north-western India at the border of Madhya Pradesh, Rajasthan and Uttar Pradesh States,<ref name="Hussain, S. A 2009">Hussain, S. A. 2009. Basking site and water depth selection by gharial ''Gavialis gangeticus'' Gmelin 1789 (Crocodylia, Reptilia) in National Chambal Sanctuary, India and its implication for river conservation. Aquatic Conservation-Marine and Freshwater Ecosystems 19:127-133.</ref> and the vegetation consists of ravine, thorn forest,<ref>Champion, H.G. and Seth, S.K.,1968. A Revised Survey of the Forest Types of India. Manager of Publication, Delhi. pp. 404.</ref> a sub-type of the Northern Tropical Forests (Sub-group 6B/C2 of the revised classification of Champion & Seth, 1968). This sub-type typically occurs in less arid areas with 600–700&nbsp;mm rainfall. Limited examples of Saline/Alkaline Babul Savannah (5E/8<sub>b</sub>), a type of Northern Tropical Dry Deciduous Forest, also occurs.<ref name="Sale J.B 1982">Sale J.B. 1982. 2nd Draft. Management Plan For The National Chambal Sanctuary. First Five Year Period 1982/83 - 1986/87. Central Crocodile Breeding and Management Institute, Hyderabad.</ref> Evergreen riparian vegetation is completely absent, with only sparse ground-cover along the severely eroded river banks and adjacent ravine lands.<ref name="Hussain, S. A 2009"/>
The semiarid tract in Madhya Pradesh is represented by Chambal catchment extending up to Narmda and Betla Rivers. Over 1000 flowering plants have bean reported including ''[[Terminalia anogeissiana]], [[Terminalia pendula|T. pendula]], [[Teak|Tectona grandis]], [[Lannea coromandelica]], [[Diospyros melanoxylon]], [[Sterculia urens]], [[Mitragyna parvifolia|Mitragyna parviflora]], [[Butea monosperma]], [[Phyllanthus emblica]], [[Boswellia serrata]], Bridelia squamosa'' and ''[[Hardwickia binata]]''. [[Species composition]] at shrub and ground layer is similar to that of semiarid regions of Gujarat.
A few climbers of this area include species of ''Rhynchosia, Atylosia, Cocculus, Cissampelos, Ipomoea, [[Pergularia daemia]], [[Pueraria tuberosa]]'' and ''[[Tinospora cordifolia]]''.<ref>Verma, D. M., N. P. Balakrishnan & R. D. Dixit. 1993. Flora of Madhya Pradesh. Botanical Survey of India, Calcutta, India. 472 pp.</ref>
Thorny bushes or small trees commonly found in this area include ''[[Capparis decidua|Capparis deciduas]], [[Capparis sepiaria]], [[Balanites aegyptiaca]], [[Senegalia senegal|Acacia senegal]], [[Vachellia nilotica]], [[Vachellia leucophloea|V. leucophloea]], [[Neltuma juliflora]], [[Butea monosperma]], Maytenus emarginata, Tamarix sp., [[Salvadora persica]], [[Salvadora oleoides|S. oleoides]], Crotalaria medicaginea, [[Crotalaria burhia|C. burhia]], [[Clerodendrum phlomidis]], [[Calotropis procera]], [[Xanthium strumarium]]'' and ''[[Leptadenia pyrotechnica]]'' associated with climbers such as ''[[Maerua oblongifolia]], [[Pergularia daemia]], Ceropegia bulbosa'', herbs e.g., ''[[Argemone mexicana]], Farsetia hamiltonii, [[Tephrosia purpurea]], [[Cleome viscosa]], [[Tribulus terrestris]], [[Glinus lotoides]], Sericostoma pauciflorum, Rivea sp., Ipomoea sp., [[Pedalium murex]], Sesamum mulayanum, Lepidagathis sp, [[Boerhavia diffusa]], Chrozophora sp.'', and grasses like ''Cyprus sp., Fimbristylis sp., Brachiaria sp., Cenchrus sp., Dichanthium sp.'', etc.<ref>Rawat, G.S. (Ed.). 2008. Special Habitats and Threatened Plants of India. ENVIS Bulletin: Wildlife and Protected Areas, Vol. 11(1). Wildlife Institute of India, Dehradun, India. pp. 239.</ref>


==National Chambal Sanctuary==
===Dams===
[[File:Indian Skimmer (8582799716).jpg|thumb|left|Indian Skimmer feeding on Chambal river]]
[[File:Gandhi Sagar Mandsaur1.JPG|thumb|Gandhisagar Dam on Chambal river.]]
The [[National Chambal Sanctuary]] lies between 24°55' to 26°50' N and 75°34' to 79°18'E in [[Dholpur]]. It consists of the large arc described by the Chambal between Jawahar Sagar Dam in Rajasthan and the Chambal-Yamuna confluence in Uttar Pradesh. Over this arc, two stretches of the Chambal are protected as the National Chambal Sanctuary status - the upper sector, extending from Jawahar Sagar Dam to Kota Barrage, and the lower sector, extending from Keshoraipatan in Rajasthan to the Chambal-Yamuna confluence in Uttar Pradesh.<ref name="Sale J.B 1982"/>
 
The sanctuary was gazetted 'in order to facilitate the restoration to "ecological health" of a major north Indian river system and provide full protection for the gravely endangered [[gharial]] (''Gavialis gangeticus'').<ref name="Sale J.B 1982"/>
 
Administrative approval of the Government of India for the establishment of the National Chambal Sanctuary was conveyed in Order No. 17-74/77-FRY (WL) dated 30 September 1978. The Sanctuary has sanctuary status declared under Section 18(1) of the Wildlife Protection Act, 1972. Since such a declaration is carried out by individual states for territory falling within their jurisdiction, there are three separate notifications covering the National Chambal Sanctuary - the Madhya Pradesh portion was gazetted in the Government of Madhya Pradesh Notice No. F.15/5/77-10(2) dated 20 December 1978, the Uttar Pradesh portion was gazetted in the Government of Uttar Pradesh Notice No. 7835/XIV-3-103-78 dated 29 January 1979 and the Rajasthan portion was gazetted in the Government of Rajasthan Notice No.F.11(12)Rev.8/78 dated 7 December 1979.<ref name="Sale J.B 1982"/>
 
==Dams on the Chambal==
[[File:Gandhi Sagar Mandsaur1.JPG|thumb|Gandhisagar Dam on Chambal river]]
[[File:Bridge on Chambel river from south, NH3.jpg|thumb|Bridge with National Highway 3 on Chambal river]]
[[File:Bridge on Chambel river from south, NH3.jpg|thumb|Bridge with National Highway 3 on Chambal river]]
In a stretch of 96&nbsp;km, from km 344 to km 440 from its source, the Chambal flows through a deep gorge, while lower down, there are wide plains. The [[Gandhi Sagar Dam]] is located near the center of this reach. As there is a deep gorge immediately upstream of the dam, the reservoir has a large storage capacity despite its comparatively low height. For the next 48&nbsp;km, the river flows through the Kundal Plateau, and the [[Rana Pratap Sagar Dam]] is constructed at the lower end of this. The topography permits fairly good storage upstream of the dam. Further down, the Jawahar Sagar Dam is located in the middle of the Kota gorge. The Kota Barrage is located near Kota town, where the river emerges from the gorge section into the plateau. The total area draining the Kota Barrage is 27,319&nbsp;km<sup>2</sup>.<ref name="Jain, Sharad K. 2007 p. 350"/>
In a stretch of {{cvt|96|km}}, from km 344 to km 440 from its source, the Chambal flows through a deep gorge, while lower down, there are wide plains. The [[Gandhi Sagar Dam]] is located near the center of this reach. As there is a deep gorge immediately upstream of the dam, the reservoir has a large storage capacity despite its comparatively low height. For the next {{cvt|48|km}}, the river flows through the Kundal Plateau, and the [[Rana Pratap Sagar Dam]] is constructed at the lower end of this. The topography permits fairly good storage upstream of the dam. Further down, the Jawahar Sagar Dam is located in the middle of the Kota gorge. The Kota Barrage is located near Kota town, where the river emerges from the gorge section into the plateau. The total area draining the Kota Barrage is {{cvt|27319|km2}}.<ref name="Jain, Sharad K. 2007 p. 350"/>
The Gandhi Sagar dam is the first of the four dams built on the Chambal River, located on the Rajasthan-Madhya Pradesh border. It is a 64 metre high masonry gravity dam, with a live storage capacity of 6,920 MCM ([[million cubic metre]]s) and a catchment area of 22,584&nbsp;km<sup>2</sup>, of which only 1,537&nbsp;km<sup>2</sup> is in Rajasthan. The dam was completed in the year 1960. The hydro-power station comprises five generating units of 23&nbsp;MW capacity each. The water released after power generation is used for irrigation through Kota Barrage.<ref name="waterresources.rajasthan.gov.in">Water Resources Department, Govt. Of Rajasthan. {{cite web |url=http://waterresources.rajasthan.gov.in/4chambal.htm |title=Chambal Valley Project |access-date=2016-07-03 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304085442/http://waterresources.rajasthan.gov.in/4chambal.htm |archive-date=4 March 2016 |df=dmy-all }}</ref>
The Gandhi Sagar dam is the first of the four dams built on the Chambal River, located on the Rajasthan-Madhya Pradesh border. It is a 64 metre high masonry gravity dam, with a live storage capacity of 6,920 [[million cubic metre]]s and a catchment area of {{cvt|22584|km2}}, of which only {{cvt|1537|km2}} is in Rajasthan. The dam was completed in the year 1960. The hydro-power station comprises five generating units of 23&nbsp;MW capacity each. The water released after power generation is used for irrigation through Kota Barrage.<ref name="waterresources.rajasthan.gov.in">Water Resources Department, Govt. Of Rajasthan. {{cite web |url=http://waterresources.rajasthan.gov.in/4chambal.htm |title=Chambal Valley Project |access-date=2016-07-03 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304085442/http://waterresources.rajasthan.gov.in/4chambal.htm |archive-date=4 March 2016 |df=dmy-all }}</ref>


The '''[[Rana Pratap Sagar dam]]''' is a dam located 52&nbsp;km downstream of Gandhi Sagar dam on across the Chambal River near Rawatbhata in Chittorgarh district in Rajasthan. It was completed in the year 1970 and it is the second in the series of Chambal Valley Projects. It is 54 meters high. The power house is located on the left side of the spillway and consists of 4 units of 43&nbsp;MW each, with firm power generation of 90&nbsp;MW at 60% load factor. The total catchment area of this dam is 24,864&nbsp;km<sup>2</sup>, of which only 956&nbsp;km<sup>2</sup> are in Rajasthan. The free catchment area below Gandhi Sagar dam is 2,280&nbsp;km<sup>2</sup>. The live storage capacity is 1,566&nbsp;MCM.<ref name="waterresources.rajasthan.gov.in"/>
* '''[[Rana Pratap Sagar dam]]''' is a dam located 52&nbsp;km downstream of Gandhi Sagar dam on across the Chambal River near Rawatbhata in Chittorgarh district in Rajasthan. It was completed in the year 1970 and it is the second in the series of Chambal Valley Projects. It is 54 meters high. The power house is located on the left side of the spillway and consists of 4 units of 43&nbsp;MW each, with firm power generation of 90&nbsp;MW at 60% load factor. The total catchment area of this dam is 24,864&nbsp;km<sup>2</sup>, of which only 956&nbsp;km<sup>2</sup> are in Rajasthan. The free catchment area below Gandhi Sagar dam is 2,280&nbsp;km<sup>2</sup>. The live storage capacity is 1,566&nbsp;MCM.<ref name="waterresources.rajasthan.gov.in"/>


The '''[[Jawahar Sagar Dam]]''' is the third dam in the series of Chambal Valley Projects, located 29&nbsp;km upstream of Kota city and 26&nbsp;km downstream of Rana Pratap Sagar dam. It is a concrete gravity dam, 45 meter high and 393 m long, generating 60&nbsp;MW of power with an installed capacity of 3 units of 33&nbsp;MW. The work was completed in 1972. The total catchment area of the dam is 27,195&nbsp;km<sup>2</sup>, of which only 1,496&nbsp;km<sup>2</sup> are in Rajasthan. The free catchment area below Rana Pratap Sagar dam is 2,331&nbsp;km<sup>2</sup>.<ref name="waterresources.rajasthan.gov.in"/>
* '''[[Jawahar Sagar Dam]]''' is the third dam in the series of Chambal Valley Projects, located 29&nbsp;km upstream of Kota city and 26&nbsp;km downstream of Rana Pratap Sagar dam. It is a concrete gravity dam, 45 meter high and 393 m long, generating 60&nbsp;MW of power with an installed capacity of 3 units of 33&nbsp;MW. The work was completed in 1972. The total catchment area of the dam is 27,195&nbsp;km<sup>2</sup>, of which only 1,496&nbsp;km<sup>2</sup> are in Rajasthan. The free catchment area below Rana Pratap Sagar dam is 2,331&nbsp;km<sup>2</sup>.<ref name="waterresources.rajasthan.gov.in"/>


The '''[[Kota Barrage]]''' is the fourth in the series of Chambal Valley Projects, located about 0.8&nbsp;km upstream of Kota City in Rajasthan. Water released after power generation at Gandhi Sagar dam, Rana Pratap Sagar dam and Jawahar Sagar Dams, is diverted by Kota Barrage for irrigation in Rajasthan and in Madhya Pradesh through canals on the left and the right sides of the river. The work on this dam was completed in 1960.
* '''[[Kota Barrage]]''' is the fourth in the series of Chambal Valley Projects, located about 0.8&nbsp;km upstream of Kota City in Rajasthan. Water released after power generation at Gandhi Sagar dam, Rana Pratap Sagar dam and Jawahar Sagar Dams, is diverted by Kota Barrage for irrigation in Rajasthan and in Madhya Pradesh through canals on the left and the right sides of the river. The work on this dam was completed in 1960. The total catchment area of Kota Barrage is 27,332&nbsp;km<sup>2</sup>, of which the free catchment area below Jawahar Sagar Dam is just 137&nbsp;km<sup>2</sup>. The live storage is 99&nbsp;MCM. It is an earthfill dam with a concrete spillway. The right and left main canals have a headworks discharge capacity of 188 and 42 m<sup>3</sup>/s, respectively. The total length of the main canals, branches and distribution system is about 2,342&nbsp;km, serving an area of 2,290&nbsp;km<sup>2</sup> of CCA. The Barrage operates 18 gates to control flow of flood and canal water downstream, and serves as bridge between parts of Kota on both side of the river.<ref name="waterresources.rajasthan.gov.in"/>
The total catchment area of Kota Barrage is 27,332&nbsp;km<sup>2</sup>, of which the free catchment area below Jawahar Sagar Dam is just 137&nbsp;km<sup>2</sup>. The live storage is 99&nbsp;MCM. It is an earthfill dam with a concrete spillway. The right and left main canals have a headworks discharge capacity of 188 and 42 m<sup>3</sup>/s, respectively. The total length of the main canals, branches and distribution system is about 2,342&nbsp;km, serving an area of 2,290&nbsp;km<sup>2</sup> of CCA. The Barrage operates 18 gates to control flow of flood and canal water downstream, and serves as bridge between parts of Kota on both side of the river.<ref name="waterresources.rajasthan.gov.in"/>


==Historical significance==
==Flora==
The ancient name of the Chambal was ''Charmanvati'', meaning the river on whose banks leather is dried. In due course of time, this river became famous as the river of ‘charman’ (skin) and was named as ''Charmanvati''.<ref name="hy"/>
The area lies within the semi-arid zone of north-western India at the border of Madhya Pradesh, Rajasthan and Uttar Pradesh.<ref name="Hussain, S. A 2009">Hussain, S. A. 2009. Basking site and water depth selection by gharial ''Gavialis gangeticus'' Gmelin 1789 (Crocodylia, Reptilia) in National Chambal Sanctuary, India and its implication for river conservation. Aquatic Conservation-Marine and Freshwater Ecosystems 19:127-133.</ref> The vegetation consists of ravine, thorn forest,<ref>Champion, H.G. and Seth, S.K.,1968. A Revised Survey of the Forest Types of India. Manager of Publication, Delhi. pp. 404.</ref> a sub-type of the Northern Tropical Forests (Sub-group 6B/C2 of the revised classification of Champion & Seth, 1968). This sub-type typically occurs in less arid areas with 600–700&nbsp;mm rainfall. Limited examples of Saline/Alkaline Babul Savannah (5E/8<sub>b</sub>), a type of Northern Tropical Dry Deciduous Forest, also occurs.<ref name="Sale J.B 1982">Sale J.B. 1982. 2nd Draft. Management Plan For The National Chambal Sanctuary. First Five Year Period 1982/83 - 1986/87. Central Crocodile Breeding and Management Institute, Hyderabad.</ref> Evergreen riparian vegetation is completely absent, with only sparse ground-cover along the severely eroded river banks and adjacent ravine lands.<ref name="Hussain, S. A 2009"/>


The epic [[Sanskrit]] narrative the [[Mahabharata]], refers to the Chambal river as the ''[[Charmanwati|Charmanyavati]]'' : originating from the blood of thousands of animals sacrificed by the King [[Rantideva]].  
The semiarid tract in Madhya Pradesh is represented by Chambal catchment extending up to Narmda and Betla Rivers. Over 1000 flowering plants have bean reported including ''[[Terminalia anogeissiana]], [[Terminalia pendula|T. pendula]], [[Teak|Tectona grandis]], [[Lannea coromandelica]], [[Diospyros melanoxylon]], [[Sterculia urens]], [[Mitragyna parvifolia|Mitragyna parviflora]], [[Butea monosperma]], [[Phyllanthus emblica]], [[Boswellia serrata]], Bridelia squamosa'' and ''[[Hardwickia binata]]''.
:"So large was the number of animals sacrificed in the [[Agnihotra]] of that king that the secretions flowing from his kitchen from the heaps of skins deposited there caused a veritable river which from this circumstance, came to be called the ''Charmanwati''."<ref>{{cite web|url=http://ancientvoice.wikidot.com/mbh:charmanwati|title=charmanwati, Mbh.7.65.2817|work=Ancient Voice|publisher=  Jijith Nadumuri Ravi|access-date=29 December 2010}}</ref>
Climbers of this area include species of ''Rhynchosia, Atylosia, Cocculus, Cissampelos, Ipomoea, [[Pergularia daemia]], [[Pueraria tuberosa]]'' and ''[[Tinospora cordifolia]]''.<ref>Verma, D. M., N. P. Balakrishnan & R. D. Dixit. 1993. Flora of Madhya Pradesh. Botanical Survey of India, Calcutta, India. 472 pp.</ref>
Charmanwati was the southern boundary of [[Panchala Kingdom (Mahabharata)|Panchala Kingdom]]. King [[Drupada]] ruled the southern Panchalas up to the bank of the Charmanwati river.{{citation needed|date=January 2021}}
Thorny bushes or small trees commonly found in this area include ''[[Capparis decidua|Capparis deciduas]], [[Capparis sepiaria]], [[Balanites aegyptiaca]], [[Senegalia senegal|Acacia senegal]], [[Vachellia nilotica]], [[Vachellia leucophloea|V. leucophloea]], [[Neltuma juliflora]], [[Butea monosperma]], Maytenus emarginata, Tamarix sp., [[Salvadora persica]], [[Salvadora oleoides|S. oleoides]], Crotalaria medicaginea, [[Crotalaria burhia|C. burhia]], [[Clerodendrum phlomidis]], [[Calotropis procera]], [[Xanthium strumarium]]'' and ''[[Leptadenia pyrotechnica]]'' associated with climbers such as ''[[Maerua oblongifolia]], [[Pergularia daemia]], Ceropegia bulbosa'', herbs e.g., ''[[Argemone mexicana]], Farsetia hamiltonii, [[Tephrosia purpurea]], [[Cleome viscosa]], [[Tribulus terrestris]], [[Glinus lotoides]], Sericostoma pauciflorum, Rivea sp., Ipomoea sp., [[Pedalium murex]], Sesamum mulayanum, Lepidagathis sp, [[Boerhavia diffusa]], Chrozophora sp.'', and grasses like ''Cyprus sp., Fimbristylis sp., Brachiaria sp., Cenchrus sp., Dichanthium sp.'', etc.<ref>Rawat, G.S. (Ed.). 2008. Special Habitats and Threatened Plants of India. ENVIS Bulletin: Wildlife and Protected Areas, Vol. 11(1). Wildlife Institute of India, Dehradun, India. pp. 239.</ref>
 
According to folklore the Chambal area was part of [[Shakuni]]'s kingdom and the dice-game played thereabouts. After the attempted disrobing of [[Draupadi]] (the daughter of Drupada) she cursed anyone who would drink the water of the Charmanwati river.<ref name="ST">
{{cite web |date=2010 |title=Charms of Chambal |work=The Sunday Tribune, Spectrum |url=http://www.tribuneindia.com/2010/20100418/spectrum/main3.htm |url-status=live |access-date=29 December 2010|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111005203651/http://www.tribuneindia.com:80/2010/20100418/spectrum/main3.htm |archive-date=2011-10-05 }}</ref> Thus it is believed that due to the curse by Draupadi, have helped the Chambal to survive unpolluted by man, and its many animal inhabitants to thrive relatively untouched. The Chambal remains one of India's most pristine rivers.<ref>{{cite web|access-date=2025-05-16 |language=en |title=Keeping the river clean: Chambal River, India |url=https://wwf.panda.org/es/?97000/Keeping-the-river-clean-Chambal-River-India |website=wwf.panda.org}}<!-- auto-translated from Portuguese by Module:CS1 translator --></ref>


==See also==
==See also==
 
* [[Ganga Canal (Rajasthan)]]
* [[Bhensrodgarh Wildlife Sanctuary]] - wildlife sanctuary situated on the banks of Chambal river
* [[Ramjal Setu link project]] in Chambal river basin in eastern Rajasthan
* [[Rigvedic rivers]]
* [[Indus Water Treaty]] impacts water supply in Rajasthan
*[[Peninsular River System|Peninsular River System Of India]]
* [[Ministry of Jal Shakti]]
*[[List of rivers in India]]
* [[Irrigation in India]]
* [[Indian rivers interlinking project]]
* [[List of dams and reservoirs in India]]
* [[List of megaprojects in India]]


==References==
==References==
{{Reflist|colwidth=30em}}
{{Reflist}}


==External links==
==External links==

Latest revision as of 15:05, 25 June 2025

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The Chambal River is a tributary of the Yamuna River in Central and Northern India, and thus forms part of the drainage system of the Ganges.[1] The river flows north-northeast through Madhya Pradesh, running for a brief time through Rajasthan, then forming the boundary between Rajasthan and Madhya Pradesh before turning southeast to join the Yamuna in Uttar Pradesh state.[2]

It is a river that finds mention in ancient Hindu scriptures. The Hindu epic Mahabharata refers to the Chambal River as Charmanyavati: originating from the blood of thousands of animals sacrificed by the King Rantideva.

History

Vedic era

During the Vedic era, the ancient name of Chambal river was Charmanvati, meaning the river on whose banks leather is dried. In due course of time, this river became famous as the river of ‘charman’ (skin) and was named as Charmanvati.[3][2] The epic Sanskrit narrative the Mahabharata, refers to the Chambal river as the Charmanyavati : originating from the blood of thousands of animals sacrificed by the King Rantideva.

"So large was the number of animals sacrificed in the Agnihotra of that king that the secretions flowing from his kitchen from the heaps of skins deposited there caused a veritable river which from this circumstance, came to be called the Charmanwati."[4]

Chambal area was part of Shakuni's kingdom and the dice-game played thereabouts. After the attempted disrobing of Draupadi (the daughter of Drupada) she cursed anyone who would drink the water of the Charmanwati river.[5] Thus it is believed that due to the curse by Draupadi, have helped the Chambal to survive unpolluted by man, and its many animal inhabitants to thrive relatively untouched. The Chambal remains one of India's most pristine rivers.[6]

Chambal

Basin

The Chambal is a rainfed catchment with a total drained area up to its confluence with the Yamuna of Script error: No such module "convert".. The drainage area resembles a rectangle up to the junction of the Parvathi and Banas Rivers with the Chambal flowing along its major axis. The Chambal Basin lies between latitudes 22° 27' N and 27° 20' N and longitudes 73° 20' E and 79° 15' E. On its south, east and west, the basin is bounded by the Vindhyan mountain ranges and on the north-west by the Aravallis. Below the confluence of the Parvathi and Banas, the catchment becomes narrower and elongated. In this reach, it is bounded by the Aravalli mountain ranges on the North and the Vindhyan hill range on the south.[7]

The Vindhyan scarps, in the northwest, flank the left bank of the Chambal, and subsequently, is mainly drained by it. The Chambal rising within about 16 km of the Narmada river, appears as a consequent on the Mesozoic surface, superimposed on the scarps, and cuts straight through them, with subsequent tributaries on the softer shales. The River Chambal and its tributaries Kali Sindh and Parbati have formed a triangular alluvial basin, about Template:Cvt above the narrow trough of the lower Chambal in Kota. It is a typical anterior-drainage pattern river, being much older than the rivers Yamuna and Ganges, into which it eventually flows.[8]

Course

File:Chambal River near Kota, Rajasthan.jpg
Chambal River near Kota, Rajasthan

The Template:Cvt long Chambal River originates from the Bhadakla Falls in Janapav Hills on the northern slopes of the Vindhyan escarpment near Mandav, Template:Cvt south-west of Mhow in Indore District, Madhya Pradesh at an elevation of about Template:Cvt. The river flows first in a northerly direction through Madhya Pradesh for about Template:Cvt and then in a generally north-easterly direction for Template:Cvt through Rajasthan. Then it flows for another Template:Cvt between Madhya Pradesh and Rajasthan and a further Template:Cvt between Madhya Pradesh and Uttar Pradesh. It flows for about Template:Cvt before joining the Yamuna River in Jalaun District at an elevation of Template:Cvt, to form a part of the greater Gangetic drainage system.[7] From its source to its junction with the Yamuna, the Chambal has a fall of about Template:Cvt. Of this, around Template:Cvt is within the first Template:Cvt reach from its source. It falls for another Template:Cvt in the next Template:Cvt, where it enters the gorge past the Chaurasigarh Fort. During the next Template:Cvt of its run from the Chaurasigarh Fort to Kota city, the bed falls by another Template:Cvt. For the rest of its Template:Cvt run, the river passes through the flat terrain of the Malwa Plateau and later the Gangetic Plain with an average gradient of 0.21 m/km.[7]

Tributaries

The tributaries of the Chambal include Shipra, Choti Kalisindh, Shivna, Retam, Ansar, Kalisindh, Banas, Parbati, Seep, Kuwari, Kuno, Alnia, Mej, Chakan, Parwati, Chamla, Gambhir, Lakhunder, Khan, Bangeri, Kedel and Teelar.[7][9]

According to Crawford (1969), the Chambal river valley is part of the Vindhyan system which consists of massive sandstone, slate and limestone, of perhaps pre-Cambrian age, resting on the surface of older rocks.[10] Hillocks and plateaus represent the major landforms of the Chambal valley. The Chambal basin is characterised by an undulating floodplain, gullies and ravines.[9] The Hadauti plateau in Rajasthan occurs in the upper catchment of the Chambal River to the southeast of the Mewar Plains. It occurs with the Malwa plateau in the east. Physiographically, it can be divided into Vindhyan scarp land and Deccan Lava (Malwa) plateau.[11] According to Heron (1953), the eastern pediplain, occurring between the Vindhyan plateau and the Aravalli hill range, contains a thin veneer of Quaternary sediments, reworked soil and river channel fills. At least two erosional surfaces can be recognised within the pediplain are the Tertiary age. The Vindhyan upland, the adjoining Chambal valley and the Indo-Gangetic alluvial tract (older alluvium) are of Pleistocene to Sub-recent age. Badland topography is a characteristic feature of the Chambal valley, whereas kankar has extensively developed in the older alluvium.[12]

Dams

File:Gandhi Sagar Mandsaur1.JPG
Gandhisagar Dam on Chambal river.
File:Bridge on Chambel river from south, NH3.jpg
Bridge with National Highway 3 on Chambal river

In a stretch of Template:Cvt, from km 344 to km 440 from its source, the Chambal flows through a deep gorge, while lower down, there are wide plains. The Gandhi Sagar Dam is located near the center of this reach. As there is a deep gorge immediately upstream of the dam, the reservoir has a large storage capacity despite its comparatively low height. For the next Template:Cvt, the river flows through the Kundal Plateau, and the Rana Pratap Sagar Dam is constructed at the lower end of this. The topography permits fairly good storage upstream of the dam. Further down, the Jawahar Sagar Dam is located in the middle of the Kota gorge. The Kota Barrage is located near Kota town, where the river emerges from the gorge section into the plateau. The total area draining the Kota Barrage is Template:Cvt.[7] The Gandhi Sagar dam is the first of the four dams built on the Chambal River, located on the Rajasthan-Madhya Pradesh border. It is a 64 metre high masonry gravity dam, with a live storage capacity of 6,920 million cubic metres and a catchment area of Template:Cvt, of which only Template:Cvt is in Rajasthan. The dam was completed in the year 1960. The hydro-power station comprises five generating units of 23 MW capacity each. The water released after power generation is used for irrigation through Kota Barrage.[13]

  • Rana Pratap Sagar dam is a dam located 52 km downstream of Gandhi Sagar dam on across the Chambal River near Rawatbhata in Chittorgarh district in Rajasthan. It was completed in the year 1970 and it is the second in the series of Chambal Valley Projects. It is 54 meters high. The power house is located on the left side of the spillway and consists of 4 units of 43 MW each, with firm power generation of 90 MW at 60% load factor. The total catchment area of this dam is 24,864 km2, of which only 956 km2 are in Rajasthan. The free catchment area below Gandhi Sagar dam is 2,280 km2. The live storage capacity is 1,566 MCM.[13]
  • Jawahar Sagar Dam is the third dam in the series of Chambal Valley Projects, located 29 km upstream of Kota city and 26 km downstream of Rana Pratap Sagar dam. It is a concrete gravity dam, 45 meter high and 393 m long, generating 60 MW of power with an installed capacity of 3 units of 33 MW. The work was completed in 1972. The total catchment area of the dam is 27,195 km2, of which only 1,496 km2 are in Rajasthan. The free catchment area below Rana Pratap Sagar dam is 2,331 km2.[13]
  • Kota Barrage is the fourth in the series of Chambal Valley Projects, located about 0.8 km upstream of Kota City in Rajasthan. Water released after power generation at Gandhi Sagar dam, Rana Pratap Sagar dam and Jawahar Sagar Dams, is diverted by Kota Barrage for irrigation in Rajasthan and in Madhya Pradesh through canals on the left and the right sides of the river. The work on this dam was completed in 1960. The total catchment area of Kota Barrage is 27,332 km2, of which the free catchment area below Jawahar Sagar Dam is just 137 km2. The live storage is 99 MCM. It is an earthfill dam with a concrete spillway. The right and left main canals have a headworks discharge capacity of 188 and 42 m3/s, respectively. The total length of the main canals, branches and distribution system is about 2,342 km, serving an area of 2,290 km2 of CCA. The Barrage operates 18 gates to control flow of flood and canal water downstream, and serves as bridge between parts of Kota on both side of the river.[13]

Flora

The area lies within the semi-arid zone of north-western India at the border of Madhya Pradesh, Rajasthan and Uttar Pradesh.[14] The vegetation consists of ravine, thorn forest,[15] a sub-type of the Northern Tropical Forests (Sub-group 6B/C2 of the revised classification of Champion & Seth, 1968). This sub-type typically occurs in less arid areas with 600–700 mm rainfall. Limited examples of Saline/Alkaline Babul Savannah (5E/8b), a type of Northern Tropical Dry Deciduous Forest, also occurs.[16] Evergreen riparian vegetation is completely absent, with only sparse ground-cover along the severely eroded river banks and adjacent ravine lands.[14]

The semiarid tract in Madhya Pradesh is represented by Chambal catchment extending up to Narmda and Betla Rivers. Over 1000 flowering plants have bean reported including Terminalia anogeissiana, T. pendula, Tectona grandis, Lannea coromandelica, Diospyros melanoxylon, Sterculia urens, Mitragyna parviflora, Butea monosperma, Phyllanthus emblica, Boswellia serrata, Bridelia squamosa and Hardwickia binata. Climbers of this area include species of Rhynchosia, Atylosia, Cocculus, Cissampelos, Ipomoea, Pergularia daemia, Pueraria tuberosa and Tinospora cordifolia.[17] Thorny bushes or small trees commonly found in this area include Capparis deciduas, Capparis sepiaria, Balanites aegyptiaca, Acacia senegal, Vachellia nilotica, V. leucophloea, Neltuma juliflora, Butea monosperma, Maytenus emarginata, Tamarix sp., Salvadora persica, S. oleoides, Crotalaria medicaginea, C. burhia, Clerodendrum phlomidis, Calotropis procera, Xanthium strumarium and Leptadenia pyrotechnica associated with climbers such as Maerua oblongifolia, Pergularia daemia, Ceropegia bulbosa, herbs e.g., Argemone mexicana, Farsetia hamiltonii, Tephrosia purpurea, Cleome viscosa, Tribulus terrestris, Glinus lotoides, Sericostoma pauciflorum, Rivea sp., Ipomoea sp., Pedalium murex, Sesamum mulayanum, Lepidagathis sp, Boerhavia diffusa, Chrozophora sp., and grasses like Cyprus sp., Fimbristylis sp., Brachiaria sp., Cenchrus sp., Dichanthium sp., etc.[18]

See also

References

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  1. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  2. ↑ a b Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  3. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  4. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  5. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  6. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  7. ↑ a b c d e Jain, S. K.; Pushpendra K., Agarwal, V., P. Singh (2007). Hydrology and water resources of India- Volume 57 of Water science and technology library - Tributaries of Yamuna river. Springer. p. 350. Template:ISBN.
  8. ↑ Mani, M.S. 1974. Ecology and Biogeography of India. W. Junk. The Hague.
  9. ↑ a b Lallanji Gopal, Vinod Chandra Srivastava (2008). History of agriculture in India (up to c. 1200 A.D.). In History of Science, Philosophy and Culture in Indian Civilization. Project of History of Indian Science, Philosophy and Culture. Centre for Studies in Civilizations.
  10. ↑ Crawford, A.R. 1969. India, Ceylon and Pakistan: new age data and comparisons with Australia. Nature 223: 380 – 384, in Chowdhury, S., 1981. Some Studies on the Biology and Ecology of Gavialis gangetics, the Indian gharial (Crocodilia; Gavialidae). PhD Thesis, University of Lucknow.
  11. ↑ Sinha-Roy S., Malhotra G. and Mohanty M. 1998. Geology of Rajasthan, Geological Society of india, Bangalore.
  12. ↑ Heron A.M. 1953.‘The Geology of Central Rajaputana’, Memoir of Geological Survey of India, Vol. 79: 389.
  13. ↑ a b c d Water Resources Department, Govt. Of Rajasthan. Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  14. ↑ a b Hussain, S. A. 2009. Basking site and water depth selection by gharial Gavialis gangeticus Gmelin 1789 (Crocodylia, Reptilia) in National Chambal Sanctuary, India and its implication for river conservation. Aquatic Conservation-Marine and Freshwater Ecosystems 19:127-133.
  15. ↑ Champion, H.G. and Seth, S.K.,1968. A Revised Survey of the Forest Types of India. Manager of Publication, Delhi. pp. 404.
  16. ↑ Sale J.B. 1982. 2nd Draft. Management Plan For The National Chambal Sanctuary. First Five Year Period 1982/83 - 1986/87. Central Crocodile Breeding and Management Institute, Hyderabad.
  17. ↑ Verma, D. M., N. P. Balakrishnan & R. D. Dixit. 1993. Flora of Madhya Pradesh. Botanical Survey of India, Calcutta, India. 472 pp.
  18. ↑ Rawat, G.S. (Ed.). 2008. Special Habitats and Threatened Plants of India. ENVIS Bulletin: Wildlife and Protected Areas, Vol. 11(1). Wildlife Institute of India, Dehradun, India. pp. 239.

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