Messapic language: Difference between revisions

Latest revision as of 04:43, 17 December 2025

Template:Short description Script error: No such module "Infobox".Template:Template otherScript error: No such module "Check for unknown parameters".<templatestyles src="Template:Infobox/styles-images.css" />Script error: No such module "Check for conflicting parameters". Messapic (Template:IPAc-en; also known as Messapian; or as Iapygian) is an extinct Indo-European Paleo-Balkanic language of the southeastern Italian Peninsula, once spoken in an area that roughly coincided with the modern region of Apulia by the Iapygian peoples: the Calabri and Salentini (known collectively as the Messapians), the Peucetians and the Daunians.Template:Sfn Template:Sfn Messapic was the pre-Roman, non-Italic language of Apulia. It has been preserved in about 600 inscriptions written in an alphabet derived from a Western Greek model and dating from the mid-6th to at least the 2nd century BC, when it went extinct following the Roman conquest of the region.Template:Sfn Template:Sfn Template:Sfn

In current classifications of the Indo-European language family, Messapic is grouped in the same Indo-European branch with Albanian,^[1] which is supported by fragmentary evidence that shows common characteristic innovations and notable lexical correspondences,^[2] including the partial retention of the Proto-Indo-European three-way dorsal stop contrast, an otherwise rare feature in the Balkan–Adriatic region.Template:Sfn Proto-Messapic migration from the opposite Adriatic coast through a trans-Adriatic interaction network is also confirmed by recent archaeological evidence dating to the period between 1700 BCE and 1400 BCE, in the post-Cetina horizon.Template:Sfn

Name

The term 'Messapic' or 'Messapian' is traditionally used to refer to a group of languages spoken by the Iapygians, a "relatively homogeneous linguistic community" of non-Italic-speaking tribes (Messapians, Peucetians and Daunians) dwelling in the region of Apulia before the Roman conquest.Template:Sfn

However, some scholars have argued that the term 'Iapygian languages' should be preferred for referring to the group of languages spoken in Apulia, with the term 'Messapic' being reserved to the inscriptions found in the Salento peninsula, where the specific tribe of the Messapians had been living in the pre-Roman era.Template:Sfn

The name Apulia itself may derive from Iapygia after passing from Greek to Oscan to Latin and undergoing subsequent morphological shifts.Template:Sfn

Classification

Template:Paleo-Balkanic family tree

Messapic was a non-Italic and non-Greek Indo-European language of Balkan origin.Template:Sfn^[3]Template:Sfn^[4] Modern archeological and linguistic research and some ancient sources hold that the ancestors of the Iapygians came to Southeastern Italy (present-day Apulia) from the Western Balkans across the Adriatic Sea during the early first millennium BC.^[5]Template:Efn Template:Efn

Paleo-Balkanic

Messapic forms part of the Paleo-Balkan languages. Based upon lexical similarities with the Illyrian languages, some scholars contend that Messapic may have developed from a dialect of pre-Illyrian, meaning that it would have diverged substantially from the Illyrian language(s) spoken in the Balkans by the 5th century BC, while others considered it a direct dialect of Iron Age Illyrian. Messapic is today considered an independent language and not a dialect of Illyrian. Although the unclear interpretation of Messapic inscriptions cannot warrant the placement of Messapic in any specific Indo-European subfamily,Template:Sfn some scholars place Illyrian and Messapic in the same branch. Eric Hamp has grouped them under "Messapo-Illyrian", which is further grouped with Albanian under "Adriatic Indo-European".Template:Sfn Other schemes group the three languages under "General Illyrian" and "Western Paleo-Balkan".Template:Sfn

A number of shared features between Messapic and Proto-Albanian may have emerged either as a result of linguistic contacts between Proto-Messapic and Pre-Proto-Albanian within the Balkan peninsula in prehistoric times, or of a closer relation as shown by the quality of the correspondences in the lexical area and shared innovations between Messapic and Albanian.^[6] Hyllested & Joseph (2022) identify Messapic as the closest language to Albanian, with which it forms a common branch titled Illyric, and Greco-Phrygian as the IE branch closest to the Albanian-Messapic one, in agreement with recent bibliography. These two branches form an areal grouping – which is often called "Balkan IE" – with Armenian.Template:Sfn

Illyrian languages

Although the Illyrian languages – and to some extent Messapic itself – are too scarcely attested to allow for an extensive linguistic comparison,^[7]Template:Efn the Messapic language is generally regarded as related to, though distinct from, the Illyrian languages.^[8] This theory is supported by a series of similar personal and place names from both sides of the Adriatic Sea. Proposed cognates in Illyrian and Messapic, respectively, include: 'Bardyl(l)is/Barzidihi', 'Teuta/Teutā', 'Dazios/Dazes', 'Laidias/Ladi-', 'Platōr/Plator-', 'Iapydes/Iapyges', 'Apulus/Apuli', 'Dalmata/Dalmathus', 'Peucetioe/Peucetii', 'Ana/Ana', 'Beuzas/Bozat', 'Thana/Thana', 'Dei-paturos/Da-matura'.^[9]

Albanian

The linguistic data of Albanian can be used to compensate for the lack of fundamental information on Illyrian, since Proto-Albanian (the ancestor language of Albanian) was likewise an Indo-European language certainly spoken in the Balkans in antiquity,Template:Sfn Template:Sfn Template:Sfn and probably since at least the 7th century BC, as suggested by the presence of archaic loanwords from Ancient Greek.Template:Sfn Template:Sfn Template:Sfn Template:Sfn

A number of linguistic cognates with Albanian have been proposed, such as Messapic aran and Albanian arë ("field"), biliā and bijë ("daughter"), or menza- and mëz ("foal").^[10] The toponomy points to a link between the two languages, as some towns in Apulia have no etymological forms outside Albanian linguistic sources.Template:Sfn Other linguistic elements such as particles, prepositions, suffixes, lexicon, but also toponyms, anthroponyms and theonyms of the Messapic language find singular affinities with Albanian.Template:Sfn Some phonological data can also be compared between the two languages, and it seems likely that Messapic belongs, like Albanian, to a specific subgroup of the Indo-European languages that shows distinct reflections of all the three dorsal consonant rows. In the nominal context, both Messapic and Albanian continue, in the masculine terms in -o-, the Indo-European ending *-osyo (Messapic -aihi, Albanian -i / -u).Template:Sfn Template:Sfn

Regarding the verbal system, both Messapic and Albanian have formally and semantically preserved the two Indo-European subjunctive and optative moods. If the reconstructions are correct, we can find, in the preterital system of Messapic, reflections of a formation in *-s- (which in other Indo-European languages are featured in the suffix of the sigmatic aorist), as in the 3rd sg. hipades/opades ('he dedicated' < *supo-dʰeh₁-s-t) and in the 3rd pl. stahan ('they placed' < *stah₂-s-n°t). In Albanian, this formation was likewise featured in the category of aorists formed with the suffix -v-. However, except for the dorsal consonant rows, these similarities do not provide elements exclusively relating Messapic and Albanian, and only a few morphological data are comparable.Template:Sfn

History

File:Illyrian colonies in Italy 550 BC (English) (simple map).svg

Iapygian migrations in the early first millennium BC.Template:Sfn Template:Sfn Template:Sfn

The development of a distinct Iapygian culture in southeastern Italy is widely considered to be the result of a confluence of local Apulian material cultures with Balkanic traditions following the cross-Adriatic migrations of proto-Messapic speakers in the early first millennium BC.Template:Sfn Template:Sfn Template:Sfn Template:Sfn

The Iapygians most likely left the eastern coasts of the Adriatic for the Italian Peninsula from the 11th century BC onwards,Template:Sfn merging with pre-existing Italic and Mycenean cultures and providing a decisive cultural and linguistic imprint.Template:Sfn Throughout the second half of the 8th century, contacts between Messapians and Greeks must have been intense and continuous; they began to intensify after the foundation of Taras by Spartan colonists around the end of the century. Despite its geographical proximity with Magna Graecia, however, Iapygia was generally not encompassed in Greek colonial territories, and with the exception of Taras, the inhabitants were evidently able to avoid other Greek colonies in the region.Template:Sfn Template:Sfn During the 6th century BC Messapia, and more marginally Peucetia, underwent Hellenizing cultural influences, mainly from the nearby Taras. The use of writing systems was introduced during this period, with the acquisition of the Laconian-Tarantine alphabet and its progressive adaptation to the Messapic language.Template:Sfn Template:Sfn The oldest known Messapic texts date to the 6th century–early 5th century BCE.Template:Sfn

File:Apulia Calabria et Lucania - Shepherd-c-030-031.jpg

Apulia et Calabria, cropped from "Map of Ancient Italy, Southern Part", by William R. Shepherd, 1911.

The relationship between Messapians and Tarantines deteriorated over time, resulting in a series of clashes between the two peoples from the beginning of the 5th century BC.Template:Sfn After two victories of the Tarentines, the Iapygians inflicted a decisive defeat on them, causing the fall of the aristocratic government and the implementation of a democratic one in Taras. It also froze relations between Greeks and the indigenous people for about half a century. Only in the late-5th and 6th centuries did they re-establish relationships. The second great Hellenizing wave occurred during the 4th century BC, this time also involving Daunia and marking the beginning of Peucetian and Daunian epigraphic records, in a local variant of the Hellenistic alphabet that replaced the older Messapic script.Template:Sfn Template:Sfn Template:Sfn

Along with Messapic, Greek and Oscan were spoken and written during the Romanization period all over Apulia,Template:Sfn and bilingualism in Greek and Messapic was probably common in southern Apulia at that time.Template:Sfn Based upon the legends of the local currencies promoted by Rome, Messapic appears to have been written in the southern zone, Oscan in the northern area, while the central sector was a trilingual area where Messapic, Greek and Oscan co-existed in inscriptions.Template:Sfn Messapic epigraphic records seem to have ended by the 2nd century BC.Template:Sfn During the 1st century BCE, the language was replaced by Latin, which is the origin of the modern Italian Sallentine dialects of the region.Template:Sfn

Phonology

A characteristic feature of Messapic is the absence of the Indo-European phonological opposition between the vowels /u/ and /o/, the language featuring only an o/u phoneme. Consequently, the superfluous letter /u/ (upsilon) was not taken over following the initial period of adaption of the Western ("red") Greek alphabet.Template:Sfn The 'o/u' phoneme existed in opposition to an 'a/o' phoneme formed after the phonological distinction between *o and *a was abandoned.Template:Sfn The Proto-Indo-European (PIE) vowel /o/ regularly appears as /a/ in inscriptions (e.g., Venas < *Wenos; menza < *mendyo; tabarā < *to-bhorā).Template:Sfn Template:Sfn The original PIE phonological opposition between ō and o is still perceptible in Messapic.Template:Sfn The diphthong *ou, itself reflecting the merged diphthongs *ou and eu, underwent sound change to develop into ao, then into ō (e.g., *Toutor > Taotor > Θōtor).Template:Sfn

The dental affricate or spirant written Θ is frequently used before the sounds ao- or o-, where it is most likely a replacement for the older letter File:Messapic-trident2.svg. Another special letter, File:Messapic-trident1.svg, occurs almost exclusively in Archaic inscriptions from the 6th and 5th centuries BC.Template:Sfn Multiple palatalizations have also taken place, as in Zis < *dyēs, Artorres < *Artōryos, or Bla(t)θes < *Blatyos (where '(t)θ' probably denoted a dental affricate or spirant /ts/ or /tš/).Template:Sfn Proto-Indo-European *s is generally reflected in Messapic as h in initial and intervocalic positions, evident in forms such as hipa (< *supo-) and klaohi (< *kleu-s-), while final -s is retained, as in Venas (< *Wenos).Template:Sfn^[11]

The Proto-Indo-European voiced aspirates *bh and *dh are certainly represented by the simple unaspirated voiced obstruents /b/ and /d/ in Messapic (e.g., berain < *bher-; -des < *dʰeh₁).Template:Sfn On the other hand, the outcomes of the Indo-European palatal, velar, and labiovelar stops remain unclear, with slender evidence.Template:Sfn

Alphabet

The Messapic alphabet is an adaptation of the Western ("red") Greek alphabets, specifically the Laconian-Tarantinian version.Template:Sfn The actual Messapic inscriptions are attested from the 6th century BC onward, while the Peucetian and Daunian epigraphic record (written in a local variant of the Hellenistic alphabet rather than in the older Messapic script) only begins in the 4th century BC.Template:Sfn Template:Sfn

Messapic

The Greek letter Φ (/pʰ/) was not adopted, because it would have been superfluous for Messapic.Template:Sfn While zeta "normally" represented the voiced counterpart to /s/, it may have been an affricate in some cases.Template:Sfn The value of Θ is unclear, but is clearly dental; it may be an affricate or a spirant. In any case it appears to have arisen partly as the reflex of the segment *ty.Template:Sfn

Messapic	Western Greek	Greek name	Phonetic value
File:Messapic-a.svg	File:Greek Alpha 03.svg	alpha	Template:IPAslink
File:Messapic-b.svg	File:Greek Beta 16.svg	beta	Template:IPAslink
File:Messapic-g.svg	File:Greek Gamma archaic 1.svg	gamma	Template:IPAslink
File:Messapic-d.svg	File:Greek Delta 03.svg	delta	Template:IPAslink
File:Messapic-e.svg	File:Greek Epsilon 04.svg	epsilon	Template:IPAslink
File:Messapic-v.svg	File:Greek Digamma oblique.svg	digamma	Template:IPAslink
File:Messapic-z.svg	File:Greek Zeta archaic.svg	zeta	Template:IPAslink, Template:IPAslink, Script error: No such module "IPA".
File:Messapic-eta.svg	File:Greek Eta normal.svg	eta	Template:IPAslink
File:Messapic-h.svg	File:Greek Eta archaic.svg	heta	Template:IPAslink
File:Messapic-theta.svg	File:Greek Theta archaic straight.svg	theta	Template:IPAslink
File:Messapic-i.svg	File:Greek Iota normal.svg	iota	Template:IPAslink
File:Messapic-k.svg	File:Greek Kappa normal.svg	kappa	Template:IPAslink
File:Messapic-l.svg	File:Greek Lambda 09.svg	lambda	Template:IPAslink
File:Messapic-m.svg	File:Greek Mu 02.svg	mu	Template:IPAslink
File:Messapic-n.svg	File:Greek Nu archaic.svg	nu	Template:IPAslink
File:Messapic-croce.svg	File:Greek Chi normal.svg	xi	Script error: No such module "IPA".
File:Messapic-o.svg	File:Greek Omicron normal.svg	omicron	Template:IPAslink, Template:IPAslink
File:Messapic-p.svg	File:Greek Pi archaic.svg	pi	Template:IPAslink
File:Messapic-q.svg	File:Greek Koppa normal.svg	koppa	Template:IPAslink (before /o/)
File:Messapic-r.svg	File:Greek Rho pointed.svg	rho	Template:IPAslink
File:Messapic-s.svg	File:Greek Iota 04.svg	sigma	Template:IPAslink
File:Messapic-t.svg	File:Greek Tau normal.svg	tau	Template:IPAslink
File:Messapic-trident1.svg	File:Greek Psi straight.svgFile:Greek Chi 05.svg	chi	Template:IPAslink > -h-, -y- (intervocalic before /i/)
File:Messapic-trident2.svg	–	–	Template:IPAslink > /θ/
Sources	Script error: No such module "Footnotes".; Script error: No such module "Footnotes".; Script error: No such module "Footnotes".
Note	The letters are arranged in chronological order of appearance. Some letterforms went out of use and were replaced by new shapes (see Script error: No such module "Footnotes".).

Apulian

The script used in northern Apulia was rather peculiar, and some consider it to be a distinct writing system named Apulian.^[12] A notable difference between the Apulian alphabet and the Laconian-Tarentinian Messapic alphabet was the use of Η (eta) for /ē/ rather than /h/.Template:Sfn Template:Sfn Template:Sfn

Inscriptions

The Messapic language is a 'fragmentary language' (Script error: No such module "Lang".), preserved only in about 600 inscriptions from the mid-6th up until the late-2nd century BC.Template:Sfn Template:Sfn Many of them consist of the personal names of the deceased engraved in burial sites (36% of the total), and only a few inscriptions have been definitely deciphered.Template:Sfn Template:Sfn Template:Sfn Some longer texts are also available, including those recently found in the Grotta della Poesia (Roca Vecchia), although they have not been fully exploited by scholars yet.Template:Sfn Most of the Messapic inscriptions are accessible in the Monumenta Linguae Messapicae (MLM), published in print in 2002.Template:Sfn

Examples of Messapic inscriptions
Messapic inscription	English translation	Source
Script error: No such module "lang".	'of Stabuas Šonetius, son of Dazimas'	Template:Sfn
Script error: No such module "lang".	'of Dazimas Bales, son of Dazet'	Template:Sfn
Script error: No such module "lang".; Script error: No such module "lang".	'priestess of Damatira'; 'priestess of Aprodita'	Template:Sfn
Script error: No such module "lang".	'listen, Zis (and) Venas'	Template:Sfn
Script error: No such module "lang".	'listen, Zis, the public voice'	Template:Sfn
Script error: No such module "lang".	'θotoria Marta handed (gave) her field to the city of Basta'	Template:Sfn
Script error: No such module "lang".	'Etθeta, the daughter of Plazet Moldatθes, dedicated to Aphrodite'	Template:Sfn

Lexicon

Toponymy/Anthroponymy

Messapic	Modern Italian	Balkan correspondences	Sources
Amantia, settlement	Amantea	Amantia, Amantes, Amantini	^[13]
(Taotor) Andirabas, god		(Deus) Andinus	^[14]
Anxa (Ansha), settlement	-	-	Template:Sfn
Apsias, river	-	Apsus	^[13]
Apuli, tribal group Teanum Apulum, settlement	Apulia	Apulus, personal name	^[15]
Artas, personal name	-	-	Template:Sfn
Ausculum, settlement	Ascoli Satriano	-	^[16]
Azetium, settlement	near Rutigliano	Azeta, Dardania	^[17]
Barium, settlement	Bari	-	Template:Sfn
Barzidihi, personal name Barduli, settlement	-	Bardyllis	^[15]
Batas/Baton, deity/personal name	-	Bato	Template:Sfn
Brendésion/Brentésion, settlement	Brindisi	Brač	^[18]
Butuntum, settlement	Bitonto	Butua	^[16]
Calabri, tribal group	Calabria	Galabri	^[19]
Caelia, settlement	Ceglie del Campo	Čelje	Template:Sfn
Canusium, settlement	Canosa di Puglia	-	^[20]
Dazas/Dazimas/ (Latin or ancient Greek forms: Dazos/Dazimos/Dasio/Dassius), personal name	-	Dasius/Dassius, personal name	Template:Sfn
Dardanos, settlement; Derdensis, region; Dardi, tribal group	-	Dardani	^[21]
Genusium/ager Genusinus, settlement/district	Ginosa	Genusus (modern Shkumbin)	^[19]
Gnatia, settlement	-	-	Template:Sfn
Graiva	-	-	Template:Sfn
Herdonia, settlement	Ordona	-	^[20]
Hydruntum, settlement	Otranto	-	Template:Sfn
Ladi-, personal name component	-	Scerdilaidas	^[15]
Manduria, toponym	-	Mezēnai, Mëz, Mâz
Peucetii	-	Peucetioe, Liburnia	^[15]
Rudiae, settlement	-	-	Template:Sfn
Salapia, settlement Salapitani, tribal group	-	Selepitani	Template:Sfn
Taotor, deity	-	Teuta, Triteuta, Teutana	Template:Sfn
Thana, deity	-	Thana	^[22]
Dauni, tribal group	-	Thunatai	^[23]
Uria, settlement	Vereto	-	Template:Sfn
Uxentum, settlement	Ugento/Ušèntu	-	^[16]

Inherited

Only Messapic words regarded as 'inherited' from its precursor are hereunder listed, thus excluding loanwords from Greek, Latin or other languages.

Messapic lexical item	English translation	Proto-Messapic form	Albanoid (Illyric)	Paleo-Balkan	Other Indo-European cognates	Sources
ana	mother	*annā (a nursery word)	Proto-Albanian: *na(n)nā, amma;* Albanian: nënë/nana, ëmë/âmë ('mother')	Greek: ámma ('mother, nurse')	Hittite: annaš ('mother'); Latin: amma ('mother');	^[24]
anda	and, as well		Proto-Abanian: edhō/êndō; Albanian: edhe/ênde* ('and', 'yet', 'therefore')	Greek: endha/ΕΝΘΑ; ('and' , 'as well')	Latin: ante ("opposite, in front of"); Hittite: anda	^[25]
apa	from	*apo	Proto-Albanian: apo; Albanian: (për-)apë* ('from'); Albanian (Gheg): pi (PI < apa) ('from') or pa (PA < *apa) ('without')	Greek: apó	Sanskrit: ápa	^[26]
atabulus	sirocco		Proto-Albanian: abula; Albanian: avull* ('steam, vapor')		Proto-Germanic: *nebulaz ('fog')	^[27]
aran	field	*h₂r°h₃ā-	Proto-Albanian: arā: Albanian: arë, ara* ('field')	Ancient Greek arura ('earth')	Hittite: arba- ('border, area'); Latvian: ara ('field')	^[28]
bàrka	belly		Proto-Albanian: baruka; Albanian: bark* ('belly')			^[29]
Barzidihi, Barduli	(personal name)		Illyrian: Bardyl(l)is; Proto-Albanian: bardza; Albanian: bardhë/bardhi, Bardha* ('white', found also in anthroponyms, e.g., Bardh-i, Bardhyl)			^[30]
bennan	(a sort of vehicle)	*benna			Gaulish: benna (a kind of 'carriage')	^[31]
biles/bilihi	son		Proto-Albanian: bira; Albanian: bir, pl. bilj – bij* ('son')		Latin: fīlius ('son')	^[32]
biliā/bilina	daughter	*bhu-lyā	Proto-Albanian: birilā; Albanian: bijë* – bija ('daughter'); older dialect bilë – bila ('daughter')		Latin: fīlia ('daughter')	^[32]
bréndon; bréntion	stag; stag's head. The Messapic word is at the origin of the toponym Brendésion (Βρενδέσιον), Brentḗsion (Βρεντήσιον), modern Brindisi		Proto-Albanian: brina; Albanian: bri, brî* ('horn'; 'antler')		Lithuanian: briedis, ('elk');Template:Efn Swedish: brinde ('elk')	^[18]
Damatura	Mother Earth (goddess)	*dʰǵʰ(e)m- matura	Pre-Proto-Albanian: d^źō > Proto-Albanian ðē(h)* > Albanian: dhe ('earth')	Whether the (pre-)Illyrian form is at the origin of the Greek goddess Demeter or the contrary is unclear.^[33]	Latvian: Zemes Māte ('Mother Earth')	^[34]
deiva; dīva	god; goddess				Sanskrit: devá ('heavenly, divine'); Lithuanian Diēvas; Old Norse: Týr	^[35]
den	voice	*ghen	Proto-Albanian: džana; Albanian: zë/zâ, zër/zân* ('voice')			^[36]
fli	sleep		Albanian: flê, fli			Template:Sfn
hazavaθi	to offer (sacral)			ha- is a prefix, zav- is the same root as in Greek: χεών	same root in Sanskrit ju-hô-ti and Avestan: zaotar- ('sacrificer')	^[36]
hipades	he/she/it offers, dedicates, sets up	*supo dhē-s-t	Proto-Albanian: skūpa: Albanian: hip* ('go up') and dha/dhash ('he gave/I gave')			^[37]
hipakaθi	offer, set up		Albanian: hip ('go up') and ka/kam ('he has/I have') > hip-ka-			^[38]
kàrpa	'tuff (rock), limestone', preserved as càrpë 'tuff' in Bitonto dialect and càrparu 'limestone' in Salentino		Albanian: kárpë/kárpa, pl. kárpa/-t ('rock, stiff')	root of the oronym Karpates (Carpathian Mountains)	Lithuanian kerpù, kir̃pti 'chop, cut'	^[39]
klaohi/klohi	hear, listen (invocative)	*kleu-s-	Albanian: kluoj/kluaj/kluhem ('call, hear')	Greek: klythí ('hear')	Sanskrit: śrudhí ('hear'); Slavic: slušati ('hear'); Lithuanian: klausyti ('hear')	^[40]
kos	someone	*q^wo	Proto-Albanian: kuša; Albanian: kush* ('who')		Tocharian A: Kus ('who')	^[41]
ma	not	*meh₁	Albanian: ma, me, mos	Greek: mē	Sanskrit: mā	^[42]
menza, Manduria (toponym)	foal	*mendyo	Proto-Albanian: mandja; Albanian: mëz* – maz ('foal') (also root of mazrek 'horse breeder'), mend ('to suckle'); Romanian: mînz ('foal')	Thracian: mezēnai 'horseman'	Gaulish: mandus ('foal')	^[43]
ner	man	*ner-	Proto-Albanian: nera; Albanian: njeri* ('man')	Greek: ανηρ ('man')	Sanskrit: nar- ('man')	^[44]
penkaheh	five		Proto-Albanian: pentše; Albanian: pesë* ('five')		Lithuanian: penki ('five')	^[45]
pi-	on, thereon		MM Gheg Albanian pi, Tosk Albanian mbi ('over, above')	Greek πι	Sanskrit pi-	^[46]
rhīnós	fog, mist, cloud		Proto-Albanian: rina: Albanian: re, rê, rên* ('cloud')			^[47]
tabarā; tabaras	priestess; priest (lit. 'offerer')	to-bhorā; to-bhoros	Albanian: të bie/të bar, bjer/bar ('bring', 'carry')	Greek: φορός ('bring')	Latin: ferō ('bring')	^[48]
teutā Taotor	community, people (name of a god)	*Toutor	Illyrian: Teuta(na) ('mistress of the people', 'queen')		Oscan: touto ('community'); Old Irish: túath ('tribe, people'); Lithuanian: tautà ('people'); Gothic þiuda 'folk'	^[49]
veinan	his; one's		Albanian: vetë ('himself, oneself')		Sanskrit: svayàm ('himself')	^[50]
Vèrnula	toponym (a village near Lecce), from a root meaning 'alder'		Albanoid u̯irnā: Albanian verrë* ('alder')			^[51]
Venas	desire (name of a goddess)	*wenos			Latin: Venus; Old Indic: vánas ('desire')	^[52]
Zis	sky-god	*dyēs	Albanian Zojz ('sky-god')	Greek Zeus; Tymphaean: Deipaturos ('daylight-sky-father'), considered a loanword from Illyrian	Hittite: šīuš ('god'); Sanskrit: Dyáuṣ; Latin: Jupiter ('sky-god')	^[53]

Language contact

Italic

File:Samnium.jpg

Southern Samnium and northern Apulia were major regions of Iapygian-Italic linguistic contact

Messapic was in continuous contact with the Italic languages of the region. Prior to the Roman annexation, the frontier between Messapic and Oscan extended across Frentania-Irpinia-Lucania-Apulia. In this broad transitional zone, processes of Oscanization and Samnitization took place, producing communities with dual ethnic or linguistic identities. Contemporary sources reflect this situation: Larinum, for instance, has yielded extensive Oscan onomastic material yet is nevertheless described as a "Daunian city", and Horace—born in Venusia, on the boundary between Daunian and Lucanian territories—famously referred to himself as "Lucanian or Apulian".Template:Sfn

A limited corpus of Messapic lexical items passed into Latin. These include baltea (from balta, 'swamp'), deda ('nurse'), gandeia ('sword'), horeia ('small fishing boat'), and mannus ('pony, small horse', from manda).Template:Sfn Messapic also appears to have served as an intermediary channel for the transmission of several, mostly archaic, Greek words into Latin. For example, paro ('small ship') is derived via Messapic from Greek paroon. The Latin form Ulixes may likewise represent a Messapic variant of Odysseus, parallel to the ethnonym Graeci, which may reflect an Illyrian term for the Greek populations of Epirus. A Messapic intermediary has also been proposed for Latin lancea ('spear') and balaena (ultimately from Greek phallaina). In literary sources, Horace and Ennius—both natives of the region—are the only Roman authors to preserve the non-Italic word laama ('swamp'), which is plausibly of Messapic origin.Template:Sfn

Ancient Greek

The Messapic verbal form eipeigrave ('wrote, incised'; variant ipigrave) is a clear loanword from Greek (with the initial stem eipigra-, ipigra- deriving from epigrá-phō, ἐπιγράφω, 'inscribe, engrave'). Its adoption likely reflects the borrowing of the Messapic alphabet from an Archaic Greek script.Template:Sfn Other Greek loanwords include argora-pandes ('coin officials', with the first part deriving from ἄργυρος),Template:Sfn and names of deities like Athana and possibly Aprodita.Template:Sfn Template:Sfn The latter may alternatively represent a native Messapic theonym of an Indo-European goddess,Template:Sfn corresponding to Proto-Albanian *apro dītā ('come forth brightness of the day/dawn'), preserved in the Albanian phrase afro dita ('come forth the day/dawn'), referring to the planet Venus, and associated with the dawn goddess Prende.Template:Sfn

The origin of the Messapic goddess Damatura/Damatira is debated: scholars like Vladimir I. Georgiev (1937), Eqrem Çabej, Shaban Demiraj (1997), Martin L. West (2007) and Simona Marchesini (2021) have argued that she was an Illyrian or Messapic goddess eventually borrowed into Greek as Demeter,Template:Sfn Template:Sfn Template:Sfn while others like Paul Kretschmer (1939), Robert S. P. Beekes (2009) and Carlo De Simone (2017) have argued for the contrary.Template:Sfn Template:Sfn

Sources

Footnotes

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Citations

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Bibliography

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External links

Civiltà messapica Template:In lang
Archaeologists find western world's oldest map. Telegraph Newspaper Online, November 19, 2005.

Template:Paleo-Balkan languages Template:Illyrians

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@@ Line 8: / Line 8: @@
 | ref              = linglist
 | familycolor      = Indo-European
-| fam2             = (?) [[Albanoid]]<ref>{{harvnb|Hyllested|Joseph|2022|p=235}}; {{harvnb|van Driem|2022|pp=1055–1056}}; {{harvnb|Friedman|2020|p=388}}; {{harvnb|Majer|2019|p=258}}; {{harvnb|Trumper|2018|p=385}}; {{harvnb|Trask|2019|pp=14, 159, 210}}; {{harvnb|Yntema|2017|p=337}}; {{harvnb|Mërkuri|2015|pp=65–67}}; {{harvnb|Ismajli|2015|p=45}}; {{harvnb|Demiraj|2004|pp=58–59}}; {{harvnb|Hamp|1996|pp=89–90}}.</ref>{{efn|Due to the relatively poor knowledge of Messapic, its belonging to the IE branch of Albanian has been described by some as currently speculative,{{sfn|Hyllested|Joseph|2022|p=240}} although it is supported by available fragmentary linguistic evidence that shows common characteristic innovations and a number of significant lexical correspondences between the two languages.<ref>{{harvnb|Trumper|2018|pp=383–386}}; {{harvnb|Friedman|2020|p=388}}; {{harvnb|Friedman|2011|pp=275–291}}.</ref>|group=note}}
+| fam2             = [[Albanoid]]{{Refn|Supported by available fragmentary linguistic evidence that shows common characteristic retentions and innovations and a number of significant lexical correspondences between Messapic and Albanian.<ref>{{harvnb|Trumper|2018|pp=383–386}}; {{harvnb|Friedman|Joseph|2025|p=20}}; {{harvnb|Friedman|2020|p=388}}; {{harvnb|Friedman|2011|pp=275–291}}.</ref>|group=note}}
 | script           = [[Messapic language#Alphabet|Messapic alphabet]]<ref>{{harvnb|Marchesini|2023a|p=10}}.</ref>
-| map              = Iron Age Italy.svg
+| map              = Italia antica.png
-| mapcaption       = Ethnolinguistic map of Italy in the [[Iron Age]], before the [[Roman conquest of Italy|Roman expansion and conquest of Italy]]
+| mapcaption       = Ethnolinguistic map of Italy in the [[Iron Age]], before the [[Roman expansion in Italy|Roman expansion]]. Messapic language area in orange (Iapygian peoples).
 | iso3             = cms
 | linglist         = cms
@@ Line 17: / Line 17: @@
 | glottorefname    = Messapic
 | ethnicity        = [[Iapygians]]
-| image            = Iscrizione funeraria messapica, III-II sec. a.C. -FG5.jpg
+| image            = Messapic funerary inscription (Lecce, Museo Castromediano inv. 3646; MLM 19 Rud).jpg
 | imagecaption     = 3rd–2nd century BC Messapic inscription
 }}
-'''Messapic''' ({{IPAc-en|m|ɛ|ˈ|s|æ|p|ɪ|k|,_|m|ə|-|,_|-|ˈ|s|eɪ|-}}; also known as '''Messapian'''; or as '''Iapygian''') is an extinct [[Indo-European languages|Indo-European]] [[Paleo-Balkan languages|Paleo-Balkanic language]] of the southeastern [[Italian Peninsula]], once spoken in [[Salento]] by the [[Iapygians|Iapygian]] peoples of the region: the Calabri and Salentini (known collectively as the [[Messapians]]), the [[Peucetians]] and the [[Daunians]].{{Sfn|De Simone|2017|p=1839}}{{Sfn|Small|2014|p=18}} Messapic was the pre-[[Roman Republic|Roman]], non-[[Italic languages|Italic]] language of [[Apulia]]. It has been preserved in about 600 inscriptions written in an alphabet derived from a [[Archaic Greek alphabets|Western Greek model]] and dating from the mid-6th to at least the 2nd century BC, when it went extinct following the [[Roman Republic|Roman]] conquest of the region.{{Sfn|Marchesini|2009|ps=: "L'orizzonte cronologico più antico dell'epigrafia messapica, almeno allo stato attuale della documentazione, è da collocare quindi alla metà circa del VI secolo, stando alla cronologia dei testi più antichi di cui abbiamo parlato sopra. Più difficile è invece formulare ipotesi per quanto riguarda il limite cronologico inferiore. Per il momento l'evidenza ci mostra che non si hanno iscrizioni messapiche databili oltre il II sec. a.C."|pp=80, 141}}{{Sfn|Matzinger|2015|p=57}}{{Sfn|De Simone|2017|pp=1839–1840}}
+'''Messapic''' ({{IPAc-en|m|ɛ|ˈ|s|æ|p|ɪ|k|,_|m|ə|-|,_|-|ˈ|s|eɪ|-}}; also known as '''Messapian'''; or as '''Iapygian''') is an extinct [[Indo-European languages|Indo-European]] [[Paleo-Balkan languages|Paleo-Balkanic language]] of the southeastern [[Italian Peninsula]], once spoken in an area that roughly coincided with the modern region of [[Apulia]] by the [[Iapygians|Iapygian]] peoples: the Calabri and Salentini (known collectively as the [[Messapians]]), the [[Peucetians]] and the [[Daunians]].{{Sfn|De Simone|2017|p=1839}}{{Sfn|Small|2014|p=18}} Messapic was the pre-[[Roman Republic|Roman]], non-[[Italic languages|Italic]] language of [[Apulia]]. It has been preserved in about 600 inscriptions written in an alphabet derived from a [[Archaic Greek alphabets|Western Greek model]] and dating from the mid-6th to at least the 2nd century BC, when it went extinct following the [[Roman Republic|Roman]] conquest of the region.{{Sfn|Marchesini|2009|ps=: "L'orizzonte cronologico più antico dell'epigrafia messapica, almeno allo stato attuale della documentazione, è da collocare quindi alla metà circa del VI secolo, stando alla cronologia dei testi più antichi di cui abbiamo parlato sopra. Più difficile è invece formulare ipotesi per quanto riguarda il limite cronologico inferiore. Per il momento l'evidenza ci mostra che non si hanno iscrizioni messapiche databili oltre il II sec. a.C."|pp=80, 141}}{{Sfn|Matzinger|2015|p=57}}{{Sfn|De Simone|2017|pp=1839–1840}}
+In current classifications of the Indo-European language family, Messapic is grouped in [[Albanoid|the same Indo-European branch]] with [[Albanian language|Albanian]],<ref>{{harvnb|Hyllested|Joseph|2022|p=235}}; {{harvnb|Friedman|2020|p=388}}; {{harvnb|Majer|2019|p=258}}; {{harvnb|Trumper|2018|p=385}}; {{harvnb|Yntema|2017|p=337}}; {{harvnb|Mërkuri|2015|pp=65–67}}; {{harvnb|Ismajli|2015|pp=36–38, 44–45}}; {{harvnb|Ismajli|2013|p=24}}; {{harvnb|Hamp|Adams|2013|p=8}}; {{harvnb|Demiraj|2004|pp=58–59}}; {{harvnb|Hamp|1996|pp=89–90}}.</ref> which is supported by fragmentary evidence that shows common characteristic innovations and notable lexical correspondences,<ref>{{harvnb|Trumper|2018|pp=383–386}}; {{harvnb|Friedman|Joseph|2025|p=20}}; {{harvnb|Friedman|2020|p=388}}; {{harvnb|Friedman|2011|pp=275–291}}.</ref> including the partial retention of the Proto-Indo-European three-way dorsal stop contrast, an otherwise rare feature in the Balkan–Adriatic region.{{sfn|Matzinger|2025|p=96}} Proto-Messapic migration from the opposite Adriatic coast through a trans-Adriatic interaction network is also confirmed by recent archaeological evidence dating to the period between 1700 BCE and 1400 BCE, in the post-[[Cetina culture|Cetina horizon]].{{sfn|Matzinger|2025|p=96}}
 == Name ==
@@ Line 27: / Line 29: @@
 However, some scholars have argued that the term '[[Iapygians|Iapygian]] languages' should be preferred for referring to the group of languages spoken in Apulia, with the term 'Messapic' being reserved to the inscriptions found in the [[Salento|Salento peninsula]], where the specific tribe of the Messapians had been living in the pre-Roman era.{{Sfn|De Simone|2017|p=1839}}
-The name ''Apulia'' itself derives from ''Iapygia'' after passing from Greek to [[Oscan language|Oscan]] to Latin and undergoing subsequent morphological shifts.{{Sfn|Small|2014|p=18}}
+The name ''Apulia'' itself may derive from ''Iapygia'' after passing from Greek to [[Oscan language|Oscan]] to Latin and undergoing subsequent morphological shifts.{{Sfn|Small|2014|p=18}}
 == Classification ==
@@ Line 37: / Line 39: @@
 Messapic forms part of the [[Paleo-Balkan languages]]. Based upon lexical similarities with the [[Illyrian languages]], some scholars contend that Messapic may have developed from a dialect of pre-Illyrian, meaning that it would have diverged substantially from the Illyrian language(s) spoken in the Balkans by the 5th century BC, while others considered it a direct dialect of Iron Age Illyrian. Messapic is today considered an independent language and not a dialect of Illyrian. Although the unclear interpretation of Messapic inscriptions cannot warrant the placement of Messapic in any specific Indo-European subfamily,{{sfn|de Vaan|2018|p=2}} some scholars place Illyrian and Messapic in the same branch. [[Eric Hamp]] has grouped them under "Messapo-Illyrian", which is further grouped with Albanian under "Adriatic Indo-European".{{sfn|Hamp|Adams|2013|p=8}} Other schemes group the three languages under "General Illyrian" and "Western Paleo-Balkan".{{sfn|Ismajli|2015|p=45}}
-A number of shared features between Messapic and [[Proto-Albanian language|Proto-Albanian]] may have emerged either as a result of linguistic contacts between Proto-Messapic and Pre-Proto-Albanian within the Balkan peninsula in prehistoric times, or of a closer relation as shown by the quality of the correspondences in the lexical area and shared innovations between Messapic and Albanian.<ref>{{harvnb|Matzinger|2005|p=48}}; {{harvnb|Matzinger|2015|p=|pp=65–66}}; {{harvnb|Matzinger|2017|p=1790}}; {{harvnb|Ismajli|2015|pp=65–68}}; {{harvnb|Trumper|2018|p=385}}; {{harvnb|Friedman|2020|p=388}}.</ref> Hyllested & Joseph (2022) identify Messapic as the closest language to Albanian, with which it forms a common branch titled ''Illyric''. Hyllested & Joseph (2022) in agreement with recent bibliography identify [[Graeco-Phrygian|Greco-Phrygian]] as the IE branch closest to the Albanian-Messapic one. These two branches form an areal grouping – which is often called "Balkan IE" – with Armenian.{{sfn|Hyllested|Joseph|2022|p=235}}
+A number of shared features between Messapic and [[Proto-Albanian language|Proto-Albanian]] may have emerged either as a result of linguistic contacts between Proto-Messapic and Pre-Proto-Albanian within the Balkan peninsula in prehistoric times, or of a closer relation as shown by the quality of the correspondences in the lexical area and shared innovations between Messapic and Albanian.<ref>{{harvnb|Matzinger|2005|p=48}}; {{harvnb|Matzinger|2015|p=|pp=65–66}}; {{harvnb|Matzinger|2017|p=1790}}; {{harvnb|Ismajli|2015|pp=65–68}}; {{harvnb|Trumper|2018|p=385}}; {{harvnb|Friedman|2020|p=388}}.</ref> Hyllested & Joseph (2022) identify Messapic as the closest language to Albanian, with which it forms a common branch titled ''Illyric'', and [[Graeco-Phrygian|Greco-Phrygian]] as the IE branch closest to the Albanian-Messapic one, in agreement with recent bibliography. These two branches form an areal grouping – which is often called "Balkan IE" – with Armenian.{{sfn|Hyllested|Joseph|2022|p=235}}
 ==== Illyrian languages ====
@@ Line 61: / Line 63: @@
 == Phonology ==
-A characteristic feature of Messapic is the absence of the Indo-European phonological opposition between the vowels /u/ and /o/, the language featuring only an o/u [[phoneme]]. Consequently, the superfluous letter /u/ ([[upsilon]]) was not taken over following the initial period of adaption of the [[Archaic Greek alphabets|Western ("red") Greek alphabet]].{{Sfn|De Simone|2017|pp=1840, 1844}} The 'o/u' phoneme existed in opposition to an 'a/o' phoneme formed after the phonological distinction between ''*o'' and ''*a'' was abandoned.{{sfn|De Simone|2017|p=1844}} The [[Proto-Indo-European language|Proto-Indo-European]] (PIE) vowel /o/ regularly appears as /a/ in inscriptions (e.g., Venas < *Wenos; menza < *mendyo; tabarā < *to-bhorā).{{Sfn|Matzinger|2015|p=59}}{{Sfn|De Simone|2017|p=1844}} The original PIE phonological opposition between ''ō'' and ''o'' is still perceptible in Messapic.{{Sfn|De Simone|2017|p=1844}} The [[diphthong]] ''*ou'', itself reflecting the merged diphthongs ''*ou'' and ''eu'', underwent [[sound change]] to develop into ''ao'', then into ''ō'' (e.g., *Toutor > Taotor > Θōtor).{{Sfn|De Simone|2017|p=1844}}
+A characteristic feature of Messapic is the absence of the Indo-European phonological opposition between the vowels /u/ and /o/, the language featuring only an o/u [[phoneme]]. Consequently, the superfluous letter /u/ ([[upsilon]]) was not taken over following the initial period of adaption of the [[Archaic Greek alphabets|Western ("red") Greek alphabet]].{{Sfn|De Simone|2017|pp=1840, 1844}} The 'o/u' phoneme existed in opposition to an 'a/o' phoneme formed after the phonological distinction between ''*o'' and ''*a'' was abandoned.{{sfn|De Simone|2017|p=1844}} The [[Proto-Indo-European language|Proto-Indo-European]] (PIE) vowel /o/ regularly appears as /a/ in inscriptions (e.g., ''Venas'' < *''Wenos''; ''menza'' < *''mendyo''; ''tabarā'' < *''to-bhorā'').{{Sfn|Matzinger|2015|p=59}}{{Sfn|De Simone|2017|p=1844}} The original PIE phonological opposition between ''ō'' and ''o'' is still perceptible in Messapic.{{Sfn|De Simone|2017|p=1844}} The [[diphthong]] ''*ou'', itself reflecting the merged diphthongs ''*ou'' and ''eu'', underwent [[sound change]] to develop into ''ao'', then into ''ō'' (e.g., *''Toutor'' > ''Taotor'' > ''Θōtor'').{{Sfn|De Simone|2017|p=1844}}
-The dental affricate or spirant written Θ is frequently used before the sounds ''ao-'' or ''o-'', where it is most likely a replacement for the older letter [[File:Messapic-trident2.svg|30x30px|alt=]]. Another special letter, [[File:Messapic-trident1.svg|30x30px|alt=]], occurs almost exclusively in Archaic inscriptions from the 6th and 5th centuries BC.{{Sfn|De Simone|2017|p=1840}} Multiple [[Palatalization (sound change)|palatalizations]] have also taken place, as in '[[Zis (deity)|Zis]]' < *dyēs, 'Artorres' < *Artōryos, or 'Bla(t)θes' < *Blatyos (where '(t)θ' probably denoted a dental affricate or spirant /ts/ or /tš/).{{Sfn|De Simone|2017|p=1844}} Proto-Indo-European *''s'' was rather clearly reflected in initial and intervocalic positions as Messapic ''h'', with notable examples including ''klaohi'' and ''hipa'', but note ''Venas'' with *''s'' in final position.{{sfn|De Simone|2017|p=1844}}<ref>{{cite book|last1=de Simone|first1=Carlo|title=La genti non greche della Magna Grecia. Atti dell' XI Convegno di Studi sulla Magna Grecia.|date=1972|publisher=Arte tipografica|editor1-last=Stazio|editor1-first=Attilio|location=Naples|pages=181–182|language=it|chapter=La lingua messapica: tentativo di una sintesi}}</ref>
+The dental affricate or spirant written Θ is frequently used before the sounds ''ao-'' or ''o-'', where it is most likely a replacement for the older letter [[File:Messapic-trident2.svg|30x30px|alt=]]. Another special letter, [[File:Messapic-trident1.svg|30x30px|alt=]], occurs almost exclusively in Archaic inscriptions from the 6th and 5th centuries BC.{{Sfn|De Simone|2017|p=1840}} Multiple [[Palatalization (sound change)|palatalizations]] have also taken place, as in [[Zis (deity)|''Zis'']] < *''dyēs'', ''Artorres'' < *''Artōryos'', or ''Bla(t)θes'' < *''Blatyos'' (where '(t)θ' probably denoted a dental affricate or spirant /ts/ or /tš/).{{Sfn|De Simone|2017|p=1844}} Proto-Indo-European *''s'' is generally reflected in Messapic as ''h'' in initial and intervocalic positions, evident in forms such as ''hipa'' (< ''*supo-'') and ''klaohi'' (< ''*kleu-s-''), while final -''s'' is retained, as in ''Venas'' (< *''Wenos'').{{sfn|De Simone|2017|p=1844}}<ref>{{cite book|last1=de Simone|first1=Carlo|title=La genti non greche della Magna Grecia. Atti dell' XI Convegno di Studi sulla Magna Grecia.|date=1972|publisher=Arte tipografica|editor1-last=Stazio|editor1-first=Attilio|location=Naples|pages=181–182|language=it|chapter=La lingua messapica: tentativo di una sintesi}}</ref>
-The Proto-Indo-European [[Aspirated consonant|voiced aspirates]] ''*bh'' and ''*dh'' are certainly represented by the simple unaspirated voiced [[obstruent]]s /b/ and /d/ in Messapic (e.g., 'berain' < *bher-; '-des' < *dʰeh₁).{{Sfn|De Simone|2017|p=1844}} On the other hand, the outcomes of the Indo-European palatal, velar, and labiovelar stops remain unclear, with slender evidence.{{sfn|De Simone|2017|p=1844}}
+The Proto-Indo-European [[Aspirated consonant|voiced aspirates]] ''*bh'' and ''*dh'' are certainly represented by the simple unaspirated voiced [[obstruent]]s /b/ and /d/ in Messapic (e.g., ''berain'' < *''bher''-; -''des'' < *''dʰeh₁'').{{Sfn|De Simone|2017|p=1844}} On the other hand, the outcomes of the Indo-European palatal, velar, and labiovelar stops remain unclear, with slender evidence.{{sfn|De Simone|2017|p=1844}}
 == Alphabet ==
@@ Line 257: / Line 259: @@
 | ''Amantia'', settlement
 | [[Amantea]]
-| [[Amantia]] <br /> [[Amantes (tribe)|Amantes]] <br /> [[Amantini]]
+| [[Amantia]], [[Amantes (tribe)|Amantes]], [[Amantini]]
 | <ref name="Palmer40">{{harvnb|Palmer|1988|p=40}}</ref>
 |-
@@ Line 263: / Line 265: @@
 |
 | (Deus) [[Andinus]]
-| <ref AR">{{cite book | author=Australian Rock Art Research Association | title=Rock Art Research: The Journal of the Australian Rock Art Research Association (AURA). | publisher=Archaeological Publications | issue=v. 14-15 | year=1997 | page=137}}</ref>
+| <ref name="AURA">{{cite book | author=Australian Rock Art Research Association | title=Rock Art Research: The Journal of the Australian Rock Art Research Association (AURA). | publisher=Archaeological Publications | issue=v. 14-15 | year=1997 | page=137}}</ref>
 |-
 | ''[[Gallipoli, Apulia|Anxa]]'' (Ansha), settlement
@@ Line 308: / Line 310: @@
 | -
 | [[Bato (Illyrian name)|Bato]]
-| {{sfn|Lamboley|1996|pp=55,432-33}}
+| {{sfn|Lamboley|1996|pp=55, 432–433}}
 |-
 | ''Brendésion''/''Brentésion'', settlement
@@ Line 503: / Line 505: @@
 |son
 |
-|Proto-Albanian: ''*bira''; Albanian: ''bir'', pl. ''bilj - bij'' ('son')
+|Proto-Albanian: ''*bira''; Albanian: ''bir'', pl. ''bilj – bij'' ('son')
 |
 |Latin: ''fīlius'' ('son')
@@ Line 511: / Line 513: @@
 |daughter
 |''*bhu-lyā''
-|Proto-Albanian: ''*birilā''; Albanian: ''bijë'' - ''bija'' ('daughter'); older dialect ''bilë'' - ''bila'' ('daughter')
+|Proto-Albanian: ''*birilā''; Albanian: ''bijë'' – ''bija'' ('daughter'); older dialect ''bilë'' – ''bila'' ('daughter')
 |
 |Latin: ''fīlia'' ('daughter')
@@ Line 521: / Line 523: @@
 |Proto-Albanian: ''*brina''; Albanian: ''bri'', ''brî'' ('horn'; 'antler')
 |
-|[[Lithuanian language|Lithuanian]]: ''briedis'', ('elk');{{Efn|In a 2022 publication, [[Tijmen Pronk]] argues that Lith. ''briedis'', Latv. ''briêdis'', and Old Prussian ''braydis'' (all meaning 'elk') are loanwords from a non-IE language.<ref>Pronk, Tijmen. “Balto-Slavic”. In: ''The Indo-European Language Family: A Phylogenetic Perspective''. Edited by Thomas Olander. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2022. pp. 270-271. doi:10.1017/9781108758666.015.</ref>|group=note|name=}} [[Swedish language|Swedish]]: ''brinde'' ('elk')
+|[[Lithuanian language|Lithuanian]]: ''briedis'', ('elk');{{Efn|In a 2022 publication, [[Tijmen Pronk]] argues that Lith. ''briedis'', Latv. ''briêdis'', and Old Prussian ''braydis'' (all meaning 'elk') are loanwords from a non-IE language.<ref>Pronk, Tijmen. "Balto-Slavic". In: ''The Indo-European Language Family: A Phylogenetic Perspective''. Edited by Thomas Olander. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2022. pp. 270–271. doi:10.1017/9781108758666.015.</ref>|group=note|name=}} [[Swedish language|Swedish]]: ''brinde'' ('elk')
 |<ref name="brendon">{{harvnb|Mann|1977|p=92}}; {{harvnb|Orel|1998|p=37}}; {{harvnb|Pisani|1976|p=69}}; {{harvnb|Matzinger|2005|p=35}}; {{harvnb|Matzinger|2017|p=1790}}.</ref>
 |-
@@ Line 548: / Line 550: @@
 |<ref name="Pisani 1976 69">{{harvnb|Pisani|1976|p=69}}.</ref>
 |--
+|''fli''
+|sleep
+|
+|Albanian: ''flê'', ''fli''
+|
+|
+|{{sfn|Friedman|Joseph|2025|p=20}}
+|-
 |''hazavaθi''
 |to offer (sacral)
@@ Line 607: / Line 617: @@
 |foal
 |''*mendyo''
-|Proto-Albanian: ''*mandja''; Albanian: ''mëz'' - ''maz'' ('foal') (also root of ''mazrek'' '[[horse breeder]]'), ''mend'' ('to suckle'); Romanian: ''mînz'' ('foal')
+|Proto-Albanian: ''*mandja''; Albanian: ''mëz'' – ''maz'' ('foal') (also root of ''mazrek'' '[[horse breeder]]'), ''mend'' ('to suckle'); Romanian: ''mînz'' ('foal')
 |[[Thracian language|Thracian]]: ''mezēnai'' 'horseman'
 |Gaulish: ''mandus'' ('foal')
@@ Line 698: / Line 708: @@
 ===Italic===
 [[File:Samnium.jpg|thumb|250px|Southern [[Samnium]] and northern Apulia were major regions of Iapygian-Italic linguistic contact]]
-Since its settlement, Messapic was in contact with the [[Italic languages]] of the region. In the centuries before Roman annexation, the frontier between Messapic and [[Oscan language|Oscan]] ran through Frentania-[[Irpinia]]-[[Lucania]]-Apulia. An "Oscanization" and "Samnitization" process gradually took place which is attested in contemporary sources via the attestation of dual identities for settlements. In these regions an Oscan/Lucanian population and a large Daunian element intermixed in different ways. [[Larinum]], a settlement which has produced a large body of Oscan onomastics is described as a "Daunian city" and [[Horace]] who was from [[Venusia]] in the transboundary area between the Daunians and the Lucanians described himself as  "Lucanian or Apulian". The creation of Roman colonies in southern Italy after the early 4th century BCE had a great impact in the Latinization of the area.{{sfn|Torelli|1995|pp=142-144}}
+Messapic was in continuous contact with the [[Italic languages]] of the region. Prior to the Roman annexation, the frontier between Messapic and [[Oscan language|Oscan]] extended across Frentania-[[Irpinia]]-[[Lucania]]-Apulia. In this broad transitional zone, processes of Oscanization and Samnitization took place, producing communities with dual ethnic or linguistic identities. Contemporary sources reflect this situation: [[Larinum]], for instance, has yielded extensive Oscan onomastic material yet is nevertheless described as a "Daunian city", and [[Horace]]—born in [[Venusia]], on the boundary between Daunian and Lucanian territories—famously referred to himself as "Lucanian or Apulian".{{sfn|Torelli|1995|pp=142–144}}
-A small corpus of Messapic vocabulary did pass into Latin. They include ''baltea'' from ''balta'' (swamp), ''deda'' (nurse), ''gandeia'' (sword), ''horeia'' (small fishing boat), ''mannus'' (pony/small horse) from ''manda''. Messapic was an intermediary for the passing of several, mostly ancient Greek words, into Latin such as ''paro'' (small ship) from Greek ''paroon''. The Latin form of ''Odysseus'',  ''Ulixes'' might derive from a Messapic variant like the ethnonym ''Graeci'' which may have been used in its original form by Illyrians for their Greek neighbours in Epirus. A Messapic morphological intermediary has been proposed for Latin ''lancea'' (spear) and ''balaena'' (from Greek ''phallaina''). In literature, Horace and Ennius who came from the region are the only authors of Roman antiquity who have preserved the non-Italic word ''laama'' (swamp) which might be Messapic.{{sfn|Palmer|1988|pp=39-41}}
+A limited corpus of Messapic lexical items passed into Latin. These include ''baltea'' (from ''balta'', 'swamp'), ''deda'' ('nurse'), ''gandeia'' ('sword'), ''horeia'' ('small fishing boat'), and ''mannus'' ('pony, small horse', from ''manda'').{{sfn|Palmer|1988|pp=39–41}} Messapic also appears to have served as an intermediary channel for the transmission of several, mostly archaic, Greek words into Latin. For example, ''paro'' ('small ship') is derived via Messapic from Greek ''paroon''. The Latin form ''Ulixes'' may likewise represent a Messapic variant of ''Odysseus'', parallel to the ethnonym ''Graeci'', which may reflect an Illyrian term for the Greek populations of Epirus. A Messapic intermediary has also been proposed for Latin ''lancea'' ('spear') and ''balaena'' (ultimately from Greek ''phallaina''). In literary sources, Horace and [[Ennius]]—both natives of the region—are the only Roman authors to preserve the non-Italic word ''laama'' ('swamp'), which is plausibly of Messapic origin.{{sfn|Palmer|1988|pp=39–41}}
 ===Ancient Greek===
-The Messapic verbal form ''eipeigrave'' ('wrote, incised'; variant ''ipigrave'') is a notable loanword from Greek (with the initial stem ''eipigra-'', ''ipigra-'' deriving from [[Epigraphy|''epigrá-phō'']], ἐπιγράφω, 'inscribe, engrave'), and is probably related to the fact that the Messapic alphabet has been borrowed from an Archaic Greek script.{{Sfn|De Simone|2017|p=1846}} Other Greek loanwords include ''argora-pandes'' ('coin officials', with the first part deriving from ἄργυρος),{{Sfn|De Simone|2017|p=1846}} and names of deities like ''[[Athena|Athana]]'' and perhaps ''Aprodita'',{{Sfn|De Simone|2017|p=1843}}{{Sfn|Krahe|1946|p=199–200}} however the latter name is considered to be a Messapic theonym of an [[Proto-Indo-European mythology|Indo-European]] goddess.{{sfn|Marchesini|2021|p=16}} It coincides with the [[Proto-Albanian]] ''*apro dītā'' 'come forth brightness of the day/dawn', which could be the original source of the Ancient Greek [[Aphrodite]], and which is preserved in the Albanian phrase ''[[Afrodita|afro dita]]'' 'come forth the day/dawn', referring to the planet [[Venus]],{{sfn|Dedvukaj|2023a|pp=1–4}} and also used to refer to [[Prende]], the dawn goddess, goddess of love, beauty, fertility, health and protector of women, in the [[Albanian paganism|Albanian pagan mythology]], the equivalent of Ancient Greek Aphrodite.
+The Messapic verbal form ''eipeigrave'' ('wrote, incised'; variant ''ipigrave'') is a clear loanword from Greek (with the initial stem ''eipigra-'', ''ipigra-'' deriving from [[Epigraphy|''epigrá-phō'']], ἐπιγράφω, 'inscribe, engrave'). Its adoption likely reflects the borrowing of the Messapic alphabet from an Archaic Greek script.{{Sfn|De Simone|2017|p=1846}} Other Greek loanwords include ''argora-pandes'' ('coin officials', with the first part deriving from ἄργυρος),{{Sfn|De Simone|2017|p=1846}} and names of deities like ''[[Athena|Athana]]'' and possibly ''Aprodita.''{{Sfn|De Simone|2017|p=1843}}{{Sfn|Krahe|1946|p=199–200}} The latter may alternatively represent a native Messapic theonym of an [[Proto-Indo-European mythology|Indo-European]] goddess,{{sfn|Marchesini|2021|p=16}} corresponding to [[Proto-Albanian]] ''*apro dītā'' ('come forth brightness of the day/dawn'), preserved in the Albanian phrase ''[[Afrodita|afro dita]]'' ('come forth the day/dawn'), referring to the planet [[Venus]], and associated with the dawn goddess [[Prende]].{{sfn|Dedvukaj|2023a|pp=1–4}}
-The origin of the Messapic goddess ''Damatura/Damatira'' is debated: scholars like [[Vladimir I. Georgiev]] (1937), [[Eqrem Çabej]], [[Shaban Demiraj]] (1997), or [[Martin Litchfield West|Martin L. West]] (2007) have argued that she was an Illyrian goddess eventually borrowed into Greek as [[Demeter]],{{Sfn|Orel|1998|p=80}}{{sfn|West|2007|p=176}} while others like [[Paul Kretschmer]] (1939), [[Robert S. P. Beekes]] (2009) and [[Carlo De Simone (linguist)|Carlo De Simone]] (2017) have argued for the contrary.{{sfn|Beekes|2009|p=324}}{{Sfn|De Simone|2017|p=1843}} More recently it is considered a Messapic theonym of an Indo-European goddess by Marchesini (2021).{{sfn|Marchesini|2021|p=16}}
+The origin of the Messapic goddess ''Damatura/Damatira'' is debated: scholars like [[Vladimir I. Georgiev]] (1937), [[Eqrem Çabej]], [[Shaban Demiraj]] (1997), [[Martin Litchfield West|Martin L. West]] (2007) and Simona Marchesini (2021) have argued that she was an Illyrian or Messapic goddess eventually borrowed into Greek as [[Demeter]],{{Sfn|Orel|1998|p=80}}{{sfn|West|2007|p=176}}{{sfn|Marchesini|2021|p=16}} while others like [[Paul Kretschmer]] (1939), [[Robert S. P. Beekes]] (2009) and [[Carlo De Simone (linguist)|Carlo De Simone]] (2017) have argued for the contrary.{{sfn|Beekes|2009|p=324}}{{Sfn|De Simone|2017|p=1843}}
 ==See also==
@@ Line 723: / Line 733: @@
 <!-- A -->
 *{{Cite book|last=Adams|first=James N.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=AMc1WQAnRTkC|title=Bilingualism and the Latin Language|date=2003|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-0-521-81771-4|language=en}}
-*{{cite book|last=Aigner-Foresti|first=Luciana|title=Dall'Adriatico al Danubio: l'Illirico nell'età greca e romana: atti del convegno internazionale, Cividale del Friuli, 25-27 settembre 2003|chapter=Gli Illiri in Italia:istituzioni politiche nella Messapia preromana|editor=Gianpaolo Urso|publisher=ETS|series=I convegni della Fondazione Niccolò Canussio|year=2004|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=SCNpAAAAMAAJ|isbn=884671069X|pages=79–94}}
+*{{cite book|last=Aigner-Foresti|first=Luciana|title=Dall'Adriatico al Danubio: l'Illirico nell'età greca e romana: atti del convegno internazionale, Cividale del Friuli, 25–27 settembre 2003|chapter=Gli Illiri in Italia:istituzioni politiche nella Messapia preromana|editor=Gianpaolo Urso|publisher=ETS|series=I convegni della Fondazione Niccolò Canussio|year=2004|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=SCNpAAAAMAAJ|isbn=884671069X|pages=79–94}}
 <!-- B -->
 *{{cite book|last=Baliu|first=Begzad|title=Onomastikë dhe identitet|trans-title=Onomastics and Identity|year=2012|publisher=Era|isbn=978-9951-04-071-6|language=sq|url=https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikibooks/sq/9/9d/Begzad_Baliu._Onomastike_dhe_identitet_paust.pdf}}
 *{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=lw7KxwEACAAJ|title=Etymological Dictionary of Greek|last=Beekes|first=Robert S. P.|year=2009|publisher=Brill|isbn=978-90-04-32186-1|language=en|author-link=Robert S. P. Beekes}}
-*{{cite book|editor-last=Bejko|editor-first=Lorenc|title=Die Illyrer: Katalog zu einer Ausstellung von archäologischen Funden der albanischen Eisenzeit (12.-4. Jh. v. Chr.) aus den Sammlungen des Archäologischen Institutes der Albanischen Akademie der Wissenschaften in Tirana und des Archäologischen Museums in Durres, Albanien ; Sonderausstellung im Museum für Urgeschichte des Landes Niederösterreich, Asparn an der Zaya, vom 3. April bis 30. November 2004|publisher=Amt der Niederösterreichischen Landesregierung, Abteilung Kultur und Wissenschaft|year=2004|isbn=9783854602156|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=SSNpAAAAMAAJ}}
+*{{cite book|editor-last=Bejko|editor-first=Lorenc|title=Die Illyrer: Katalog zu einer Ausstellung von archäologischen Funden der albanischen Eisenzeit (12.–4. Jh. v. Chr.) aus den Sammlungen des Archäologischen Institutes der Albanischen Akademie der Wissenschaften in Tirana und des Archäologischen Museums in Durres, Albanien ; Sonderausstellung im Museum für Urgeschichte des Landes Niederösterreich, Asparn an der Zaya, vom 3. April bis 30. November 2004|publisher=Amt der Niederösterreichischen Landesregierung, Abteilung Kultur und Wissenschaft|year=2004|isbn=9783854602156|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=SSNpAAAAMAAJ}}
 *{{cite book|last1=Boardman|first1=John|last2=Sollberger|first2=E.|title=The Cambridge Ancient History: The Prehistory of the Balkans; and the Middle East and the Aegean world, tenth to eighth centuries B.C.|publisher=Cambridge University Press|volume=III (part 1)|year=1982|edition=2|editor1=J. Boardman|editor2=I. E. S. Edwards|editor3=N. G. L. Hammond|editor4=E. Sollberger|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=vXljf8JqmkoC|isbn=0521224969}}
 *{{cite book|last=Buda|first=Aleks|author-link=Aleks Buda|title=Problems of the formation of the Albanian people, their language and culture: conference (selection)|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=BIlpAAAAMAAJ|year=1984|publisher=The "8 Nëntori" Pub. House}}
@@ Line 736: / Line 746: @@
 <!-- D -->
 *{{cite journal|last=Dedvukaj|first=Lindon|title=Linguistic evidence for the Indo-European and Albanian origin of Aphrodite|journal=Proceedings of the Linguistic Society of America|publisher=[[Linguistic Society of America]]|doi=10.3765/plsa.v8i1.5500|volume=8|number=1|year=2023a|page=5500 |s2cid=258381736 |doi-access=free}}
-*{{cite book|last=Dedvukaj|first=Lindon|title=ICHL26: International Conference on Historical Linguistics, Universität Heidelberg, 4-8 Sept. 2023 : Book of Abstracts|chapter=Reanalyzing the Historical Constructions of Albanian Prepositions|publisher=Universität Heidelberg|year=2023b|pages=274–275|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=fUdo0AEACAAJ}}
+*{{cite book|last=Dedvukaj|first=Lindon|title=ICHL26: International Conference on Historical Linguistics, Universität Heidelberg, 4–8 Sept. 2023 : Book of Abstracts|chapter=Reanalyzing the Historical Constructions of Albanian Prepositions|publisher=Universität Heidelberg|year=2023b|pages=274–275|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=fUdo0AEACAAJ}}
 *{{Cite book|last=Delamarre|first=Xavier|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=C3BKPgAACAAJ|title=Dictionnaire de la langue gauloise: Une approche linguistique du vieux-celtique continental|date=2003|publisher=Errance|isbn=9782877723695|language=fr|author-link=Xavier Delamarre}}
 *{{cite book|last=Demiraj|first=Bardhyl|title=Albanische Etymologien: Untersuchungen zum albanischen Erbwortschatz|series=Leiden Studies in Indo-European|volume=7|year=1997|language=de|place=Amsterdam, Atlanta|publisher=Rodopi}}
@@ Line 751: / Line 761: @@
 *{{cite journal|last=Friedman|first=Victor A.|title=The Balkan Languages and Balkan Linguistics|journal=Annual Review of Anthropology|volume=40|year=2011|pages=275–291|doi=10.1146/annurev-anthro-081309-145932 }}
 *{{cite book|last=Friedman|first=Victor A.|title=The Routledge Handbook of Language Contact|chapter=The Balkans|series=Routledge Handbooks in Linguistics|editor=[[Evangelia Adamou]], [[Yaron Matras]]|publisher=Routledge|year=2020|isbn=9781351109147|pages=385–403|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=x4rvDwAAQBAJ}}
+*{{cite book|last1=Friedman|first1=Victor A.|last2=Joseph|first2=Brian D.|title=The Balkan Languages|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2025|isbn=9781139019095|doi=10.1017/9781139019095|doi-access=free}}
 <!-- G -->
 *{{cite book|last=Graham|first=A. J.|chapter=The Colonial Expansion of Greece|title=The Cambridge Ancient History: The Expansion of the Greek World, Eighth to Sixth Centuries B.C.|publisher=Cambridge University Press|volume=III (part 3)|year=1982|edition=2|editor1=John Boardman|editor2=N. G. L. Hammond|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=0qAoqP4g1fEC|isbn=0521234476}}
 <!-- H -->
-*{{Cite book|last=Hamp|first=Eric P.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=5pCBRsfJMv8C|title=Ancient Indo-European Dialects: Proceedings of the Conference on Indo-European Linguistics Held at the University of California, Los Angeles, April 25-27, 1963|date=1966|publisher=University of California Press|isbn=978-0520001206|editor-last=Birnbaum|editor-first=Henrik|editor-link=Henrik Birnbaum|language=en|chapter=The Position of Albanian|author-link=Eric P. Hamp|editor-last2=Puhvel|editor-first2=Jaan|editor-link2=Jaan Puhvel}}
+*{{Cite book|last=Hamp|first=Eric P.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=5pCBRsfJMv8C|title=Ancient Indo-European Dialects: Proceedings of the Conference on Indo-European Linguistics Held at the University of California, Los Angeles, April 25–27, 1963|date=1966|publisher=University of California Press|isbn=978-0520001206|editor-last=Birnbaum|editor-first=Henrik|editor-link=Henrik Birnbaum|language=en|chapter=The Position of Albanian|author-link=Eric P. Hamp|editor-last2=Puhvel|editor-first2=Jaan|editor-link2=Jaan Puhvel}}
 *{{cite journal|last=Hamp|first=Eric P.|author-link=Eric P. Hamp|title=Varia|journal=Études Celtiques|volume=32|year=1996|pages=87–90|doi=10.3406/ecelt.1996.2087 |issn=0373-1928}}
 *{{cite journal |last1=Hamp |first1=Eric |last2=Adams |first2=Douglas |title=The Expansion of the Indo-European Languages: An Indo-Europeanist's Evolving View |journal=Sino-Platonic Papers |date=2013 |volume=239 |url=https://toosfoundation.com/wp-content/uploads/2013/11/spp239_indo_european_languages.pdf}}
 *{{cite book|last1=Hyllested |first1=Adam| last2=Joseph |first2=Brian D.|title= The Indo-European Language Family|publisher= Cambridge University Press|year=2022|isbn= 9781108499798|chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=xzKAEAAAQBAJ&dq=The+Indo-European+Language+Family+edited+by+Thomas+Olander&pg=PR7 |chapter=Albanian}}
 <!-- I -->
+*{{cite book|last=Ismajli|first=Rexhep|title=Seminari XXXII Ndërkombëtar për Gjuhën, Letërsinë dhe Kulturën Shqiptare|trans-title=The XXXII International Seminar on Albanian Language, Literature and Culture|chapter=Diskutime për prejardhjen e gjuhës shqipe|trans-chapter=Discussions About the Origin of the Albanian Language|editor=Bardh Rugova|publisher=[[University of Prishtina]]|year=2013|place=Prishtinë|language=sq}}
 *{{cite book|last=Ismajli|first=Rexhep|title=Studime për historinë e shqipes në kontekst ballkanik|trans-title=Studies on the History of Albanian in the Balkan context|editor=Eqrem Basha|publisher=Kosova Academy of Sciences and Arts, special editions CLII, Section of Linguistics and Literature|number=55|year=2015|place=Prishtinë|language=sq}}
 <!-- K -->
@@ Line 783: / Line 795: @@
 *{{cite book|last=Matzinger|first=Joachim|title=Messapisch|series=Kurzgrammatiken indogermanischer Sprachen und Sprachstufen|volume=2|publisher=Dr Ludwig Reichert Verlag|year=2019|language=de|isbn=978-3954903986|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=3YcAxQEACAAJ}}
 *{{cite book|last=Matzinger|first=Joachim|chapter=Ancient Languages of the Balkans|title=Comparison and Gradation in Indo-European |editor=Götz Keydana |editor2=Wolfgang Hock |editor3=Paul Widmer|publisher=Walter de Gruyter GmbH & Co KG|year=2021|isbn=9783110637434|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=XZY9EAAAQBAJ}}
+*{{cite book|last=Matzinger|first=Joachim|title=Langues Et Institutions en Italie Méridionale: Les Aires Osques Et Messapiennes Entre Grande-Grèce Et Rome|editor1=Emmanuel Dupraz|editor2=Antoine Viredaz|chapter=Tria corda, oder die Sprachlandschaft des antiken Apuliens|publisher=Schwabe Verlagsgruppe AG Schwabe Verlag|year=2025|pages=91–106|isbn=978-3-7965-5186-4|doi=10.24894/978-3-7965-5186-4|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=7qC-0AEACAAJ}}
 *{{cite book|last=Mërkuri|first=Nexhip|editor-last=Ibrahimi|editor-first=Zeqirija|title=Shaban Demiraj – figurë e shquar e albanologjisë dhe ballkanologjisë|trans-title=Shaban Demiraj – prominent figure of Albanianology and Balkanology|chapter=Gjuhësia e përgjithshme dhe këndvështrimet bashkëkohore për Epirin dhe mesapët|trans-chapter=General Linguistics and Contemporary Perspectives on Epirus and the Messapians|publisher=Instituti i Trashëgimisë Shpirtërore e Kulturore të Shqiptarëve – Shkup|year=2015|isbn=9786084653240|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=qsixnQAACAAJ|pages=57|language=sq}}
 <!-- O -->
@@ Line 789: / Line 802: @@
 <!-- P -->
 *{{cite book |last1=Palmer |first1=Leonard Robert |title=The Latin Language |date=1988 |publisher=University of Oklahoma Press |isbn=080612136X |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=O7z4Sl-SgFEC}}
-*{{Cite book|last=Pisani|first=Vittore|title=Linguistica e filologia: atti del VII Convegno internazionale di linguisti tenuto a Milano nei giorni 12-14 settembre 1984|publisher=Paideia|year=1987|isbn=8839403922|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=VE4tAAAAMAAJ}}
+*{{Cite book|last=Pisani|first=Vittore|title=Linguistica e filologia: atti del VII Convegno internazionale di linguisti tenuto a Milano nei giorni 12–14 settembre 1984|publisher=Paideia|year=1987|isbn=8839403922|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=VE4tAAAAMAAJ}}
 *{{cite book|last=Poli|first=Diego|chapter=Quale significato per il significante ''ri''? Alla ricerca della 'regalità' in Irlanda|title=Re e popolo: Istituzioni arcaiche tra storia e comparazione|editor-last=Fiori|editor-first=Roberto|publisher=V&R Unipress|year=2019|isbn=9783847010227|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=f8PkEAAAQBAJ|chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=f8PkEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA527|pages=527–602}}
 <!-- R -->
@@ Line 812: / Line 825: @@
 == Further reading ==
+* {{cite journal |last1=Bianconi |first1=Michele |first2=Marta |last2=Capano |first3=Paolo |last3=Sabattini |title=A new assessment of Messapic vocalism: Sound change, script adaptation, and synchronic phonology |journal=Indo-European Linguistics |volume=13 |issue=1 |date=2025 |pages=1–40 |doi=10.1163/22125892-bja10039}}
 * Lomas, Kathryn. "Crossing Boundaries: The Inscribed Votives of Southeast Italy." Pallas, no. 86, 2011, pp.&nbsp;311–329. JSTOR, www.jstor.org/stable/43606696. Accessed 15 Apr. 2020.
 * {{cite book |last1=Lombardo |first1=Mario |last2=Boffa |first2=Giovanni |chapter=Contact and Interaction between Greeks and Messapians |title=Alloglо̄ssoi: Multilingualism and Minority Languages in Ancient Europe |editor1-first=Albio Cesare |editor1-last=Cassio |editor2-first=Sara |editor2-last=Kaczko |location=Berlin, Boston |publisher=De Gruyter |date=2023 |pages=215–250 |doi=10.1515/9783110779684-010|isbn=9783110779684 }}
 * {{cite book |last=Marchesini |first=Simona |chapter=The Messapic Inscription from Grotta Poesia MLM 3 Ro: Analysis with Frame Semantics |title=Alloglо̄ssoi: Multilingualism and Minority Languages in Ancient Europe |editor1-first=Albio Cesare |editor1-last=Cassio |editor2-first=Sara |editor2-last=Kaczko |location=Berlin, Boston |publisher=De Gruyter |date=2023b |pages=283–298 |doi=10.1515/9783110779684-012|isbn=9783110779684 }}
 * {{Cite journal|last=Meudler|first=Marcel|date=2003|title=Mézence, un théonyme messapien ?|url=https://www.persee.fr/doc/rea_0035-2004_2003_num_105_1_5647|journal=Revue des Études Anciennes|volume=105|issue=1|pages=5–15|doi=10.3406/rea.2003.5647}}
-* ''Messapische Studien''. Inschriften mit Kommentar, Skizze einer Laut- und Formenlehre. Von Otto Haas Universitätdozent - Wien. Heidelberg: Carl Winter - Universitätsverlag. 1962.
+* ''Messapische Studien''. Inschriften mit Kommentar, Skizze einer Laut- und Formenlehre. Von Otto Haas Universitätdozent – Wien. Heidelberg: Carl Winter – Universitätsverlag. 1962.
 == External links ==

Messapic language: Difference between revisions

Latest revision as of 04:43, 17 December 2025

Contents

Name

Classification

Paleo-Balkanic

Illyrian languages

Albanian

History

Phonology

Alphabet

Messapic

Apulian

Inscriptions

Lexicon

Toponymy/Anthroponymy

Inherited

Language contact

Italic

Ancient Greek

See also

Sources

Footnotes

Citations

Bibliography

Further reading

External links

Navigation menu

Messapic language: Difference between revisions

Latest revision as of 04:43, 17 December 2025

Name

Classification

Paleo-Balkanic

Illyrian languages

Albanian

History

Phonology

Alphabet

Messapic

Apulian

Inscriptions

Lexicon

Toponymy/Anthroponymy

Inherited

Language contact

Italic

Ancient Greek

See also

Sources

Footnotes

Citations

Bibliography

Further reading

External links

Navigation menu

Search