Cephalic index: Difference between revisions
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===Controversy=== | ===Controversy=== | ||
The usefulness of the cephalic index was questioned by the Italian anthropologist [[Giuseppe Sergi]], who argued that cranial morphology provided a better means to model racial ancestry.<ref>{{cite thesis| vauthors = Killgrove K |year=2005 |title=Bioarchaeology in the Roman World | degree = Masters | publisher = UNC Chapel Hill |url=http://www.piki.org/~kristina/Killgrove-2005-classics.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120328162246/http://www.piki.org/~kristina/Killgrove-2005-classics.pdf |archive-date=28 March 2012 | The usefulness of the cephalic index was questioned by the Italian anthropologist [[Giuseppe Sergi]], who argued that cranial morphology provided a better means to model racial ancestry.<ref>{{cite thesis| vauthors = Killgrove K |year=2005 |title=Bioarchaeology in the Roman World | degree = Masters | publisher = UNC Chapel Hill |url=http://www.piki.org/~kristina/Killgrove-2005-classics.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120328162246/http://www.piki.org/~kristina/Killgrove-2005-classics.pdf |archive-date=28 March 2012 }}</ref> Also, [[Franz Boas]] studied the children of immigrants to the United States in 1910 to 1912, noting that the children's cephalic index differed significantly from their parents', implying that local environmental conditions had a significant effect on the development of head shape.<ref name="Holloway_2002">{{cite journal | vauthors = Holloway RL | title = Head to head with Boas: did he err on the plasticity of head form? | journal = Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America | volume = 99 | issue = 23 | pages = 14622–3 | date = November 2002 | pmid = 12419854 | pmc = 137467 | doi = 10.1073/pnas.242622399 | bibcode = 2002PNAS...9914622H | doi-access = free }}</ref> | ||
Boas argued that if craniofacial features were so malleable in a single generation, then the cephalic index was of little use for defining race and mapping ancestral populations. Scholars such as [[Earnest Hooton]] continued to argue that both environment and heredity were involved. Boas did not himself claim it was totally plastic. | Boas argued that if craniofacial features were so malleable in a single generation, then the cephalic index was of little use for defining race and mapping ancestral populations. Scholars such as [[Earnest Hooton]] continued to argue that both environment and heredity were involved. Boas did not himself claim it was totally plastic. | ||
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== Medicine == | == Medicine == | ||
The cephalic index is also used in medicine, especially in the planning and effectiveness analysis of cranial deformity corrections.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Likus |first1=Wirginia |last2=Bajor |first2=Grzegorz |last3=Gruszczynska |first3=Katrzyna |last4=Baron |first4=Jan |last5=Markowski |first5=Jaroslaw |last6=Machnikowska-Sokolowska |first6=Magdalena |last7=Milka |first7=Daniela |last8=Lepich |first8=Tomasz |date=February 4, 2014 |title=Cephalic Index in the First Three Years of Life: Study of Children with Normal Brain Development Based on Computed Tomography |journal=TheScientificWorldJournal |volume=2014 | | The cephalic index is also used in medicine, especially in the planning and effectiveness analysis of cranial deformity corrections.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Likus |first1=Wirginia |last2=Bajor |first2=Grzegorz |last3=Gruszczynska |first3=Katrzyna |last4=Baron |first4=Jan |last5=Markowski |first5=Jaroslaw |last6=Machnikowska-Sokolowska |first6=Magdalena |last7=Milka |first7=Daniela |last8=Lepich |first8=Tomasz |date=February 4, 2014 |title=Cephalic Index in the First Three Years of Life: Study of Children with Normal Brain Development Based on Computed Tomography |journal=TheScientificWorldJournal |volume=2014 |article-number=502836 |doi=10.1155/2014/502836 |pmid=24688395 |pmc=3933399 |doi-access=free }}</ref> The index is a useful tool in assessing the morphology of cranial deformities in clinical settings.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Nam |first1=Heesung |last2=Han |first2=Nami |last3=Eom |first3=Mi Ja |last4=Kook |first4=Minjung |last5=Kim |first5=Jeeyoung |date=2021-04-30 |title=Cephalic Index of Korean Children With Normal Brain Development During the First 7 Years of Life Based on Computed Tomography |url=http://www.e-arm.org/journal/view.php?number=4213 |journal=Annals of Rehabilitation Medicine |language=English |volume=45 |issue=2 |pages=141–149 |doi=10.5535/arm.20235 |pmid=33985316 |issn=2234-0645|pmc=8137378 }}</ref> The index is used while looking at the fetal head shape, and can change in certain situations (ex. [[Breech birth|breech presentation]], [[Rupture of membranes|ruptured membranes]], [[Twin|twin pregnancy]]).<ref>{{Cite web |last=Weerakkody |first=Yuranga |title=Cephalic index {{!}} Radiology Reference Article {{!}} Radiopaedia.org |url=https://radiopaedia.org/articles/cephalic-index?lang=us |access-date=2023-04-06 |website=Radiopaedia |date=22 October 2011 |language=en-US}}</ref> It can be measured for prenatal infants in the womb using [[Obstetric ultrasonography|obstetric ultrasound]], and a value of 78.3% ± 8% (±2 [[Standard deviation|standard deviations]]) is considered normal.<ref>Kintanar, T. A., & Fowler, Grant C., MD. (2020). Obstetric Ultrasound. In ''Pfenninger and Fowler's Procedures for Primary Care'' (Fourth Edition, pp. 984–998). [[doi:10.1016/B978-0-323-47633-1.00142-3]]</ref> | ||
== Modern use in animal breeding == | == Modern use in animal breeding == | ||
| Line 69: | Line 69: | ||
* [[American Bulldog]] | * [[American Bulldog]] | ||
* [[American Bully]] | * [[American Bully]] | ||
* [[Bernese Mountain Dog]] | |||
* [[Boston Terrier]] | * [[Boston Terrier]] | ||
* [[Boxer (dog)|Boxer]] | * [[Boxer (dog)|Boxer]] | ||
| Line 96: | Line 97: | ||
* [[Pug]] | * [[Pug]] | ||
* [[Pyrenean Mastiff]] | * [[Pyrenean Mastiff]] | ||
* [[Rottweiler]] | |||
* [[Shar-Pei]] | * [[Shar-Pei]] | ||
* [[Shih Tzu]] | * [[Shih Tzu]] | ||
* [[St. Bernard (dog)|St. Bernard]] | |||
* [[Tibetan Spaniel]] | * [[Tibetan Spaniel]] | ||
* [[Tosa (dog)|Tosa]] | * [[Tosa (dog)|Tosa]] | ||
| Line 114: | Line 117: | ||
* [[White tiger#Defects|White tiger]] | * [[White tiger#Defects|White tiger]] | ||
{{div col end}} | {{div col end}} | ||
==== List of brachycephalic pigs==== | ==== List of brachycephalic pigs==== | ||
<ref name=":0">{{cite journal | vauthors = Geiger M, Schoenebeck JJ, Schneider RA, Schmidt MJ, Fischer MS, Sánchez-Villagra MR | title = Exceptional Changes in Skeletal Anatomy under Domestication: The Case of Brachycephaly | journal = Integrative Organismal Biology | volume = 3 | issue = 1 | | <ref name=":0">{{cite journal | vauthors = Geiger M, Schoenebeck JJ, Schneider RA, Schmidt MJ, Fischer MS, Sánchez-Villagra MR | title = Exceptional Changes in Skeletal Anatomy under Domestication: The Case of Brachycephaly | journal = Integrative Organismal Biology | volume = 3 | issue = 1 | article-number = obab023 | date = 2021-08-14 | pmid = 34409262 | pmc = 8366567 | doi = 10.1093/iob/obab023 }}</ref> | ||
* [[Middle White]] | * [[Middle White]] | ||
* Neijiang | * Neijiang | ||
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====Other==== | ====Other==== | ||
* [[Alligator]] | |||
* [[Australian Lowline]] | |||
* brachycephalic [[Arabian horse]] | |||
* [[Elephant]] | * [[Elephant]] | ||
* [[European bison]] | |||
* [[Giant panda]] | * [[Giant panda]] | ||
* [[Niata cattle]] | |||
* [[Otter]] | |||
* [[Raccoon dog]] | |||
* [[Ross seal]] | * [[Ross seal]] | ||
* [[Sloth]] | |||
* [[Spectacled bear]] | * [[Spectacled bear]] | ||
* [[Sun bear]] | |||
* [[Tortoise]] | |||
* [[Walrus]] | * [[Walrus]] | ||
* [[Wombat]] | * [[Wombat]] | ||
===Mesaticephalic animals=== | ===Mesaticephalic animals=== | ||
[[Image:Labrador Retriever black portrait Ellis.jpg|thumb|Mesocephalic [[Labrador Retriever]]]] | [[Image:Labrador Retriever black portrait Ellis.jpg|thumb|Mesocephalic [[Labrador Retriever]]]] | ||
A mesaticephalic skull is of intermediate length and width. Mesaticephalic skulls are not markedly brachycephalic or dolichocephalic. When dealing with animals, especially dogs, the more appropriate and commonly used term is not "mesocephalic", but rather "mesaticephalic", which is a ratio of head to nasal cavity. The breeds below exemplify this category.<ref>{{Cite book | vauthors = Evans HE |year=1994 |title=Miller's Anatomy of the Dog |edition=3rd |location=Philadelphia |publisher=Saunders |isbn= | A mesaticephalic skull is of intermediate length and width. Mesaticephalic skulls are not markedly brachycephalic or dolichocephalic. When dealing with animals, especially dogs, the more appropriate and commonly used term is not "mesocephalic", but rather "mesaticephalic", which is a ratio of head to nasal cavity. The breeds below exemplify this category.<ref>{{Cite book | vauthors = Evans HE |year=1994 |title=Miller's Anatomy of the Dog |edition=3rd |location=Philadelphia |publisher=Saunders |isbn=978-0-7216-3200-1 |page=132 |oclc=827702042}}<!-- I've expanded the reference based on the available information; I hope the results are correct. Source for the additional details: https://www.goodreads.com/book/show/1203402.Miller_s_Anatomy_of_the_Dog . --></ref><ref>{{Cite encyclopedia |title=mesaticephalic |url=http://medical-dictionary.thefreedictionary.com/mesaticephalic |encyclopedia=Farlex Partner Medical Dictionary |year=2012 |via=[[The Free Dictionary]] |access-date=2 January 2019}}</ref> | ||
====List of mesaticephalic | ====List of mesaticephalic canids==== | ||
{{unsourced section|date=December 2021}} | {{unsourced section|date=December 2021}} | ||
{{div col|colwidth=20em}} | {{div col|colwidth=20em}} | ||
Note: Almost all canidae are [[mesaticephalic]] ("medium-headed") | |||
* [[African Wild Dog]] | * [[African Wild Dog]] | ||
* [[Airedale Terrier]] | |||
* [[Alaskan Malamute]] | * [[Alaskan Malamute]] | ||
* almost all [[spaniel]]s | * almost all [[spaniel]]s | ||
* almost all [[ | * almost all [[terrier]]s | ||
* [[American Foxhound]] | * [[American Foxhound]] | ||
* [[Appenzeller Sennenhund]] | * [[Appenzeller Sennenhund]] | ||
* [[Australian Cattle Dog]] | * [[Australian Cattle Dog]] | ||
* [[Australian Shepherd]] | * [[Australian Shepherd]] | ||
* [[ | * [[Basset Hound]] | ||
* [[Beagle]] | * [[Beagle]] | ||
* [[Bearded Collie]] | * [[Bearded Collie]] | ||
* [[Beauceron]] | * [[Beauceron]] | ||
* [[ | * [[Bedlington Terrier]] | ||
* [[Belgian Sheepdog]] | * [[Belgian Sheepdog]] | ||
* [[Black and Tan Coonhound]] | * [[Black and Tan Coonhound]] | ||
* [[Bloodhound]] | |||
* [[Border Collie]] | * [[Border Collie]] | ||
* [[ | * [[Cesky Terrier]] | ||
* [[Chesapeake Bay Retriever]] | * [[Chesapeake Bay Retriever]] | ||
* [[Chinook (dog)|Chinook]] | * [[Chinook (dog)|Chinook]] | ||
* [[Coyote]] | |||
* [[Curly-Coated Retriever]] | * [[Curly-Coated Retriever]] | ||
* [[Dalmatian (dog)|Dalmatian]] | * [[Dalmatian (dog)|Dalmatian]] | ||
* [[Dhole]] | * [[Dhole]] | ||
* [[Dingo]] | |||
* [[English Foxhound]] | * [[English Foxhound]] | ||
* [[Field Spaniel]] | * [[Field Spaniel]] | ||
* [[Flat-Coated Retriever]] | * [[Flat-Coated Retriever]] | ||
* [[German Shepherd|German Shepherd Dog]] | |||
* [[German Shorthaired Pointer]] | * [[German Shorthaired Pointer]] | ||
* [[German Wirehaired Pointer]] | * [[German Wirehaired Pointer]] | ||
* [[Golden Retriever]] | * [[Golden Retriever]] | ||
* [[Irish Setter]] | * [[Irish Setter]] | ||
* [[Irish Terrier]] | |||
* [[Kerry Blue Terrier]] | |||
* [[Komondor]] | * [[Komondor]] | ||
* [[Labrador Retriever]] | * [[Labrador Retriever]] | ||
* [[Mudi]] | * [[Mudi]] | ||
* [[Puli dog|Puli]] | * [[Puli dog|Puli]] | ||
* [[ | * [[Russian Black Terrier]] | ||
* [[ | * [[Serbian Hound]] | ||
* [[Schnauzer]] | |||
* [[Scottish Terrier]] | |||
* [[Sealyham Terrier]] | |||
* [[Siberian Husky]] | * [[Siberian Husky]] | ||
* [[Vizsla]] | * [[Vizsla]] | ||
* [[Weimaraner]] | * [[Weimaraner]] | ||
* [[Welsh Terrier]] | |||
* [[Wirehaired Vizsla]] | * [[Wirehaired Vizsla]] | ||
* [[ | * [[Wolf]] | ||
{{div col end}} | {{div col end}} | ||
====List of mesaticephalic cats==== | ====List of mesaticephalic cats==== | ||
{{unsourced section|date=December 2021}} | {{unsourced section|date=December 2021}} | ||
Note: Almost all domestic felines are | Note: Almost all domestic felines are mesaticephalic | ||
{{div col|colwidth=20em}} | {{div col|colwidth=20em}} | ||
* [[Abyssinian (cat)|Abyssinian]] | * [[Abyssinian (cat)|Abyssinian]] | ||
| Line 228: | Line 226: | ||
* [[Chartreux]] | * [[Chartreux]] | ||
* [[Chausie]] | * [[Chausie]] | ||
* [[Cheetah]] | |||
* [[Colorpoint Shorthair]] | * [[Colorpoint Shorthair]] | ||
* [[Cymric cat]] | * [[Cymric cat]] | ||
| Line 235: | Line 234: | ||
* [[Maine Coon]] | * [[Maine Coon]] | ||
* [[Manx (cat)|Manx]] | * [[Manx (cat)|Manx]] | ||
* [[Mountain Lion]] | |||
* [[Munchkin cat]] | * [[Munchkin cat]] | ||
* [[Norwegian forest cat]] | * [[Norwegian forest cat]] | ||
| Line 260: | Line 260: | ||
====Other==== | ====Other==== | ||
* [[Aardwolf]] | * [[Aardwolf]] | ||
* [[American black bear]] | * [[American black bear]] | ||
* [[Brown bear]] | * [[Brown bear]] | ||
* [[Brown hyena]] | * [[Brown hyena]] | ||
* [[Crocodile]] | |||
* [[Fur seal]] | * [[Fur seal]] | ||
* [[Guinea pig]] | * [[Guinea pig]] | ||
* [[Hyrax]] | |||
* [[Leopard seal]] | * [[Leopard seal]] | ||
* [[Raccoon]] | * [[Raccoon]] | ||
* [[Sea lion]] | * [[Sea lion]] | ||
* [[Spotted hyena]] | * [[Spotted hyena]] | ||
* [[Striped hyena]] | * [[Striped hyena]] | ||
* [[Tasmanian devil]] | * [[Tasmanian devil]] | ||
| Line 281: | Line 280: | ||
Note: Almost all representatives of the infraphylum [[Gnathostomata]] (with rare exceptions) are dolichocephalic. | Note: Almost all representatives of the infraphylum [[Gnathostomata]] (with rare exceptions) are dolichocephalic. | ||
====List of dolichocephalic | ====List of dolichocephalic canines==== | ||
{{unsourced section|date=December 2021}} | {{unsourced section|date=December 2021}} | ||
{{div col|colwidth=20em}} | {{div col|colwidth=20em}} | ||
* [[Afghan Hound]] | * [[Afghan Hound]] | ||
* [[ | * [[American Eskimo Dog]] | ||
* [[Azawakh]] | * [[Azawakh]] | ||
* [[ | * [[Basenji]] | ||
* [[ | * [[Bichon Frisé]] | ||
* [[Borzoi]] | * [[Borzoi]] | ||
* [[Bull terrier]] | * [[Bull terrier]] | ||
* [[ | * [[Cardigan Welsh Corgi]] | ||
* [[ | * pear- and deer-headed [[Chihuahua (dog)|Chihuahua]]s | ||
* [[Chinese Crested]] | |||
* [[Dachshund]] | * [[Dachshund]] | ||
* [[Doberman Pinscher]] | * [[Doberman Pinscher]] | ||
* [[ | * [[Finnish Lapphund]] | ||
* [[Finnish Spitz]] | |||
* [[Fox Terrier]] | * [[Fox Terrier]] | ||
* [[Galgo Español]] | * [[Galgo Español]] | ||
* [[German | * [[German Spitz]] | ||
* [[Great Dane]] | * [[Great Dane]] | ||
* [[Greyhound]] | * [[Greyhound]] | ||
* [[Irish Wolfhound]] | * [[Irish Wolfhound]] | ||
* [[Italian Greyhound]] | * [[Italian Greyhound]] | ||
* [[Kangaroo dog|Kangaroo hound]] | * [[Kangaroo dog|Kangaroo hound]] | ||
* [[Kanni]] | * [[Kanni]] | ||
* [[Khalag Tazi]] | * [[Khalag Tazi]] | ||
* [[Long dog]] | * [[Long dog]] | ||
| Line 314: | Line 311: | ||
* [[Manchester Terrier]] | * [[Manchester Terrier]] | ||
* [[Miniature Bull Terrier]] | * [[Miniature Bull Terrier]] | ||
* [[Miniature Pinscher]] | |||
* most [[spitz]], except for the Chow Chow | |||
* [[Pembroke Welsh Corgi]] | |||
* [[Peruvian Hairless Dog|Peruvian Inca Orchid]] | * [[Peruvian Hairless Dog|Peruvian Inca Orchid]] | ||
* [[Pharaoh Hound]] | * [[Pharaoh Hound]] | ||
* [[Pomeranian (dog)|Pomeranian]] | |||
* [[Poodle]] (Miniature and Toy) | |||
* [[Poodle]] (Standard) | * [[Poodle]] (Standard) | ||
* [[Rampur Greyhound]] | * [[Rampur Greyhound]] | ||
* [[Rough Collie]] | * [[Rough Collie]] | ||
* [[Saluki]] | * [[Saluki]] | ||
* [[ | * [[Samoyed (dog)|Samoyed]] | ||
* [[Scottish Deerhound]] | * [[Scottish Deerhound]] | ||
* [[Shetland Sheepdog]] | * [[Shetland Sheepdog]] | ||
* [[Silken Windhound]] | * [[Silken Windhound]] | ||
| Line 331: | Line 329: | ||
* [[Smooth Collie]] | * [[Smooth Collie]] | ||
* [[Taigan]] | * [[Taigan]] | ||
* [[Whippet]] | * [[Whippet]] | ||
* [[ | * [[Xoloitzcuintle]] | ||
{{div col end}} | {{div col end}} | ||
| Line 374: | Line 371: | ||
* [[Baboon]] | * [[Baboon]] | ||
* [[Bontebok]] | * [[Bontebok]] | ||
* [[Cow]] | * [[Cow]] | ||
* [[Dinosaur]] (including [[bird]]s) | * [[Dinosaur]] (including [[bird]]s) | ||
| Line 383: | Line 379: | ||
* [[Grevy's zebra]] | * [[Grevy's zebra]] | ||
* [[Hartebeest]] | * [[Hartebeest]] | ||
* [[Kangaroo]] | * [[Kangaroo]] | ||
* [[Mule]] | * [[Mule]] | ||
| Line 389: | Line 384: | ||
* [[Plains zebra]] | * [[Plains zebra]] | ||
* [[Polar bear]] | * [[Polar bear]] | ||
* [[Sloth bear]] | |||
* [[Thylacine]] | * [[Thylacine]] | ||
* [[Warthog]] | * [[Warthog]] | ||
Latest revision as of 16:00, 30 September 2025
Template:Short description Script error: No such module "Distinguish". Template:Use dmy dates
The cephalic index or cranial index is a number obtained by taking the maximum width (biparietal diameter or BPD, side to side) of the head of an organism, multiplying it by 100 and then dividing it by their maximum length (occipitofrontal diameter or OFD, front to back). The index was once used to categorize human beings in the first half of the 20th century, but today it is used to categorize dogs and cats.
Historic use in anthropology
Early anthropology
The cephalic index was used by anthropologists in the early 20th century as a tool to categorize human populations. It was used to describe an individual's appearance and for estimating the age of fetuses for legal and obstetrical reasons.Script error: No such module "Unsubst".
The cephalic index was defined by Swedish professor of anatomy Anders Retzius (1796–1860) and first used in physical anthropology to classify ancient human remains found in Europe. The theory became closely associated with the development of racial anthropology in the 19th and early 20th centuries, when historians attempted to use ancient remains to model population movements in terms of racial categories. American anthropologist Carleton S. Coon also used the index in the 1960s, by which time it had been largely discredited.
In the cephalic index model, human beings were characterized by having either a dolichocephalic (long-headed), mesaticephalic (moderate-headed), or brachycephalic (short-headed) cephalic index or cranial index.
Indices
Cephalic indices are grouped as in the following table:
| Females | Males | Scientific term | Meaning | Alternative term |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| < 75 | < 75.9 | dolichocephalic | 'long-headed' | |
| 75 to 83 | 76 to 81 | mesaticephalic | 'medium-headed' | mesocephalic; mesocranial |
| > 83 | > 81.1 | brachycephalic | 'short-headed' | brachycranial |
Technically, the measured factors are defined as the maximum width of the bones that surround the head above the supramastoid crest (behind the cheekbones), and the maximum length from the most easily noticed part of the glabella (between the eyebrows) to the most easily noticed point on the back part of the head.
Controversy
The usefulness of the cephalic index was questioned by the Italian anthropologist Giuseppe Sergi, who argued that cranial morphology provided a better means to model racial ancestry.[1] Also, Franz Boas studied the children of immigrants to the United States in 1910 to 1912, noting that the children's cephalic index differed significantly from their parents', implying that local environmental conditions had a significant effect on the development of head shape.[2]
Boas argued that if craniofacial features were so malleable in a single generation, then the cephalic index was of little use for defining race and mapping ancestral populations. Scholars such as Earnest Hooton continued to argue that both environment and heredity were involved. Boas did not himself claim it was totally plastic.
In 2002, a paper by Sparks and Jantz re-evaluated some of Boas's original data using new statistical techniques and concluded that there was a "relatively high genetic component" of head shape.[3] Ralph Holloway of Columbia University argues that the new research raises questions about whether the variations in skull shape have "adaptive meaning and whether, in fact, normalizing selection might be at work on the trait, where both extremes, hyperdolichocephaly and hyperbrachycephaly, are at a slight selective disadvantage."[2]
In 2003, anthropologists Clarence C. Gravlee, H. Russell Bernard, and William R. Leonard reanalyzed Boas's data and concluded that most of Boas's original findings were correct. Moreover, they applied new statistical, computer-assisted methods to Boas's data and discovered more evidence for cranial plasticity.[4] In a later publication, Gravlee, Bernard and Leonard reviewed Sparks's and Jantz's analysis. They argue that Sparks and Jantz misrepresented Boas's claims, and that Sparks's and Jantz's data support Boas. For example, they point out that Sparks and Jantz look at changes in cranial size in relation to how long an individual has been in the United States in order to test the influence of the environment. Boas, however, looked at changes in cranial size in relation to how long the mother had been in the United States. They argue that Boas's method is more useful, because the prenatal environment is a crucial developmental factor.[4]
Jantz and Sparks responded to Gravlee et al., reiterating that Boas' findings lacked biological meaning, and that the interpretation of Boas' results common in the literature was biologically inaccurate.[5] In a later study, the same authors concluded that the effects Boas observed were likely the result of population-specific environmental effects such as changes in cultural practices for cradling infants, rather than the effects of a general "American environment" which caused populations in America to converge to a common cranial type, as Boas had suggested.[6][7]
Vertical cephalic index
The vertical cephalic index, also known as the length-height index, was a less-commonly measured head ratio.[8][9] In the vertical cephalic index model, humans beings were characterized by having either a chamaecranic (low-skulled), orthocranic (medium high-skulled), or hypsicranic (high-skulled) cephalic index or cranial index.
Medicine
The cephalic index is also used in medicine, especially in the planning and effectiveness analysis of cranial deformity corrections.[10] The index is a useful tool in assessing the morphology of cranial deformities in clinical settings.[11] The index is used while looking at the fetal head shape, and can change in certain situations (ex. breech presentation, ruptured membranes, twin pregnancy).[12] It can be measured for prenatal infants in the womb using obstetric ultrasound, and a value of 78.3% ± 8% (±2 standard deviations) is considered normal.[13]
Modern use in animal breeding
The cephalic index is used in the categorisation of animals, especially breeds of dogs and cats.
Brachycephalic animals
A brachycephalic skull is relatively broad and short (typically with the breadth at least 80% of the length). Dog breeds such as the pug are sometimes classified as "extreme brachycephalic".[14] Because of health issues brachycephaly is regarded in some countries as "qualzucht", which literally translates to "torture breeding"[15][16][17][18] as it often leads to brachycephalic airway obstructive syndrome.
List of brachycephalic dogs
,_February_2010.JPG){kind=link}
- Affenpinscher
- American Bulldog
- American Bully
- Bernese Mountain Dog
- Boston Terrier
- Boxer
- Brussels Griffon
- Bulldog
- Bullmastiff
- Cane Corso
- Cavalier King Charles Spaniel
- Apple-headed Chihuahua
- Chow Chow
- Dogo Argentino
- Dogue de Bordeaux
- English Mastiff
- English Bulldog
- Fila Brasileiro
- French Bulldog
- Japanese Chin
- King Charles Spaniel
- Lhasa Apso
- Lowchen
- Neapolitan Mastiff
- Newfoundland
- Olde English Bulldogge
- Pekingese
- Perro de Presa Canario
- Pit bull
- Pug
- Pyrenean Mastiff
- Rottweiler
- Shar-Pei
- Shih Tzu
- St. Bernard
- Tibetan Spaniel
- Tosa
List of brachycephalic cats
List of brachycephalic pigs
- Middle White
- Neijiang
List of brachycephalic rabbits
- Lionhead rabbit
- Lop rabbit
- Netherland Dwarf rabbit
- Dwarf Papillon rabbit
- Dwarf Hotot rabbit
- Jersey Wooly rabbit
- American Fuzzylop rabbit
Other
- Alligator
- Australian Lowline
- brachycephalic Arabian horse
- Elephant
- European bison
- Giant panda
- Niata cattle
- Otter
- Raccoon dog
- Ross seal
- Sloth
- Spectacled bear
- Sun bear
- Tortoise
- Walrus
- Wombat
Mesaticephalic animals
A mesaticephalic skull is of intermediate length and width. Mesaticephalic skulls are not markedly brachycephalic or dolichocephalic. When dealing with animals, especially dogs, the more appropriate and commonly used term is not "mesocephalic", but rather "mesaticephalic", which is a ratio of head to nasal cavity. The breeds below exemplify this category.[24][25]
List of mesaticephalic canids
Template:Unsourced section Template:Div col Note: Almost all canidae are mesaticephalic ("medium-headed")
- African Wild Dog
- Airedale Terrier
- Alaskan Malamute
- almost all spaniels
- almost all terriers
- American Foxhound
- Appenzeller Sennenhund
- Australian Cattle Dog
- Australian Shepherd
- Basset Hound
- Beagle
- Bearded Collie
- Beauceron
- Bedlington Terrier
- Belgian Sheepdog
- Black and Tan Coonhound
- Bloodhound
- Border Collie
- Cesky Terrier
- Chesapeake Bay Retriever
- Chinook
- Coyote
- Curly-Coated Retriever
- Dalmatian
- Dhole
- Dingo
- English Foxhound
- Field Spaniel
- Flat-Coated Retriever
- German Shepherd Dog
- German Shorthaired Pointer
- German Wirehaired Pointer
- Golden Retriever
- Irish Setter
- Irish Terrier
- Kerry Blue Terrier
- Komondor
- Labrador Retriever
- Mudi
- Puli
- Russian Black Terrier
- Serbian Hound
- Schnauzer
- Scottish Terrier
- Sealyham Terrier
- Siberian Husky
- Vizsla
- Weimaraner
- Welsh Terrier
- Wirehaired Vizsla
- Wolf
List of mesaticephalic cats
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- Abyssinian
- American Shorthair
- American Bobtail
- Bengal cat
- Birman
- Bombay cat
- Burmese cat
- Chartreux
- Chausie
- Cheetah
- Colorpoint Shorthair
- Cymric cat
- Egyptian Mau
- Felid hybrids
- Felis, or small cats
- Maine Coon
- Manx
- Mountain Lion
- Munchkin cat
- Norwegian forest cat
- Ocicat
- Pallas's cat
- Ragdoll
- Russian Blue
- Russian White, Black and Tabby
- Selkirk Rex
- Siberian cat
- Somali
- Toyger
- Turkish Angora
- Turkish Van
List of mesaticephalic rabbits
Other
- Aardwolf
- American black bear
- Brown bear
- Brown hyena
- Crocodile
- Fur seal
- Guinea pig
- Hyrax
- Leopard seal
- Raccoon
- Sea lion
- Spotted hyena
- Striped hyena
- Tasmanian devil
Dolichocephalic animals
A dolichocephalic skull is relatively long-headed (typically with the breadth less than 80% or 75% of the length).
Note: Almost all representatives of the infraphylum Gnathostomata (with rare exceptions) are dolichocephalic.
List of dolichocephalic canines
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- Afghan Hound
- American Eskimo Dog
- Azawakh
- Basenji
- Bichon Frisé
- Borzoi
- Bull terrier
- Cardigan Welsh Corgi
- pear- and deer-headed Chihuahuas
- Chinese Crested
- Dachshund
- Doberman Pinscher
- Finnish Lapphund
- Finnish Spitz
- Fox Terrier
- Galgo Español
- German Spitz
- Great Dane
- Greyhound
- Irish Wolfhound
- Italian Greyhound
- Kangaroo hound
- Kanni
- Khalag Tazi
- Long dog
- Lurcher
- Manchester Terrier
- Miniature Bull Terrier
- Miniature Pinscher
- most spitz, except for the Chow Chow
- Pembroke Welsh Corgi
- Peruvian Inca Orchid
- Pharaoh Hound
- Pomeranian
- Poodle (Miniature and Toy)
- Poodle (Standard)
- Rampur Greyhound
- Rough Collie
- Saluki
- Samoyed
- Scottish Deerhound
- Shetland Sheepdog
- Silken Windhound
- Sloughi
- Smooth Collie
- Taigan
- Whippet
- Xoloitzcuintle
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List of dolichocephalic felines
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- Balinese
- Devon Rex
- Donskoy
- Jaguar
- Javanese
- Leopard
- Lion
- Ocelot
- Oriental Bicolor and Tricolor
- Oriental Longhair
- Oriental Shorthair
- Panthera hybrid
- Peterbald
- Sabertooth cats
- Savannah
- Siamese
- Snow leopard
- Sphynx
- Tiger
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List of dolichocephalic leporids
- English Spot
- English Lop
- Belgian Hare
- All true hares
Other
- Baboon
- Bontebok
- Cow
- Dinosaur (including birds)
- Dolphin
- Domestic horse
- Donkey
- Gharial
- Grevy's zebra
- Hartebeest
- Kangaroo
- Mule
- Onager
- Plains zebra
- Polar bear
- Sloth bear
- Thylacine
- Warthog
- Whale
- Wild boar
- Wildebeest
See also
References
External links
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- ↑ Kintanar, T. A., & Fowler, Grant C., MD. (2020). Obstetric Ultrasound. In Pfenninger and Fowler's Procedures for Primary Care (Fourth Edition, pp. 984–998). doi:10.1016/B978-0-323-47633-1.00142-3
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- ↑ FOUR PAWS International: The suffering of dogs with genetic disorders
- ↑ Anne Fawcett, Vanessa Barrs, Magdoline Awad et al.: Consequences and Management of Canine Brachycephaly in Veterinary Practice: Perspectives from Australian Veterinarians and Veterinary Specialists
- ↑ Border Wars: Torture breeding
- ↑ FECAVA: Brachycephalic issues: shared resources
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