Durga: Difference between revisions

Revision as of 05:33, 20 November 2025

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Template:Sidebar with collapsible lists Durga (Template:IPAc-en; Template:Langx, Template:IAST3 Script error: No such module "IPA".), also known as Mahādevī (Template:IPAc-en; Template:Langx, Template:IAST3, [mɐɦaːd̪eːʋiː]), and Ādiśakti (Template:IPAc-en; Template:Langx, Template:IAST3, [aːd̪ɪ ʃɐkt̪i]), is one of the most important deities in Hinduism. She is the Supreme Being in Shaktism and widely worshipped by the followers of this goddess-centric sect, and has importance in other denominations like Shaivism and Vaishnavism.Template:Sfn Template:Sfn

She is associated with protection, strength, motherhood, destruction, and wars, her legends centers around combating evils and demonic forces that threaten peace, dharma and cosmic order, representing the power of good over evil.Template:Sfn Template:Sfn Durga is seen as a motherly figure and often depicted as a warrior, riding a lion or tiger, with many arms, each carrying a weapon and defeating demons.Template:Sfn Template:Sfn Template:Sfn Template:Sfn Template:Sfn Template:Sfn Template:Sfn

Durga is believed to have originated as an ancient goddess worshipped by indigenous mountain-dwellers of the Indian subcontinent, before being established in the main Hindu pantheon by the 4th century CE. The most important texts of Shaktism, Devi Mahatmya and Devi Bhagavata Purana, which revere Devi (the Goddess) as the primordial creator of the universe and the Brahman (ultimate truth and reality),Template:Sfn Template:Sfn Template:Sfn identify Durga as the embodiment of maya (illusion), shakti (power or energy) and prakriti (nature).Template:Sfn She is best known as Mahishasura-mardini; for slaying Mahishasura—the buffalo demon who could only be killed by a woman. In accounts of her battles with other demons such as Shumbha and Nishumbha, Durga manifests other warrior goddesses, the Matrikas, and Kali, to aid in combat.Template:Sfn

In Vaishnava contexts, Durga is revered as Yogamaya Template:Sfn^[1]^[2] However, in traditions where she is identified with the goddess Parvati, she also acquires domestic attributes and is widely regarded as the consort of Shiva. This identification is especially prominent in the regional traditions of Bengal, where Durga is also considered as the mother of the deities Ganesha, Kartikeya, Lakshmi, and Sarasvati.Template:Sfn Template:Sfn

Durga has a significant following all over Nepal, India, Bangladesh and many other countries. She is worshipped after spring and autumn harvests, especially during the festivals of Durga Puja, Durga Ashtami, Vijayadashami, Deepavali, and Navaratri.Template:Sfn Template:Sfn She is one of the five equivalent deities in Panchayatana puja of the Smarta tradition of Hinduism.Template:Sfn^[3]

Etymology and nomenclature

Template:Saktism The word Durga (दुर्गा) literally means "impassable",Template:Sfn Template:Sfn "invincible, unassailable".Template:Sfn It is related to the word Durg (दुर्ग) which means "fortress, something difficult to defeat or pass". According to Monier Monier-Williams, Durga is derived from the roots dur (difficult) and gam (pass, go through).^[4] According to Indologist Alain Daniélou, Durga means "beyond defeat".Template:Sfn

The word Durga and related terms appear in the Vedic literature, such as in the Rigveda hymns 4.28, 5.34, 8.27, 8.47, 8.93 and 10.127, and in sections 10.1 and 12.4 of the Atharvaveda.^[4]^[5]Template:Refn A deity named Durge appears in section 10.1.7 of the Taittiriya Aranyaka.^[4] While the Vedic literature uses the word Durga, the description therein lacks the legendary details about her that is found in later Hindu literature.Template:Sfn

The word is also found in ancient post-Vedic Sanskrit texts such as in section 2.451 of the Mahabharata and section 4.27.16 of the Ramayana.^[4] These usages are in different contexts. For example, Durg is the name of an Asura who had become invincible to gods, and Durga is the goddess who intervenes and slays him. Durga and its derivatives are found in sections 4.1.99 and 6.3.63 of the Ashtadhyayi by Pāṇini, the ancient Sanskrit grammarian, and in the commentary of Nirukta by Yaska.^[4]

Epithets

Durga is commonly known as Mahishasura-mardini for slaying the half-buffalo demon Mahishasura.Template:Sfn She is also known as Vindhyavasini (she who dwells in the Vindhya Mountains).Template:Sfn Her other epithets include Mahamoha (great delusion), Mahasuri (the great demoness), Tamasi (the great night, the night of delusion).Template:Sfn

Etymology and other names

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There are many epithets for Durga in Shaktism and her nine appellations are (Navadurga): Shailaputri, Brahmacharini, Chandraghanta, Kushmanda, Skandamata, Katyayini, Kalaratri, Mahagauri and Siddhidatri. A list of 108 names of the goddess is recited in order to worship her and is popularly known as the "Ashtottarshat Namavali of Goddess Durga".Script error: No such module "Unsubst".

Other meanings may include: "the one who cannot be accessed easily",^[4] "the undefeatable goddess".Template:Sfn

Durga is also known as Durgati Nashini, meaning one who eliminates suffering.^[6]

Her other names include Chandika, Sharada, Ambika, Vaishnavi etc.^[7]

History and texts

File:Durga slaying buffalo composite, 2nd-century to 13th-century Devi Mahatmya.png

Artwork depicting the "Goddess Durga Slaying the Buffalo demon Mahishasura" scene of Devi Mahatmya, is found all over India, Nepal and southeast Asia. Clockwise from top: 9th-century Kashmir, 13th-century Karnataka, 9th century Prambanan Indonesia, 2nd-century Uttar Pradesh.

Evidence of Durga-like images can probably be traced back to the Indus Valley civilisation. According to Asko Parpola, a cylindrical seal from Kalibangan shows "a Durgā-like goddess of war, who is associated with the tiger".^[8]^[9]

Reverence for Devi, the feminine nature of God, first appears in the 10th Maṇḍala of Rig Veda, one of the scriptures of Hinduism. This hymn is also called the Devi Suktam hymn (abridged):Template:Sfn Template:Sfn

I am the Queen, the gatherer-up of treasures, most thoughtful, first of those who merit worship.
     Thus gods have established me in many places with many homes to enter and abide in.
Through me alone all eat the food that feeds them, – each man who sees, breathes, hears the word outspoken.
     They know it not, yet I reside in the essence of the Universe. Hear, one and all, the truth as I declare it.
I, verily, myself announce and utter the word that gods and men alike shall welcome.
     I make the man I love exceedingly mighty, make him nourished, a sage, and one who knows Brahman.
I bend the bow for Rudra, that his arrow may strike, and slay the hater of devotion.
     I rouse and order battle for the people, I created Earth and Heaven and reside as their Inner Controller.
On the world's summit I bring forth sky the Father: my home is in the waters, in the ocean as Mother.
     Thence I pervade all existing creatures, as their Inner Supreme Self, and manifest them with my body.
I created all worlds at my will, without any higher being, and permeate and dwell within them.
     The eternal and infinite consciousness is I, it is my greatness dwelling in everything.

– Devi Sukta, Rigveda 10.125.3 – 10.125.8,Template:Sfn Template:Sfn^[10]

Devi's epithets synonymous with Durga appear in Upanishadic literature, such as Kali in verse 1.2.4 of the Mundaka Upanishad dated to about the 5th century BCE.Template:Sfn This single mention describes Kali as "terrible yet swift as thought", very red and smoky coloured manifestation of the divine with a fire-like flickering tongue, before the text begins presenting its thesis that one must seek self-knowledge and the knowledge of the eternal Brahman.^[11]

Durga, in her various forms, appears as an independent deity in the Epics period of ancient India, that is the centuries around the start of the common era.Template:Sfn Both Yudhisthira and Arjuna characters of the Mahabharata invoke hymns to Durga.Template:Sfn She appears in Harivamsa in the form of Vishnu's eulogy, and in Pradyumna prayer.Template:Sfn Various Puranas from the early to late 1st millennium CE dedicate chapters of inconsistent legends associated with Durga.Template:Sfn Of these, the Markandeya Purana and the Devi-Bhagavata Purana are the most significant texts on Durga.Template:Sfn Template:Sfn The Devi Upanishad and other Shakta Upanishads, mostly dated to have been composed in or after the 9th century, present the philosophical and mystical speculations related to Durga as Devi and other epithets, identifying her to be the same as the Brahman and Atman (self, soul).Template:Sfn Template:Sfn The Skanda Purana, Shiva Purana and many others Puranas identifies Durga as the warrior form of the goddess Parvati.Template:Sfn The Mahishasura Mardini Stotra by Adi Shankara was written in her praise.^[12]

Vishnu-centric Puranas identify Durga as Vishnu's sister ".Template:Sfn In Vishnu Purana and Bhagavata Purana, Durga facilitates the birth of Vishnu's avatar Krishna.Template:Sfn^[13]^[14].^[15]^[16]^[17]

Origins

The historian Ramaprasad Chanda stated in 1916 that Durga evolved over time in the Indian subcontinent. A primitive form of Durga, according to Chanda, was the result of "syncretism of a mountain-goddess worshipped by the dwellers of the Himalaya and the Vindhyas", a deity of the Abhiras conceptualised as a war-goddess. Durga then transformed into Kali as the personification of the all-destroying time, while aspects of her emerged as the primordial energy (Adya Sakti) integrated into the samsara (cycle of rebirths) concept and this idea was built on the foundation of the Vedic religion, mythology and philosophy.Template:Sfn

Epigraphical evidence indicates that regardless of her origins, Durga is an ancient goddess. The 6th-century CE inscriptions in early Siddhamatrika script, such as at the Nagarjuni hill cave during the Maukhari era, already mention the legend of her victory over Mahishasura (buffalo-hybrid demon).^[18]

Durga as a demon-slaying goddess was likely well established by the time the classic Hindu text called Devi Mahatmya was composed, which scholars variously estimate to between 400 and 600 CE.Template:Sfn Template:Sfn Template:Sfn The Devi Mahatmya and other mythologies describe the nature of demonic forces symbolised by Mahishasura as shape-shifting and adapting in nature, form and strategy to create difficulties and achieve their evil ends, while Durga calmly understands and counters the evil in order to achieve her solemn goals.Template:Sfn Template:Sfn Template:Refn

Legends

File:Durga Mahisasuramardini.JPG

18th-century painting of Durga slaying the buffalo demon Mahishasura

The most popular legend associated with the goddess is of her killing of Mahishasura. Mahishasura was a half-buffalo demon who did severe penance in order to please Brahma, the creator. After several years, Brahma, pleased with his devotion, appeared before him. The demon opened his eyes and asked the god for immortality. Brahma refused, stating that all must die one day. Mahishasura then thought for a while and asked a boon that only a woman could be able to kill him. Brahma granted the boon and disappeared. Mahishasura started to torture innocent people. He captured Svarga and was not in any kind of fear, as he thought women to be powerless and weak. The devas were worried and they went to Trimurti. The Trimurti combined their power, and gave a physical form to the sum of their divine energy, Adi Shakti, a warrior woman with many arms. Himavan, the personification of the Himalayas, gifted a lion as her mount. Durga, on her lion, appeared before Mahishasura where the demon took on different forms and attacked the goddess. Each time, Durga would destroy his forms. At last, Durga slew Mahishasura with her trident when he was transforming as a buffalo demon.^[19]^[20]

According to Vaishnava tradition, Durga is among the various epithets and avatars of Yogamaya, the personification of the illusory power of Vishnu. Vishnu offers Durga the task of transferring the seventh child of Devaki into the womb of Rohini, as well as being born on earth as the infant daughter of Yashoda and Nanda, so that she could be swapped with Krishna. When Kamsa attempted to slay her, she manifested her true form of an eighteen-armed goddess, wearing a garland of lemons. The goddess announced that Kamsa's slayer had already been born, before vanishing.^[21] Durga is often conceptualised in this role as a sister of Vishnu.^[22]

Attributes and iconography

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Durga is a warrior goddess, and she is depicted to express her martial skills. Her iconography typically resonates with these attributes, where she rides a lion or a tiger,Template:Sfn has between eight and eighteen hands, each holding a weapon to destroy and create.Template:Sfn Template:Sfn She is often shown in the midst of her war with Mahishasura, the buffalo demon, at the time she victoriously kills the demonic force. Her icon shows her in action, yet her face is calm and serene.Template:Sfn^[23] In Hindu arts, this tranquil attribute of Durga's face is traditionally derived from the belief that she is protective and violent not because of her hatred, egotism or getting pleasure in violence, but because she acts out of necessity, for the love of the good, for liberation of those who depend on her, and a mark of the beginning of soul's journey to creative freedom.^[23]Template:Sfn Template:Sfn

File:Durga 2005.jpg

Durga killing Mahishasura in a Durga Puja celebration in Bengal

File:Stone sculpture of Durga Mahishasuramardini.jpg

13th century stone sculpture in the British Museum

Durga traditionally holds the weapons of various male gods of Hindu mythology, which they give her to fight the evil forces because they feel that she is shakti (energy, power).^[24] These include the chakra (divine discus), conch, bow, arrow, sword, javelin, trishula trident, shield, mace, pink lotus flower, and noose.Template:Sfn These weapons are considered symbolic by Shakta Hindus, representing self-discipline, selfless service to others, self-examination, prayer, devotion, remembering her mantras, cheerfulness and meditation. Durga herself is viewed as the "Self" within and the divine mother of all creation.^[25] She has been revered by warriors, blessing their new weapons.^[26] Durga iconography has been flexible in the Hindu traditions, where for example some intellectuals place a pen or other writing implements in her hand since they consider their stylus as their weapon.^[26]

Archeological discoveries suggest that these iconographic features of Durga became common throughout India by about the 4th century CE, states David Kinsley – a professor of religious studies specialising on Hindu goddesses.Template:Sfn In the north wall of a granite cave in Mamallapuram, Tamil Nadu there is a large relief of Durga slaying Mahisasura, carved around 630–674 CE.^[27]

Durga iconography in some temples appears as part of Mahavidyas or Saptamatrkas (seven mothers considered forms of Durga). Her icons in major Hindu temples such as in Varanasi include relief artworks that show scenes from the Devi Mahatmya.Template:Sfn

In Vaishnavism, Durga and her mount of a lion, is considered one of the three aspects or forms of Lakshmi, the other two being Sri and Bhu, in place of Niladevi.Template:Sfn According to professor Tracy Pintchman, "When the Lord Vishnu created the gunas of prakriti, there arose Lakshmi in her three forms, Sri, Bhu and Durga. Sri consisted of sattva, Bhu as rajas and Durga as tamas".Template:Sfn

Durga appears in Hindu traditions in numerous forms and names, but ultimately all these are different aspects and manifestations of one goddess. She is imagined to be terrifying and destructive when she has to be, but benevolent and nurturing when she needs to be.Template:Sfn While anthropomorphic icons of her, such as those showing her riding a lion and holding weapons, are common, the Hindu traditions use aniconic forms and geometric designs (yantra) to remember and revere what she symbolises.Template:Sfn

Worship and festivals

Durga is worshipped in Hindu temples across India and Nepal by Shakta Hindus.

The Vedic Texts concluded Durga alone to be the Supreme and the Absolute facet of Brahman,Script error: No such module "Unsubst". as stated in the Devi-Atharvashirsha^[28]

यस्याः परतरं नास्ति सैषा दुर्गा प्रकीर्तिता॥२४॥
She who is renowned by the name "Durga" is the being superior to whom, no one exists.
– Devi Atharvashirhsa Upanishad, 24.

Her temples, worship and festivals are particularly popular in eastern and northeastern parts of Indian subcontinent during Durga puja, Dashain and Navaratri.Template:Sfn Template:Sfn^[29]^[30]

Durga puja

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File:A Durga festival collage.jpg

Durga festival images (clockwise from top): Durga Puja pandal with a Durga idol with 10 lakh hands standing on top a bull's head to symbolize her victory over Mahishasura in Kolkata, Dancing on Vijaya Dashami, women smearing each other with colour, and family get together for Dashain in Nepal.

As per the Markandeya Purana, Durga Puja can be performed either for 9 days or 4 days (last four in sequence). The four-day-long Durga Puja is a major annual festival in Bengal, Odisha, Assam, Jharkhand and Bihar.Template:Sfn Template:Sfn It is scheduled per the Hindu luni-solar calendar in the month of Ashvina,Template:Sfn and typically falls in September or October. Since it is celebrated during Sharad (literally, season of weeds), it is called as Sharadiya Durga Puja or Akal-Bodhan to differentiate it from the one celebrated originally in spring. The festival is celebrated by communities by making special colourful images of Durga out of clay,Template:Sfn recitations of Devi Mahatmya text,Template:Sfn prayers and revelry for nine days, after which it is taken out in procession with singing and dancing, then immersed in water. The Durga puja is an occasion of major private and public festivities in the eastern and northeastern states of India.Template:Sfn Template:Sfn Template:Sfn

The day of Durga's victory is celebrated as Vijayadashami (Bijoya in Bengali), Dashain (Nepali) or Dussehra (in Hindi) – these words literally mean "the victory on the Tenth (day)".^[31]

This festival is an old tradition of Hinduism, though it is unclear how and in which century the festival began. Surviving manuscripts from the 14th century provide guidelines for Durga puja, while historical records suggest royalty and wealthy families were sponsoring major Durga puja public festivities since at least the 16th century.Template:Sfn The 11th or 12th century Jainism text Yasatilaka by Somadeva mentions a festival and annual dates dedicated to a warrior goddess, celebrated by the king and his armed forces, and the description mirrors attributes of a Durga puja.Template:Sfn

The prominence of Durga puja increased during the British Raj in Bengal.^[32] After the Hindu reformists identified Durga with India, she became an icon for the Indian independence movement.Script error: No such module "Unsubst". The city of Kolkata is famous for Durga puja.^[33]

Dashain

File:Durga - Mahishasurmardini.jpg

Durga killing Mahishasura, relief sculpture on Rani ki vav

In Nepal, the festival dedicated to Durga is called Dashain (sometimes spelled as Dasain), which literally means "the ten".^[29] Dashain is the longest national holiday of Nepal, and is a public holiday in Sikkim and Bhutan. During Dashain, Durga is worshipped in ten forms (Shailaputri, Brahmacharini, Chandraghanta, Kushmanda, Skandamata, Katyayani, Kalaratri, Mahagauri, Mahakali and Durga) with one form for each day in Nepal. The festival includes animal sacrifice in some communities, as well as the purchase of new clothes and gift giving. Traditionally, the festival is celebrated over 15 days, the first nine-day are spent by the faithful by remembering Durga and her ideas, the tenth day marks Durga's victory over Mahisura, and the last five days celebrate the victory of good over evil.^[29]

During the first nine days, nine aspects of Durga known as Navadurga are meditated upon, one by one during the nine-day festival by devout Hindus. Durga is usually worshipped as a celibate and independent goddess. However, in some popular devotional practices—especially in Eastern India, such as in Bengal's Shakta folk traditions, she is venerated alongside Shiva, who is regarded as her consort. These traditions also include the worship of Lakshmi, Saraswati, Ganesha and Kartikeya, who are considered to be her children.^[34]Template:Sfn

Some Shaktas worship Durga's symbolism and presence as Mother Nature. In South India, especially Andhra Pradesh, Dussera Navaratri is also celebrated and the goddess is dressed each day as a different Devi, all considered equivalent but another aspect of Durga.

Other cultures

In Bangladesh, the four-day-long Sharadiya Durga Puja is the most important religious festival for the Hindus and celebrated across the country with Vijayadashami being a national holiday. In Sri Lanka, Durga in the form of Vaishnavi, bearing Vishnu's iconographic symbolism is celebrated. This tradition has been continued by Sri Lankan diaspora.^[35]

Outside Hinduism

In Buddhism

File:MET DT238.jpg

Durga statue from the Buddhist Pala Empire, in which Buddhism and Hinduism coexisted peacefully.^[36]

File:COLLECTIE TROPENMUSEUM Beeld van Durga als de godin Kwan Yin in een Chinese tempel te Soerabaja TMnr 10026825.jpg

Image of Durga, interpreted as a form of Guanyin, in a Chinese temple in Surabaya, East Java, Indonesia. It resembles Chola art and likely pre-dates the Chinese community in East Java.

File:Sikh mural of Durga from a gurdwara.jpg

Mural of Durga crushing Mahikasur from the Guru Ram Rai Udasin Akhara located in Dehradun

The Tantric Buddhist Vajrayana traditions adopted several Hindu deities into its fold, including Durga.^[37]^[38]^[39]^[40]^[41] Numerous depictions of Durgā Mahiṣāsuramardinī (Durgā slaying the buffalo demon) have been found at Buddhist temple sites (c. 8th–11th century) in Afghanistan, Indonesia and northeastern India. Durga statues have also been found in major Buddhist sites like Nalanda and Vikramashila.^[37]

In Bengal, late Indian Mahayana Buddhists during the 17th century worshiped Durga during traditional Yogini Puja celebrations, and some traces of these Mahayana Durga rites survive today, even though the Bengalis who perform them are no longer Buddhist.^[42]

Images of the Buddhist Durga have also been found in Bali (surrounded with images of Buddhas and bodhisattvas) and date from the 10th and 11th centuries.^[37]

Durga also appears in the Sarvadurgatipariśodhana tantra, though in this text, she appears not in her demon slaying form, but mounted on a lion.^[37]

Several aspects of the popular Vajrayana Buddhist goddess Tārā are believed to have originated as a form of the goddess Durga or to have been influenced by Hindu stories of Durga, including Tara's fierce forms.^[43]^[44] One form of Tara is even called Durgottāriṇī-tārā who specializes in saving devotees from evil and rides a lion mount, the traditional mount of Durga.^[44] Durgottāriṇī appears in the Sādhanamālā (237.10; 237.21; 238.4).^[45]

In Nepalese Buddhism, the Buddhist tantric goddess Vajrayogini is "often worshiped interchangeably with Durga" during Durga festivals.^[46] Newar Buddhists also worship Durgottāriṇī-tārā during some of their Prajñāpāramitā rituals.^[47]

In Japanese Buddhism, the deity Cundī, also known as Butsu-mo (仏母, sometimes called Koti-sri), shares many features with Durga, and some scholars have the two deities as related.^[48]^[49] However, as Gimello notes, they are not the same deity, though they are often confused.^[50]

Likewise, in Tibetan Buddhism, the goddess Palden Lhamo also has similar features to the protective and fierce Durga.^[51]^[52]

In Jainism

The Sacciya mata found in major medieval era Jain temples mirrors Durga, and she has been identified by Jainism scholars to be the same or sharing a more ancient common lineage.^[53] In the Ellora Caves, the Jain temples feature Durga with her lion mount. However, she is not shown as killing the buffalo demon in the Jain cave, but she is presented as a peaceful deity.^[54]

In Sikhism

Script error: No such module "Labelled list hatnote". Durga is exalted as a creation of the divine in Dasam Granth, a sacred text of Sikhism that is traditionally attributed to Guru Gobind Singh.^[55]

According to Eleanor Nesbitt, this view has been challenged by Sikhs who consider Sikhism to be monotheistic, who hold that a feminine form of the Supreme and a reverence for the Goddess is "unmistakably of Hindu character".^[55]

Outside the Indian subcontinent

File:3 Hindu goddess Durga in Southeast Asia.jpg

Goddess Durga in Southeast Asia, from left: 7th/8th century Cambodia, 10/11th century Vietnam, 8th/9th century Indonesia.

Archeological site excavations in Indonesia, particularly on the island of Java, have yielded numerous statues of Durga. These have been dated to be from the 6th century onwards.^[56] Of the numerous early to mid medieval era Hindu deity stone statues uncovered on Indonesian islands, at least 135 statues are of Durga.^[57] In parts of Java, she is known as Loro Jonggrang (literally, "slender maiden").^[58]

In Cambodia, during its era of Hindu kings, Durga was popular and numerous sculptures of her have been found. However, most differ from the Indian representation in one detail. The Cambodian Durga iconography shows her standing on top of the cut buffalo demon head.^[59]

Durga statues have been discovered at stone temples and archaeological sites in Vietnam, likely related to Champa or Cham dynasty era.^[60]^[61]

Influence

Durga as the mother goddess is the inspiration behind the song Vande Mataram, written by Bankim Chandra Chatterjee, during the Indian independence movement, later the official national song of India. Durga is present in Indian nationalism where Bharat Mata i.e. Mother India is viewed as a form of Durga. This is completely secular and keeping in line with the ancient ideology of Durga as Mother and protector to Indians. She is present in pop culture and blockbuster Bollywood movies like Jai Santoshi Maa. The Indian Army uses Hindustani phrases like "Durga Mata ki Jai!" and "Kaali Mata ki Jai!". Any woman who takes up a cause to fight for goodness and justice is said to have the spirit of Durga in her.^[62]^[63]

Notes

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References

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↑ Maurice Bloomfield (1906), A Vedic concordance, Series editor: Charles Lanman, Harvard University Press, page 486;
Example Sanskrit original: "अहन्निन्द्रो अदहदग्निरिन्दो पुरा दस्यून्मध्यंदिनादभीके। दुर्गे दुरोणे क्रत्वा न यातां पुरू सहस्रा शर्वा नि बर्हीत्॥३॥ – Rigveda 4.28.8, Wikisource Template:Webarchive
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↑ The Rig Veda/Mandala 10/Hymn 125 Template:Webarchive Ralph T.H. Griffith (Translator); for Sanskrit original see: ऋग्वेद: सूक्तं १०.१२५ Template:Webarchive
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Sen Ramprasad (1720–1781). Grace and Mercy in Her Wild Hair: Selected Poems to the Mother Goddess. Hohm Press. Template:ISBN.
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External links

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Durga Battling the Buffalo Demon: Iconography, Carlos Museum, Emory University
Devi Durga, Arthur M. Sackler Gallery and Freer Gallery of Art, Smithsonian Institution
Overview Of World Religions – Devotion to Durga

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[5] Maurice Bloomfield (1906), A Vedic concordance, Series editor: Charles Lanman, Harvard University Press, page 486;
Example Sanskrit original: "अहन्निन्द्रो अदहदग्निरिन्दो पुरा दस्यून्मध्यंदिनादभीके। दुर्गे दुरोणे क्रत्वा न यातां पुरू सहस्रा शर्वा नि बर्हीत्॥३॥ – Rigveda 4.28.8, Wikisource Template:Webarchive

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[Hymn_125-10] The Rig Veda/Mandala 10/Hymn 125 Template:Webarchive Ralph T.H. Griffith (Translator); for Sanskrit original see: ऋग्वेद: सूक्तं १०.१२५ Template:Webarchive

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Durga: Difference between revisions

Revision as of 05:33, 20 November 2025

Contents

Etymology and nomenclature

Epithets

Etymology and other names

History and texts

Origins

Legends

Attributes and iconography

Worship and festivals

Durga puja

Dashain

Other cultures

Outside Hinduism

In Buddhism

In Jainism

In Sikhism

Outside the Indian subcontinent

Influence

See also

Notes

References

Bibliography

External links

Navigation menu

@@ Line 1: / Line 1: @@
-{{short description|Principal Hindu goddess}}
+{{short description|Major deity in Hinduism}}
+{{Distinguish|Vaishno Devi}}
 {{other uses}}
 {{redirect|Mahisasuramardini|the radio programme|Mahisasuramardini (radio programme){{!}}''Mahisasuramardini'' (radio program)}}
 {{redirect|Demus|the surname|Demus (surname)|the production company|Demus Productions|the subdivision in Ancient Greece|deme}}
-{{EngvarB|date=August 2020}}
+{{Use British English|date=August 2020}}
 {{Use dmy dates|date=November 2021}}
 {{Infobox deity<!--Wikipedia:WikiProject Hindu mythology-->
-| type = Hindu
+| type = Hinduism
-| image = Durga Mahisasuramardini.JPG
+| image = Mahishasura-Mardini Durga.jpg
-| caption = 18th-century painting of Durga slaying the buffalo demon [[Mahishasura]]
+| caption = The Hindu goddess [[Durga]] slaying the buffalo demon [[Mahishasura]]
-| god_of = Mother Goddess;<br />Goddess of Power, Strength and Protection
+| god_of = Mother Goddess;<br />Goddess of [[Shakti|Power]], Strength, Protection and Motherhood<br />[[Parabrahman]], the Ultimate Reality in [[Shaktism]]{{sfn|David R Kinsley|1989|pp=104}}
 | name = Durga
-| day = [[Friday]]
+| day = Tuesday, Friday, Saturday
 | mantra = *Oṃ Śrī Durgāyai Namaḥ
 * Oṃ Aiṃ Hrīṃ Klīṃ Cāmuṇḍāyai Vicce
-| affiliation = [[Devi]], [[Shakti]], [[Mahadevi]], [[Lakshmi]], [[Parvati]], [[Kali]], [[Navadurga]], [[Chandi]]
+| affiliation ={{hlist|[[Devi]]|[[Shakti]]|[[Mahadevi]]|[[Navadurga]]|[[Matrikas]]|[[Kali]]|[[Mariamman]]|{{avoid wrap|[[Tripura Sundari]]}}|[[kamakhya]]|[[chandi]]|[[Mahavidyas]]}}
-| weapon = [[Sudarshana Chakra|Chakra]] (discus), [[Trishula]] (trident), [[Gada (mace)]], Bow and Arrow, [[Khanda (sword)]]
+| weapon ={{hlist|{{avoid wrap|[[Sudarshana Chakra|Chakra]] (discus)}}|{{avoid wrap|[[Trishula]] (trident)}}|{{avoid wrap|[[Gada (mace)]]}}|{{avoid wrap|Bow and Arrow}}|{{avoid wrap|[[Khanda (sword)]]}}|{{avoid wrap|[[ankusha]] (elephant goad)}}}}
 | devanagari = दुर्गा
-| other_names = Adi Shakti, Mahishasura Mardini, Bhagavati, Bhavani, [[Jagadamba]]
+| other_names ={{hlist|{{avoid wrap|Mahishasura-mardini}}|[[Kaushiki]]|[[Katyayani]]|[[Chandi]]ka|[[Ambika (goddess)|Ambika]]|[[Yogamaya|Mahamaya]]|Shakti|[[Bhavani]]|[[Jagadamba]]|Bhagavati|Divine Mother{{avoid wrap|Durgati Nashini}}}}
-| mount = Lion; Tiger{{sfn|Robert S Ellwood|Gregory D Alles|2007|p=126}}{{sfn|Wendy Doniger|1999|p=306}}
+| mount ={{hlist|Lion|{{avoid wrap|Tiger{{sfn|Robert S Ellwood|Gregory D Alles|2007|p=126}}{{sfn|Wendy Doniger|1999|p=306}}}}}}
-| festivals = [[Durga Puja]], [[Durga Ashtami]], [[Navaratri]], [[Vijayadashami]], [[Bathukamma]]
+| festivals ={{hlist|{{avoid wrap|[[Durga Puja]]}}|{{avoid wrap|[[Durga Ashtami]]}}|[[Navaratri]]|[[Vijayadashami]]|[[Bathukamma]]|[[Deepawali]]|[[Kali Puja]]{{avoid wrap|Jagaddhatri Puja}}}}
-| equivalent1 = [[Panthoibi]]<ref>{{cite book | last=Singh | first=Moirangthem Kirti | title=Recent Researches in Oriental Indological Studies: Including Meiteilogy | publisher=Parimal Publications | date=1998 | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=LVpuAAAAMAAJ&q=panthoibi+Durga }}</ref>|
+| equivalent1 = [[Panthoibi]]<ref>{{cite book |last=Singh |first=Moirangthem Kirti |title=Recent Researches in Oriental Indological Studies: Including Meiteilogy |publisher=Parimal Publications |date=1998 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=LVpuAAAAMAAJ&q=panthoibi+Durga}}</ref>|
 | equivalent1_type = Manipuri
-| abode = [[Manidvipa]], [[Vindhya Range|Vindhyachal]]
+| abode ={{hlist|[[Manidvipa]]|[[Vindhya Range|Vindhyachal]]}}
-| texts = [[Devi-Bhagavata Purana]], [[Devi Mahatmya]], [[Kalika Purana]], [[Shakta Upanishads]], [[Tantras (Hinduism)|Tantras]]
+| texts ={{hlist|{{avoid wrap|[[Devi-Bhagavata Purana]]}}|{{avoid wrap|[[Devi Mahatmya]]}}|{{avoid wrap|[[Kalika Purana]]}}|{{avoid wrap|[[Shakta Upanishads]]}}|[[Tantras (Hinduism)|Tantras]]}}
-| member_of = [[Prakriti|Pancha Prakriti]]
+| gender = Female
-| gender = [[Female]]
 }}
 {{Hinduism}}
-'''Durga''' ({{langx|sa|दुर्गा}}, {{IAST3|Durgā}}) is a major [[Hinduism|Hindu]] [[Devi|goddess]], worshipped as a principal aspect of the mother goddess [[Mahadevi]]. She is associated with protection, strength, motherhood, destruction, and wars.{{sfn|Encyclopedia Britannica|2015}}{{sfn|David R Kinsley|1989|pp=3–4}}{{sfn|Charles Phillips| Michael Kerrigan| David Gould|2011|pp=93–94}}
+'''Durga''' ({{IPAc-en|ˈ|d|ʊər|ɡ|ə}}; {{langx|sa|दुर्गा|lit=The Inaccessible One, The Impenetrable One}}, {{IAST3|Durgā}} {{IPA|sa|d̪ʊrɡaː|}}<!-- Do not remove, WP:INDICSCRIPT doesn't apply to WikiProject Hinduism -->), also known as '''[[Mahadevi|Mahādevī]]''' ({{IPAc-en|m|ə|ˈ|h|ɑː|_|'|d|eɪ|v|i}}; {{langx|sa|महादेवी|lit=The Great Goddess}}, {{IAST3|Mahādevī}}, [[Help:IPA/Sanskrit|[mɐɦaːd̪eːʋiː]]]), and '''Ādiśakti''' ({{IPAc-en|ˈ|ɑː|d|i|ʃ|æ|k|t|i}}; {{langx|sa|आदि शक्ति|lit=The Primordial Power}}, {{IAST3|Ādiśakti}}, [[Help:IPA/Sanskrit|[aːd̪ɪ ʃɐkt̪i]]]), is one of the most important  [[Hindu deities|deities]] in [[Hinduism]]. She is the [[parabrahman|Supreme Being]] in [[Shaktism]] and widely worshipped by the followers of this goddess-centric sect, and has importance in other denominations like [[Shaivism]] and [[Vaishnavism]].{{sfn|Paul Reid-Bowen|2012|pp=212–213}}{{sfn|Lynn Foulston|Stuart Abbott|2009|pp=9–17}}
+She is associated with protection, strength, motherhood, destruction, and wars, her legends centers around combating evils and demonic forces that threaten peace, [[dharma]] and cosmic order, representing the power of good over evil.{{sfn|David R Kinsley|1989|pp=3–4}}{{sfn|Paul Reid-Bowen|2012|pp=212–213}} Durga is seen as a motherly figure and often depicted as a warrior, riding a lion or tiger, with many arms, each carrying a weapon and defeating demons.{{sfn|Encyclopedia Britannica|2015}}{{sfn|David R Kinsley|1989|pp=3–4}}{{sfn|Charles Phillips|Michael Kerrigan|David Gould|2011|pp=93–94}}{{sfn|Wendy Doniger|1999|p=306}}{{sfn|David R Kinsley|1989|pp=3–5}}{{sfn|Laura Amazzone|2011|pp=71–73}}{{sfn|Donald J LaRocca|1996|pp=5–6}}
-Durga's legend centres around combating evils and demonic forces that threaten peace, prosperity, and [[dharma]], representing the power of good over evil.{{sfn|David R Kinsley|1989|pp=3–4}}{{sfn|Paul Reid-Bowen|2012|pp=212–213}} Durga is believed to unleash her divine wrath against the wicked for the liberation of the oppressed, and entails destruction to empower creation.{{sfn|Laura Amazzone|2012|pp=3–5}} Durga is seen as a motherly figure and often depicted as a beautiful woman, riding a lion or tiger, with many arms each carrying a weapon and often defeating demons.{{sfn|Wendy Doniger|1999|p=306}}{{sfn|David R Kinsley|1989|pp=3–5}}{{sfn|Laura Amazzone|2011|pp=71–73}}{{sfn|Donald J LaRocca|1996|pp=5–6}} She is widely worshipped by the followers of the goddess-centric sect, [[Shaktism]], and has importance in other denominations like [[Shaivism]] and [[Vaishnavism]].{{sfn|Paul Reid-Bowen|2012|pp=212–213}}{{sfn|Lynn Foulston|Stuart Abbott|2009|pp=9–17}}
+Durga is believed to have originated as an ancient goddess worshipped by indigenous mountain-dwellers of the [[Indian subcontinent]], before being established in the main Hindu pantheon by the 4th century CE. The most important texts of Shaktism, ''[[Devi Mahatmya]]'' and ''[[Devi Bhagavata Purana]]'', which revere [[Mahadevi|Devi]] (the Goddess) as the primordial creator of the universe and the [[Brahman]] (ultimate truth and reality),{{Sfn|June McDaniel|2004|pp=215–216}}{{Sfn|David Kinsley|1998|pp=101–102}}{{sfn|Laura Amazzone|2012|p=xi}} identify Durga as the embodiment of [[Maya (religion)|''maya'']] (illusion), ''[[shakti]]'' (power or energy) and [[prakriti]] (nature).{{sfn|David R Kinsley|1989|pp=96, 104}} She is best known as ''Mahishasura-mardini''; for slaying [[Mahishasura]]—the buffalo demon who could only be killed by a woman. In accounts of her battles with other demons such as [[Shumbha and Nishumbha]], Durga manifests other warrior goddesses, the [[Matrikas]], and [[Kali]], to aid in combat.{{sfn|David R Kinsley|1989|pp=95-6}}
-The most important texts of Shaktism, [[Devi Mahatmya]] and [[Devi Bhagavata Purana]], revere Devi (the Goddess) as the primordial creator of the universe and the [[Brahman]] (ultimate truth and reality).{{Sfn|June McDaniel|2004|pp=215–216}}{{Sfn|David Kinsley|1998|pp=101–102}}{{sfn|Laura Amazzone|2012|p=xi}} She is one of the five equivalent deities in [[Panchayatana puja]] of the [[Smarta tradition]] of Hinduism.{{sfn|Flood|1996|pp=17, 153}}<ref name="Panchayatna Puja">{{cite web|url=https://www.abplive.com/lifestyle/religion/panch-dev-puja-do-worship-five-minute-daily-and-you-will-get-prosperity-in-your-house-1999399|title=Panch Dev Puja Worship|access-date=17 July 2022|website=ABP|date=17 November 2021 |language=hi|archive-date=1 October 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221001134350/https://www.abplive.com/lifestyle/religion/panch-dev-puja-do-worship-five-minute-daily-and-you-will-get-prosperity-in-your-house-1999399|url-status=live}}</ref> She is also considered to be the younger sister of Vishnu according to Bhagavata purana.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://vedabase.io/en/library/sb/10/4/9/ |title=ŚB 10.4.9 |website=Bhaktivedanta Vedabase}}</ref><ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.wisdomlib.org/hinduism/book/the-bhagavata-purana/d/doc1128869.html#:~:text=Flying%20off%20from%20(the%20grip%20of)%20of%20hands%2C%20she%20rose%20up%20to%20the%20sky%20and%20(stationing%20herself%20in%20the%20sky)%2C%20the%20younger%20sister%20of%20K%E1%B9%9B%E1%B9%A3%E1%B9%87a%20manifested%20herself%20as%20a%20goddess%20with%20eight%20mighty%20arms%20wielding%20weapons. | title=Yoga-Māyā's Prophecy and Kaṃsa's Order to Slaughter all Children &#91;Chapter 4&#93; | date=2 September 2022 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.wisdomlib.org/definition/yoganidra#purana:~:text=R.1.14%3B%2013.6.-,3)%20Name%20of%20Durg%C4%81.,-4)%20the | title=Yoganidra, Yoganidrā, Yoga-nidra: 14 definitions | date=11 March 2017 }}</ref>
+In Vaishnava contexts, Durga is revered as [[Yogamaya]]{{sfn|David R Kinsley|1989|pp=96, 104}}<ref>{{cite web |date=2 September 2022 |title=Yoga-Māyā's Prophecy and Kaṃsa's Order to Slaughter all Children &#91;Chapter 4&#93; |url=https://www.wisdomlib.org/hinduism/book/the-bhagavata-purana/d/doc1128869.html#:~:text=Flying%20off%20from%20(the%20grip%20of)%20of%20hands%2C%20she%20rose%20up%20to%20the%20sky%20and%20(stationing%20herself%20in%20the%20sky)%2C%20the%20younger%20sister%20of%20K%E1%B9%9B%E1%B9%A3%E1%B9%87a%20manifested%20herself%20as%20a%20goddess%20with%20eight%20mighty%20arms%20wielding%20weapons.}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |date=11 March 2017 |title=Yoganidra, Yoganidrā, Yoga-nidra: 14 definitions |url=https://www.wisdomlib.org/definition/yoganidra#purana:~:text=R.1.14%3B%2013.6.-,3)%20Name%20of%20Durg%C4%81.,-4)%20the}}</ref>  However, in traditions where she is identified with the goddess [[Parvati]], she also acquires domestic attributes and is widely regarded as the consort of [[Shiva]]. This identification is especially prominent in the regional traditions of [[Bengal]], where Durga is also considered as the mother of the deities [[Ganesha]], [[Kartikeya]], [[Lakshmi]], and [[Sarasvati]].{{sfn|Encyclopedia Britannica|2015}}{{sfn|David R Kinsley|1989|pp=95-96}}
-Durga has a significant following all over [[Nepal]], [[India]], [[Bangladesh]] and many other countries. She is mostly worshipped after spring and autumn harvests, especially during the festivals of [[Durga Puja]], [[Durga Ashtami]], [[Vijayadashami]], [[Diwali|Deepavali]], and [[Navaratri]].{{sfn|James G Lochtefeld|2002|p=208}}{{sfn|Constance Jones|James D Ryan|2006|pp=139–140, 308–309}}
+Durga has a significant following all over [[Nepal]], [[India]], [[Bangladesh]] and many other countries. She is worshipped after spring and autumn harvests, especially during the festivals of [[Durga Puja]], [[Durga Ashtami]], [[Vijayadashami]], [[Diwali|Deepavali]], and [[Navaratri]].{{sfn|James G Lochtefeld|2002|p=208}}{{sfn|Constance Jones|James D Ryan|2006|pp=139–140, 308–309}} She is one of the five equivalent deities in [[Panchayatana puja]] of the [[Smarta tradition]] of Hinduism.{{sfn|Flood|1996|pp=17, 153}}<ref name="Panchayatna Puja">{{cite news |url=https://www.abplive.com/lifestyle/religion/panch-dev-puja-do-worship-five-minute-daily-and-you-will-get-prosperity-in-your-house-1999399 |title=Panch Dev Puja Worship |access-date=17 July 2022 |work=ABP |date=17 November 2021 |language=hi |archive-date=1 October 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221001134350/https://www.abplive.com/lifestyle/religion/panch-dev-puja-do-worship-five-minute-daily-and-you-will-get-prosperity-in-your-house-1999399 |url-status=live}}</ref>
 ==Etymology and nomenclature==
 {{Saktism}}
-The word ''Durga'' (दुर्गा) literally means "impassable",{{sfn|Encyclopedia Britannica|2015}}{{sfn|James G Lochtefeld|2002|p=208}} "invincible, unassailable".{{sfn|Laura Amazzone|2012|p=xxii}} It is related to the word ''Durg'' (दुर्ग) which means "fortress, something difficult to defeat or pass". According to [[Monier Monier-Williams]], ''Durga'' is derived from the roots ''dur'' (difficult) and ''gam'' (pass, go through).<ref name="mmw487">{{cite encyclopedia |editor=Monier Monier Williams |year=1899 |title=Sanskrit English Dictionary with Etymology |publisher=Oxford University Press |page= 487}}</ref> According to Indologist [[Alain Daniélou]], Durga means "beyond defeat".{{sfn|Alain Daniélou|1991|p=21}}
+The word ''Durga'' (दुर्गा) literally means "impassable",{{sfn|Encyclopedia Britannica|2015}}{{sfn|James G Lochtefeld|2002|p=208}} "invincible, unassailable".{{sfn|Laura Amazzone|2012|p=xxii}} It is related to the word ''Durg'' (दुर्ग) which means "fortress, something difficult to defeat or pass". According to [[Monier Monier-Williams]], ''Durga'' is derived from the roots ''dur'' (difficult) and ''gam'' (pass, go through).<ref name="mmw487">{{cite encyclopedia |editor=Monier Monier Williams |year=1899 |title=Sanskrit English Dictionary with Etymology |publisher=Oxford University Press |page=487}}</ref> According to Indologist [[Alain Daniélou]], Durga means "beyond defeat".{{sfn|Alain Daniélou|1991|p=21}}
 The word ''Durga'' and related terms appear in the Vedic literature, such as in the ''[[Rigveda]]'' hymns 4.28, 5.34, 8.27, 8.47, 8.93 and 10.127, and in sections 10.1 and 12.4 of the ''[[Atharvaveda]]''.<ref name="mmw487" /><ref>Maurice Bloomfield (1906), [https://archive.org/stream/vedicconcordance00bloouoft#page/486/mode/1up A Vedic concordance], Series editor: Charles Lanman, Harvard University Press, page 486;<br />Example Sanskrit original: "अहन्निन्द्रो अदहदग्निरिन्दो पुरा दस्यून्मध्यंदिनादभीके।
@@ Line 47: / Line 50: @@
 === Epithets ===
 Durga is commonly known as ''Mahishasura-mardini'' for slaying the half-buffalo demon Mahishasura.{{Sfn|David Kinsley|1998|p=95}} She is also known as ''Vindhyavasini'' (she who dwells in the Vindhya Mountains).{{Sfn|David Kinsley|1998|pp=99–100}} Her other epithets include ''Mahamoha'' (great delusion), ''Mahasuri'' (the great demoness), ''Tamasi'' (the great night, the night of delusion).{{Sfn|David Kinsley|1998|pp=99–100}}
+==Etymology and other names==
+{{main|108 Names of Maa Durga}}
 There are many epithets for Durga in [[Shaktism]] and her nine appellations are ([[Navadurga]]): Shailaputri, Brahmacharini, Chandraghanta, Kushmanda, Skandamata, Katyayini, Kalaratri, Mahagauri and Siddhidatri. A list of 108 names of the goddess is recited in order to worship her and is popularly known as the "Ashtottarshat Namavali of Goddess Durga".{{Citation needed|date=July 2023}}
@@ Line 52: / Line 58: @@
 Other meanings may include: "the one who cannot be accessed easily",<ref name="mmw487" /> "the undefeatable goddess".{{sfn|Alain Daniélou|1991|p=21}}
-Durga is also known as ''Durgati Nashini,'' meaning one who eliminates suffering.<ref>{{Cite web|date=9 August 2019|title=Chant these powerful Durga Mantras to turn your life around for good|url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/religion/hindu-mythology/chant-these-powerful-durga-mantras-to-turn-your-life-around-for-good/articleshow/70599147.cms|access-date=11 November 2021|website=The Times of India|language=en|archive-date=11 November 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211111035951/https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/religion/hindu-mythology/chant-these-powerful-durga-mantras-to-turn-your-life-around-for-good/articleshow/70599147.cms|url-status=live}}</ref>
+Durga is also known as ''Durgati Nashini,'' meaning one who eliminates suffering.<ref>{{Cite news |date=9 August 2019 |title=Chant these powerful Durga Mantras to turn your life around for good |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/religion/hindu-mythology/chant-these-powerful-durga-mantras-to-turn-your-life-around-for-good/articleshow/70599147.cms |access-date=11 November 2021 |work=The Times of India |language=en |archive-date=11 November 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211111035951/https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/religion/hindu-mythology/chant-these-powerful-durga-mantras-to-turn-your-life-around-for-good/articleshow/70599147.cms |url-status=live}}</ref>
 Her other names include Chandika, Sharada, Ambika, Vaishnavi etc.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://vedabase.io/en/library/sb/10/2/11-12/ |title=ŚB 10.2.11-12 |website=Bhaktivedanta Vedabase}}</ref>
 == History and texts ==
-Evidence of Durga-like images can probably be traced back to the [[Indus Valley civilization|Indus Valley civilisation]]. According to [[Asko Parpola]], a cylindrical seal from [[Kalibangan]] shows "a Durgā-like goddess of war, who is associated with the tiger".<ref>{{Cite book |last=Hiltebeitel |first=Alf |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=wgbKqxx1j1EC&pg=PA386 |title=The Cult of Draupadi, Volume 2: On Hindu Ritual and the Goddess |year=1988 |publisher=University of Chicago Press |isbn=978-0-226-34048-7 |page=386 |language=en |access-date=1 October 2020 |archive-date=23 July 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210723055226/https://books.google.com/books?id=wgbKqxx1j1EC&pg=PA386 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Thapar |first=Valmik |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=9Dvx6EoLwa4C&pg=PA15 |title=Land of the Tiger: A Natural History of the Indian Subcontinent |year=1997 |publisher=University of California Press |isbn=978-0-520-21470-5 |page=15 |language=en |access-date=1 October 2020 |archive-date=23 July 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210723055227/https://books.google.com/books?id=9Dvx6EoLwa4C&pg=PA15 |url-status=live }}</ref>
+[[File:Durga slaying buffalo composite, 2nd-century to 13th-century Devi Mahatmya.png|thumb|right|Artwork depicting the "Goddess Durga Slaying the Buffalo demon Mahishasura" scene of ''Devi Mahatmya'', is found all over India, Nepal and southeast Asia. Clockwise from top: 9th-century [[Kashmir]], 13th-century [[Karnataka]], 9th century [[Prambanan]] Indonesia, 2nd-century [[Uttar Pradesh]].]]
+Evidence of Durga-like images can probably be traced back to the [[Indus Valley civilization|Indus Valley civilisation]]. According to [[Asko Parpola]], a cylindrical seal from [[Kalibangan]] shows "a Durgā-like goddess of war, who is associated with the tiger".<ref>{{Cite book |last=Hiltebeitel |first=Alf |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=wgbKqxx1j1EC&pg=PA386 |title=The Cult of Draupadi, Volume 2: On Hindu Ritual and the Goddess |year=1988 |publisher=University of Chicago Press |isbn=978-0-226-34048-7 |page=386 |language=en |access-date=1 October 2020 |archive-date=23 July 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210723055226/https://books.google.com/books?id=wgbKqxx1j1EC&pg=PA386 |url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Thapar |first=Valmik |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=9Dvx6EoLwa4C&pg=PA15 |title=Land of the Tiger: A Natural History of the Indian Subcontinent |year=1997 |publisher=University of California Press |isbn=978-0-520-21470-5 |page=15 |language=en |access-date=1 October 2020 |archive-date=23 July 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210723055227/https://books.google.com/books?id=9Dvx6EoLwa4C&pg=PA15 |url-status=live}}</ref>
 Reverence for [[Devi]], the feminine nature of God, first appears in the [[Mandala 10|10th Maṇḍala]] of ''[[Rig Veda]]'', one of the scriptures of Hinduism. This hymn is also called the Devi Suktam hymn (abridged):{{Sfn|June McDaniel|2004|p=90}}{{Sfn|Cheever Mackenzie Brown|1998|p=26}}
@@ Line 76: / Line 83: @@
 </poem>
 – Devi Sukta, ''[[Rigveda]] 10.125.3 – 10.125.8'',{{Sfn|June McDaniel|2004|p=90}}{{Sfn|Cheever Mackenzie Brown|1998|p=26}}<ref name="Hymn 125">[https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/The_Rig_Veda/Mandala_10/Hymn_125 The Rig Veda/Mandala 10/Hymn 125] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161011200839/https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/The_Rig_Veda/Mandala_10/Hymn_125 |date=11 October 2016 }} Ralph T.H. Griffith (Translator); for Sanskrit original see: [https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/ऋग्वेद:_सूक्तं_१०.१२५ ऋग्वेद: सूक्तं १०.१२५] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161011200515/https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/%E0%A4%8B%E0%A4%97%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B5%E0%A5%87%E0%A4%A6:_%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%82%E0%A4%95%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%82_%E0%A5%A7%E0%A5%A6.%E0%A5%A7%E0%A5%A8%E0%A5%AB |date=11 October 2016 }}</ref>
-</blockquote>
+</blockquote>Devi's epithets synonymous with Durga appear in [[Upanishad]]ic literature, such as ''Kali'' in verse 1.2.4 of the ''[[Mundaka Upanishad]]'' dated to about the 5th century BCE.{{sfn|Rachel Fell McDermott|2001|pp=162–163}} This single mention describes ''Kali'' as "terrible yet swift as thought", very red and smoky coloured manifestation of the divine with a fire-like flickering tongue, before the text begins presenting its thesis that one must seek self-knowledge and the knowledge of the eternal [[Brahman]].<ref>{{cite book |chapter-url=https://archive.org/stream/thirteenprincipa028442mbp#page/n389/mode/2up |chapter=Mundaka Upanishad |author=Robert Hume |title=The Thirteen Principal Upanishads |date=1921 |publisher=Oxford University Press |at=pp.&nbsp;368–377 with verse 1.2.4}}</ref>
-[[File:Durga slaying buffalo composite, 2nd-century to 13th-century Devi Mahatmya.png|thumb|right|Artwork depicting the "Goddess Durga Slaying the Buffalo demon Mahishasura" scene of ''Devi Mahatmya'', is found all over India, Nepal and southeast Asia. Clockwise from top: 9th-century [[Kashmir]], 13th-century [[Karnataka]], 9th century [[Prambanan]] Indonesia, 2nd-century [[Uttar Pradesh]].]]
-Devi's epithets synonymous with Durga appear in [[Upanishad]]ic literature, such as ''Kali'' in verse 1.2.4 of the ''[[Mundaka Upanishad]]'' dated to about the 5th century BCE.{{sfn|Rachel Fell McDermott|2001|pp=162–163}} This single mention describes ''Kali'' as "terrible yet swift as thought", very red and smoky coloured manifestation of the divine with a fire-like flickering tongue, before the text begins presenting its thesis that one must seek self-knowledge and the knowledge of the eternal [[Brahman]].<ref>{{cite book |chapter-url=https://archive.org/stream/thirteenprincipa028442mbp#page/n389/mode/2up |chapter=Mundaka Upanishad |author=Robert Hume |title=The Thirteen Principal Upanishads |date=1921 |publisher=Oxford University Press |at=pp.&nbsp;368–377 with verse 1.2.4}}</ref>
-Durga, in her various forms, appears as an independent deity in the Epics period of ancient India, that is the centuries around the start of the common era.{{sfn|Rachel Fell McDermott|2001|p=162}} Both [[Yudhisthira]] and [[Arjuna]] characters of the ''Mahabharata'' invoke hymns to ''Durga''.{{sfn|Rachel Fell McDermott|2001|pp=162–163}} She appears in ''Harivamsa'' in the form of Vishnu's eulogy, and in Pradyumna prayer.{{sfn|Rachel Fell McDermott|2001|p=162}} Various [[Purana]]s from the early to late 1st millennium CE dedicate chapters of inconsistent legends associated with ''Durga''.{{sfn|Rachel Fell McDermott|2001|pp=162–163}} Of these, the ''[[Markandeya Purana]]'' and the ''[[Devi-Bhagavata Purana]]'' are the most significant texts on ''Durga''.{{sfn|Ludo Rocher|1986|pp=168–172, 191–193}}{{Sfn|C Mackenzie Brown|1990|pp=44–45, 129, 247–248 with notes 57–60}} The [[Devi Upanishad]] and other [[Shakta Upanishads]], mostly dated to have been composed in or after the 9th century, present the philosophical and mystical speculations related to ''Durga'' as ''Devi'' and other epithets, identifying her to be the same as the [[Brahman]] and [[Atman (Hinduism)|Atman]] (self, soul).{{Sfn|Douglas Renfrew Brooks|1992|pp=76–80}}{{Sfn|June McDaniel|2004|pp=89–91}}
-In the ''[[Narada Purana]]'', Durga is associated as a form of [[Lakshmi]].<ref>{{cite book|title=Lakshmi|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=xpkRAQAAIAAJ|author1=Chitralekha Singh|author2=Prem Nath|publisher=Crest Publishing House|year=2001|page=20|isbn=9788124201732|access-date=16 November 2021|archive-date=16 August 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210816064538/https://books.google.com/books?id=xpkRAQAAIAAJ|url-status=live}}</ref> In the ''[[Garuda Purana]]'' and the ''[[Vishnu Purana]]'', Lakshmi is considered Prakriti (Mahalakshmi) and is identified with three forms — Sri, Bhu and Durga.<ref>{{cite book|title=Seeking Mahadevi: Constructing the Identities of the Hindu Great Goddess|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=-c_j8Xggl0gC|author=Tracy Pintchman|publisher=SUNY Press|page=82|date=21 June 2001|isbn=9780791450079|access-date=16 November 2021|archive-date=16 August 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210816064628/https://books.google.com/books?id=-c_j8Xggl0gC|url-status=live}}</ref> In [[Pancharatra]] texts such as the ''[[Lakshmi Tantra]]'', Lakshmi has Durga as one of her forms and acquires the name Durga after killing the demon Durgamasura.<ref>{{cite book|title=Laksmi Tantra|url=https://archive.org/details/LakshmiTantraAPancharatraTextSanjuktaGupta|first=Sanjukta|last=Gupta|publisher=Motilal Banarsidass Publishers|year=2000|isbn=978-8120817357}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|title=Philosophy of Pancaratras|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=1o3XAAAAMAAJ|page=94|author=S. Rangachar|publisher=Sridevi Prakashana|year=1991|access-date=10 January 2022|archive-date=1 October 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221001134343/https://books.google.com/books?id=1o3XAAAAMAAJ|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|title=Goddess Laksmi: Origin and Development|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=pSQKAQAAIAAJ|page=195|author=Upendra Nath Dhal|publisher=Oriental Publishers & Distributors|year=1978|quote=Like the Devi Māhātmya , the Lakşmi Tantra describes the individual incarnations of Lakşmi thus : During the reign of Svāyambhuva (Manu) for the destruction of the demon Mahisa, Mahālakṣmi appeared Mahişāmardini.|access-date=18 January 2022|archive-date=30 September 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210930074922/https://books.google.com/books?id=pSQKAQAAIAAJ|url-status=live}}</ref> These texts identify Durga as Vishnu's [[Maya (religion)|māyā]]".{{Sfn|David Kinsley|1998|p=104}}
+Durga, in her various forms, appears as an independent deity in the Epics period of ancient India, that is the centuries around the start of the common era.{{sfn|Rachel Fell McDermott|2001|p=162}} Both [[Yudhisthira]] and [[Arjuna]] characters of the ''Mahabharata'' invoke hymns to ''Durga''.{{sfn|Rachel Fell McDermott|2001|pp=162–163}} She appears in ''Harivamsa'' in the form of Vishnu's eulogy, and in Pradyumna prayer.{{sfn|Rachel Fell McDermott|2001|p=162}} Various [[Purana]]s from the early to late 1st millennium CE dedicate chapters of inconsistent legends associated with ''Durga''.{{sfn|Rachel Fell McDermott|2001|pp=162–163}} Of these, the ''[[Markandeya Purana]]'' and the ''[[Devi-Bhagavata Purana]]'' are the most significant texts on ''Durga''.{{sfn|Ludo Rocher|1986|pp=168–172, 191–193}}{{Sfn|C Mackenzie Brown|1990|pp=44–45, 129, 247–248 with notes 57–60}} The [[Devi Upanishad]] and other [[Shakta Upanishads]], mostly dated to have been composed in or after the 9th century, present the philosophical and mystical speculations related to ''Durga'' as ''Devi'' and other epithets, identifying her to be the same as the [[Brahman]] and [[Atman (Hinduism)|Atman]] (self, soul).{{Sfn|Douglas Renfrew Brooks|1992|pp=76–80}}{{Sfn|June McDaniel|2004|pp=89–91}} The ''[[Skanda Purana]], [[Shiva Purana]] and many others Puranas'' identifies Durga as the warrior form of the goddess [[Parvati]].{{Sfn|David Kinsley|1998|p=96}} The ''[[Mahishasura Mardini Stotra]]'' by [[Adi Shankara]] was written in her praise.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Marlow |first=Chris |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ZFvTDwAAQBAJ&dq=mahishasura+mardini+stotra+adi+shankara&pg=PA168 |title=Navaratri: Prayers, Praises and Hymns |date=2019-10-29 |publisher=Lulu.com |isbn=978-0-244-22986-3 |pages=168 |language=en}}</ref>
-The ''[[Mahishasura Mardini Stotra]]'' by [[Adi Shankara]] was written in her praise.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Marlow |first=Chris |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ZFvTDwAAQBAJ&dq=mahishasura+mardini+stotra+adi+shankara&pg=PA168 |title=Navaratri: Prayers, Praises and Hymns |date=2019-10-29 |publisher=Lulu.com |isbn=978-0-244-22986-3 |pages=168 |language=en}}</ref>
+Vishnu-centric Puranas identify Durga as Vishnu's [[Maya (religion)|sister]] ".{{Sfn|David Kinsley|1998|p=104}} In ''[[Vishnu Purana]]'' and ''[[Bhagavata Purana]]'', Durga facilitates the birth of Vishnu's avatar [[Krishna]].{{Sfn|David Kinsley|1998|p=96}}<ref>{{cite book|title=Lakshmi|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=xpkRAQAAIAAJ|author1=Chitralekha Singh|author2=Prem Nath|publisher=Crest Publishing House|year=2001|page=20|isbn=9788124201732|access-date=16 November 2021|archive-date=16 August 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210816064538/https://books.google.com/books?id=xpkRAQAAIAAJ|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|title=Seeking Mahadevi: Constructing the Identities of the Hindu Great Goddess|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=-c_j8Xggl0gC|author=Tracy Pintchman|publisher=SUNY Press|page=82|date=21 June 2001|isbn=9780791450079|access-date=16 November 2021|archive-date=16 August 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210816064628/https://books.google.com/books?id=-c_j8Xggl0gC|url-status=live}}</ref>.<ref>{{cite book|title=Laksmi Tantra|url=https://archive.org/details/LakshmiTantraAPancharatraTextSanjuktaGupta|first=Sanjukta|last=Gupta|publisher=Motilal Banarsidass Publishers|year=2000|isbn=978-8120817357}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|title=Philosophy of Pancaratras|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=1o3XAAAAMAAJ|page=94|author=S. Rangachar|publisher=Sridevi Prakashana|year=1991|access-date=10 January 2022|archive-date=1 October 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221001134343/https://books.google.com/books?id=1o3XAAAAMAAJ|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|title=Goddess Laksmi: Origin and Development|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=pSQKAQAAIAAJ|page=195|author=Upendra Nath Dhal|publisher=Oriental Publishers & Distributors|year=1978|quote=Like the Devi Māhātmya , the Lakşmi Tantra describes the individual incarnations of Lakşmi thus : During the reign of Svāyambhuva (Manu) for the destruction of the demon Mahisa, Mahālakṣmi appeared Mahişāmardini.|access-date=18 January 2022|archive-date=30 September 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210930074922/https://books.google.com/books?id=pSQKAQAAIAAJ|url-status=live}}</ref>
 ===Origins===
-The historian Ramaprasad Chanda stated in 1916 that Durga evolved over time in the Indian subcontinent. A primitive form of Durga, according to Chanda, was the result of "[[syncretism]] of a mountain-goddess worshipped by the dwellers of the [[Himalaya]] and the [[Vindhya]]s", a deity of the [[Abhiras]] conceptualised as a war-goddess. Durga then transformed into [[Kali]] as the personification of the all-destroying time, while aspects of her emerged as the primordial energy ([[Adya Sakti]]) integrated into the [[samsara]] (cycle of rebirths) concept and this idea was built on the foundation of the Vedic religion, mythology and philosophy.{{sfn|June McDaniel|2004|p=214}} There are total of nine avatars of Goddess Durga in Hinduism.
+The historian Ramaprasad Chanda stated in 1916 that Durga evolved over time in the Indian subcontinent. A primitive form of Durga, according to Chanda, was the result of "[[syncretism]] of a mountain-goddess worshipped by the dwellers of the [[Himalaya]] and the [[Vindhya]]s", a deity of the [[Abhiras]] conceptualised as a war-goddess. Durga then transformed into [[Kali]] as the personification of the all-destroying time, while aspects of her emerged as the primordial energy ([[Adya Sakti]]) integrated into the [[samsara]] (cycle of rebirths) concept and this idea was built on the foundation of the Vedic religion, mythology and philosophy.{{sfn|June McDaniel|2004|p=214}}
 Epigraphical evidence indicates that regardless of her origins, Durga is an ancient goddess. The 6th-century CE inscriptions in early Siddhamatrika script, such as at the Nagarjuni hill cave during the [[Maukhari]] era, already mention the legend of her victory over Mahishasura (buffalo-hybrid demon).<ref>{{cite book|author=Richard Salomon|title=Indian Epigraphy: A Guide to the Study of Inscriptions in Sanskrit, Prakrit, and the Other Indo-Aryan Languages|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=t-4RDAAAQBAJ|year=1998|publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=978-0-19-509984-3|pages=200–201|access-date=16 April 2017|archive-date=17 April 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170417162346/https://books.google.com/books?id=t-4RDAAAQBAJ|url-status=live}}</ref>
@@ Line 95: / Line 97: @@
 ==Legends==
-[[File:Unknown (Indian) - Durga in Combat with the Bull, Mahishasura - 69.428 - Detroit Institute of Arts.jpg|thumb|'Durga in Combat with the Bull, Mahishasura', 19th century painting]]
+[[File:Durga Mahisasuramardini.JPG|thumb|18th-century painting of Durga slaying the buffalo demon Mahishasura]]
 The most popular legend associated with the goddess is of her killing of [[Mahishasura]]. Mahishasura was a half-buffalo demon who did severe penance in order to please [[Brahma]], the creator. After several years, Brahma, pleased with his devotion, appeared before him. The demon opened his eyes and asked the god for immortality. Brahma refused, stating that all must die one day. Mahishasura then thought for a while and asked a boon that only a woman could be able to kill him. Brahma granted the boon and disappeared. Mahishasura started to torture innocent people. He captured [[Svarga]] and was not in any kind of fear, as he thought women to be powerless and weak. The [[Deva (Hinduism)|devas]] were worried and they went to [[Trimurti]]. The Trimurti combined their power, and gave a physical form to the sum of their divine energy, [[Adi Shakti]], a warrior woman with many arms. [[Himavat|Himavan]], the personification of the Himalayas, gifted a lion as her mount. Durga, on her lion, appeared before Mahishasura where the demon took on different forms and attacked the goddess. Each time, Durga would destroy his forms. At last, Durga slew Mahishasura with her trident when he was transforming as a buffalo demon.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Roa|first=Subba|title=Tales of Durga|date=April 1971|publisher=Amar Chitra Katha Private Limited|isbn=81-89999-35-4|pages=25}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|last=Kumar|first=Anu|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=snUcQGk1dZUC&q=Mahishasura&pg=PT6|title=Mahishasura: The Buffalo Demon|date=30 November 2012|publisher=Hachette India|isbn=978-93-5009-538-6|language=en|access-date=1 October 2020|archive-date=16 August 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210816064146/https://books.google.com/books?id=snUcQGk1dZUC&q=Mahishasura&pg=PT6|url-status=live}}</ref>
-According to [[Vaishnavism|Vaishnava]] tradition, Durga is among the various epithets and avatars of [[Vindhyavasini|Yogamaya]], the personification of the illusory power of Vishnu. Vishnu offers Durga the task of transferring the [[Balarama|seventh child]] of [[Devaki]] into the womb of [[Rohini (wife of Vasudeva)|Rohini]], as well as being born on earth as the infant daughter of [[Yashoda]] and [[Nanda (Hinduism)|Nanda]], so that she could be swapped with [[Krishna]]. When [[Kamsa]] attempted to slay her, she manifested her true form of an eighteen-armed goddess, wearing a garland of lemons. The goddess announced that Kamsa's slayer had already been born, before vanishing.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Flueckiger |first=Joyce Burkhalter |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=rFlE0PO0x1AC&dq=durga+yogamaya&pg=PA133 |title=When the World Becomes Female: Guises of a South Indian Goddess |date=23 July 2013 |publisher=Indiana University Press |isbn=978-0-253-00960-9 |pages=133 |language=en |access-date=13 September 2022 |archive-date=13 September 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220913055607/https://books.google.com/books?id=rFlE0PO0x1AC&newbks=0&printsec=frontcover&pg=PA133&dq=durga+yogamaya&hl=en |url-status=live }}</ref> Durga is often conceptualised in this role as a sister of Vishnu.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Verma |first=Archana |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=iAArBwAAQBAJ&dq=durga+vishnu%27s+sister&pg=PA48 |title=Performance and Culture: Narrative, Image and Enactment in India |date=18 January 2011 |publisher=Cambridge Scholars Publishing |isbn=978-1-4438-2832-1 |pages=48 |language=en |access-date=1 October 2022 |archive-date=1 October 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221001134345/https://books.google.com/books?id=iAArBwAAQBAJ&newbks=0&printsec=frontcover&pg=PA48&dq=durga+vishnu%27s+sister&hl=en |url-status=live }}</ref>
+According to [[Vaishnavism|Vaishnava]] tradition, Durga is among the various epithets and avatars of [[Vindhyavasini|Yogamaya]], the personification of the illusory power of Vishnu. Vishnu offers Durga the task of transferring the [[Balarama|seventh child]] of [[Devaki]] into the womb of [[Rohini (wife of Vasudeva)|Rohini]], as well as being born on earth as the infant daughter of [[Yashoda]] and [[Nanda (Hinduism)|Nanda]], so that she could be swapped with [[Krishna]]. When [[Kamsa]] attempted to slay her, she manifested her true form of an eighteen-armed goddess, wearing a garland of lemons. The goddess announced that Kamsa's slayer had already been born, before vanishing.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Flueckiger |first=Joyce Burkhalter |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=rFlE0PO0x1AC&dq=durga+yogamaya&pg=PA133 |title=When the World Becomes Female: Guises of a South Indian Goddess |date=23 July 2013 |publisher=Indiana University Press |isbn=978-0-253-00960-9 |pages=133 |language=en |access-date=13 September 2022 |archive-date=13 September 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220913055607/https://books.google.com/books?id=rFlE0PO0x1AC&newbks=0&printsec=frontcover&pg=PA133&dq=durga+yogamaya&hl=en |url-status=live}}</ref> Durga is often conceptualised in this role as a sister of Vishnu.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Verma |first=Archana |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=iAArBwAAQBAJ&dq=durga+vishnu%27s+sister&pg=PA48 |title=Performance and Culture: Narrative, Image and Enactment in India |date=18 January 2011 |publisher=Cambridge Scholars Publishing |isbn=978-1-4438-2832-1 |pages=48 |language=en |access-date=1 October 2022 |archive-date=1 October 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221001134345/https://books.google.com/books?id=iAArBwAAQBAJ&newbks=0&printsec=frontcover&pg=PA48&dq=durga+vishnu%27s+sister&hl=en |url-status=live}}</ref>
 == Attributes and iconography ==
@@ Line 117: / Line 119: @@
 [[File:Durga 2005.jpg|thumb|upright|Durga killing Mahishasura in a Durga Puja celebration in Bengal]]
 [[File:Stone sculpture of Durga Mahishasuramardini.jpg|thumb|190px|13th century stone sculpture in the British Museum]]
-Durga traditionally holds the weapons of various male gods of Hindu mythology, which they give her to fight the evil forces because they feel that she is ''shakti'' (energy, power).<ref>{{cite book|author1=Alf Hiltebeitel|author2=Kathleen M. Erndl|title=Is the Goddess a Feminist?: The Politics of South Asian Goddesses|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=sQJzTr4c-g4C&pg=PA157|year=2000|publisher=New York University Press|isbn=978-0-8147-3619-7|pages=157–158|access-date=15 February 2017|archive-date=17 February 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170217110244/https://books.google.com/books?id=sQJzTr4c-g4C&pg=PA157|url-status=live}}</ref> These include the ''[[Sudarshana Chakra|chakra]]'' (divine discus), conch, bow, arrow, sword, javelin, [[trishula]] trident, shield, mace, pink Lotus Flower and a noose.{{sfn|Charles Russell Coulter|Patricia Turner|2013|p=158}} These weapons are considered symbolic by Shakta Hindus, representing self-discipline, selfless service to others, self-examination, prayer, devotion, remembering her mantras, cheerfulness and meditation. Durga herself is viewed as the "Self" within and the divine mother of all creation.<ref>{{cite book|author=Linda Johnsen|title=The Living Goddess: Reclaiming the Tradition of the Mother of the Universe|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=UnLSNBBW5wcC&pg=PA83|year=2002|publisher=Yes International Publishers|isbn=978-0-936663-28-9|pages=89–90|access-date=15 February 2017|archive-date=17 February 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170217110208/https://books.google.com/books?id=UnLSNBBW5wcC&pg=PA83|url-status=live}}</ref> She has been revered by warriors, blessing their new weapons.<ref name="hiltebeitel16">{{cite book|author1=Alf Hiltebeitel|author2=Kathleen M. Erndl|title=Is the Goddess a Feminist?: The Politics of South Asian Goddesses|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=sQJzTr4c-g4C&pg=PA157|year=2000|publisher=New York University Press|isbn=978-0-8147-3619-7|pages=15–16|access-date=15 February 2017|archive-date=17 February 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170217110244/https://books.google.com/books?id=sQJzTr4c-g4C&pg=PA157|url-status=live}}</ref> Durga iconography has been flexible in the Hindu traditions, where for example some intellectuals place a pen or other writing implements in her hand since they consider their stylus as their weapon.<ref name="hiltebeitel16" />
+Durga traditionally holds the weapons of various male gods of Hindu mythology, which they give her to fight the evil forces because they feel that she is ''shakti'' (energy, power).<ref>{{cite book|author1=Alf Hiltebeitel|author2=Kathleen M. Erndl|title=Is the Goddess a Feminist?: The Politics of South Asian Goddesses|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=sQJzTr4c-g4C&pg=PA157|year=2000|publisher=New York University Press|isbn=978-0-8147-3619-7|pages=157–158|access-date=15 February 2017|archive-date=17 February 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170217110244/https://books.google.com/books?id=sQJzTr4c-g4C&pg=PA157|url-status=live}}</ref> These include the ''[[Sudarshana Chakra|chakra]]'' (divine discus), conch, bow, arrow, sword, javelin, [[trishula]] trident, shield, mace, pink [[lotus flower]], and noose.{{sfn|Charles Russell Coulter|Patricia Turner|2013|p=158}} These weapons are considered symbolic by Shakta Hindus, representing self-discipline, selfless service to others, self-examination, prayer, devotion, remembering her mantras, cheerfulness and meditation. Durga herself is viewed as the "Self" within and the divine mother of all creation.<ref>{{cite book|author=Linda Johnsen|title=The Living Goddess: Reclaiming the Tradition of the Mother of the Universe|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=UnLSNBBW5wcC&pg=PA83|year=2002|publisher=Yes International Publishers|isbn=978-0-936663-28-9|pages=89–90|access-date=15 February 2017|archive-date=17 February 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170217110208/https://books.google.com/books?id=UnLSNBBW5wcC&pg=PA83|url-status=live}}</ref> She has been revered by warriors, blessing their new weapons.<ref name="hiltebeitel16">{{cite book|author1=Alf Hiltebeitel|author2=Kathleen M. Erndl|title=Is the Goddess a Feminist?: The Politics of South Asian Goddesses|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=sQJzTr4c-g4C&pg=PA157|year=2000|publisher=New York University Press|isbn=978-0-8147-3619-7|pages=15–16|access-date=15 February 2017|archive-date=17 February 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170217110244/https://books.google.com/books?id=sQJzTr4c-g4C&pg=PA157|url-status=live}}</ref> Durga iconography has been flexible in the Hindu traditions, where for example some intellectuals place a pen or other writing implements in her hand since they consider their stylus as their weapon.<ref name="hiltebeitel16" />
-Archeological discoveries suggest that these iconographic features of Durga became common throughout India by about the 4th century CE, states David Kinsley – a professor of religious studies specialising on Hindu goddesses.{{sfn|David Kinsley|1998|pp=95–105}} In the north wall of a granite cave in [[Mamallapuram]], Tamil Nadu there is a large [[relief]] of Durga slaying Mahisasura, carved around 630–674 CE.<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Herman |first1=Phyllis K. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=97EYBwAAQBAJ&dq=devi+mahatmyam&pg=PA149 |title=The Constant and Changing Faces of the Goddess: Goddess Traditions of Asia |last2=Shimkhada |first2=Deepak |publisher=Cambridge Scholars Publishing |year=2009 |pages=149|isbn=9781443807029 }}</ref>
+Archeological discoveries suggest that these iconographic features of Durga became common throughout India by about the 4th century CE, states David Kinsley – a professor of religious studies specialising on Hindu goddesses.{{sfn|David Kinsley|1998|pp=95–105}} In the north wall of a granite cave in [[Mamallapuram]], Tamil Nadu there is a large [[relief]] of Durga slaying Mahisasura, carved around 630–674 CE.<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Herman |first1=Phyllis K. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=97EYBwAAQBAJ&dq=devi+mahatmyam&pg=PA149 |title=The Constant and Changing Faces of the Goddess: Goddess Traditions of Asia |last2=Shimkhada |first2=Deepak |publisher=Cambridge Scholars Publishing |year=2009 |pages=149 |isbn=9781443807029}}</ref>
 Durga iconography in some temples appears as part of ''Mahavidyas'' or ''[[Matrikas|Saptamatrkas]]'' (seven mothers considered forms of Durga). Her icons in major Hindu temples such as in [[Varanasi]] include relief artworks that show scenes from the ''Devi Mahatmya''.{{sfn|David Kinsley|1997|pp=30–35, 60, 16–22, 149}}
-In [[Vaishnavism]], Durga and her mount of a lion, is considered one of the three aspects or forms of Goddess [[Lakshmi]], the other two being ''Sri'' and ''Bhu,'' in place of [[Niladevi]].{{Sfn|Isaeva|1993|p=252}}  According to professor Tracy Pintchman, "When the Lord [[Vishnu]] created the [[gunas]] of [[prakriti]], there arose [[Lakshmi]] in her three forms, ''Sri'', ''Bhu'' and ''Durga''. ''Sri'' consisted of [[sattva]], ''Bhu'' as [[rajas]] and ''Durga'' as [[Tamas (philosophy)|tamas]]".{{Sfn|Pintchman|2014|p=82}}
+In [[Vaishnavism]], Durga and her mount of a lion, is considered one of the three aspects or forms of [[Lakshmi]], the other two being ''Sri'' and ''Bhu,'' in place of [[Niladevi]].{{Sfn|Isaeva|1993|p=252}}  According to professor Tracy Pintchman, "When the Lord [[Vishnu]] created the [[gunas]] of [[prakriti]], there arose [[Lakshmi]] in her three forms, ''Sri'', ''Bhu'' and ''Durga''. ''Sri'' consisted of [[sattva]], ''Bhu'' as [[rajas]] and ''Durga'' as [[Tamas (philosophy)|tamas]]".{{Sfn|Pintchman|2014|p=82}}
 Durga appears in Hindu traditions in numerous forms and names, but ultimately all these are different aspects and manifestations of one goddess. She is imagined to be terrifying and destructive when she has to be, but benevolent and nurturing when she needs to be.{{sfn|Patricia Monaghan|2011|pp=73–74}} While anthropomorphic icons of her, such as those showing her riding a lion and holding weapons, are common, the Hindu traditions use aniconic forms and geometric designs ([[yantra]]) to remember and revere what she symbolises.{{sfn|Patricia Monaghan|2011|pp=73–78}}
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 She who is renowned by the name "Durga" is the being superior to whom, no one exists.
-– [https://stotranidhi.com/en/sri-devi-atharvashirsha-in-english/ Devi Atharvashirhsa Upanishad], 24. </blockquote>Her temples, worship and festivals are particularly popular in eastern and northeastern parts of [[Indian subcontinent]] during Durga puja, Dashain and Navaratri.{{sfn|Wendy Doniger|1999|p=306}}{{sfn|James G Lochtefeld|2002|p=208}}<ref name="Melton2011">{{cite book|author=J Gordon Melton|title=Religious Celebrations: An Encyclopedia of Holidays, Festivals, Solemn Observances, and Spiritual Commemorations|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=lD_2J7W_2hQC&pg=PA239|year=2011|publisher=ABC-CLIO|isbn=978-1-59884-206-7|pages=239–241|access-date=15 February 2017|archive-date=17 February 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170217111816/https://books.google.com/books?id=lD_2J7W_2hQC&pg=PA239|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |year=2015 |title=Durga Puja – Hindu festival |url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/Durga-Puja |website=Encyclopedia Britannica |access-date=18 February 2017 |archive-date=30 October 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201030161639/https://www.britannica.com/topic/Durga-Puja |url-status=live }}</ref>
+– [https://stotranidhi.com/en/sri-devi-atharvashirsha-in-english/ Devi Atharvashirhsa Upanishad], 24. </blockquote>Her temples, worship and festivals are particularly popular in eastern and northeastern parts of [[Indian subcontinent]] during Durga puja, Dashain and Navaratri.{{sfn|Wendy Doniger|1999|p=306}}{{sfn|James G Lochtefeld|2002|p=208}}<ref name="Melton2011">{{cite book |author=J Gordon Melton |title=Religious Celebrations: An Encyclopedia of Holidays, Festivals, Solemn Observances, and Spiritual Commemorations |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=lD_2J7W_2hQC&pg=PA239 |year=2011 |publisher=ABC-CLIO |isbn=978-1-59884-206-7 |pages=239–241 |access-date=15 February 2017 |archive-date=17 February 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170217111816/https://books.google.com/books?id=lD_2J7W_2hQC&pg=PA239 |url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |year=2015 |title=Durga Puja – Hindu festival |url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/Durga-Puja |website=Encyclopædia Britannica |access-date=18 February 2017 |archive-date=30 October 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201030161639/https://www.britannica.com/topic/Durga-Puja |url-status=live}}</ref>
 ===Durga puja===
 {{Main|Durga Puja}}
-[[File:A Durga festival collage.jpg|right|thumb|upright=1.25|Durga festival images (clockwise from top): Durga Puja pandal with a Durga idol with 1&nbsp;million hands standing on top a bull's head to symbolize her victory over Mahishasura in [[Kolkata]], Dancing on Vijaya Dashami, women smearing each other with colour, and family get together for Dashain in Nepal.]]
+[[File:A Durga festival collage.jpg|right|thumb|upright=1.25|Durga festival images (clockwise from top): Durga Puja pandal with a Durga idol with 10&nbsp;lakh hands standing on top a bull's head to symbolize her victory over Mahishasura in [[Kolkata]], Dancing on Vijaya Dashami, women smearing each other with colour, and family get together for Dashain in Nepal.]]
 As per the Markandeya Purana, Durga Puja can be performed either for 9 days or 4 days (last four in sequence). The four-day-long [[Durga Puja]] is a major annual festival in [[Bengal]], [[Odisha]], [[Assam]], [[Jharkhand]] and [[Bihar]].{{sfn|Wendy Doniger|1999|p=306}}{{sfn|James G Lochtefeld|2002|p=208}} It is scheduled per the Hindu luni-solar calendar in the month of ''Ashvina'',{{sfn|David Kinsley|1998|pp=106–108}} and typically falls in September or October. Since it is celebrated during Sharad (literally, season of weeds), it is called as Sharadiya Durga Puja or Akal-Bodhan to differentiate it from the one celebrated originally in spring. The festival is celebrated by communities by making special colourful images of Durga out of clay,{{sfn|David Kinsley|1997|pp=18–19}} recitations of ''Devi Mahatmya'' text,{{sfn|David Kinsley|1998|pp=106–108}} prayers and revelry for nine days, after which it is taken out in procession with singing and dancing, then immersed in water. The Durga puja is an occasion of major private and public festivities in the eastern and northeastern states of India.{{sfn|Wendy Doniger|1999|p=306}}{{sfn|Rachel Fell McDermott|2001|pp=172–174}}{{sfn|Lynn Foulston|Stuart Abbott|2009|pp=162–169}}
-The day of Durga's victory is celebrated as [[Vijayadashami]] (Bijoya in Bengali), Dashain (Nepali) or [[Dussehra]] (in Hindi) – these words literally mean "the victory on the Tenth (day)".<ref>{{cite book |title= Religion & globalization: world religions in historical perspective |last= Esposito |first= John L. |author2=Darrell J Fasching |author3=Todd Vernon Lewis  |year= 2007  |publisher= Oxford University Press |isbn= 978-0-19-517695-7 |page= 341  }}</ref>
+The day of Durga's victory is celebrated as [[Vijayadashami]] (Bijoya in Bengali), Dashain (Nepali) or [[Dussehra]] (in Hindi) – these words literally mean "the victory on the Tenth (day)".<ref>{{cite book |title=Religion & globalization: world religions in historical perspective |last=Esposito |first=John L. |author2=Darrell J Fasching |author3=Todd Vernon Lewis |year=2007 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-517695-7 |page=341}}</ref>
 This festival is an old tradition of Hinduism, though it is unclear how and in which century the festival began. Surviving manuscripts from the 14th century provide guidelines for Durga puja, while historical records suggest royalty and wealthy families were sponsoring major Durga puja public festivities since at least the 16th century.{{sfn|Rachel Fell McDermott|2001|pp=172–174}} The 11th or 12th century Jainism text ''Yasatilaka'' by Somadeva mentions a festival and annual dates dedicated to a warrior goddess, celebrated by the king and his armed forces, and the description mirrors attributes of a Durga puja.{{sfn|David Kinsley|1998|pp=106–108}}
@@ Line 148: / Line 151: @@
 ===Dashain===
+[[File:Durga - Mahishasurmardini.jpg|thumb|right|180px|Durga killing [[Mahishasura]], relief sculpture on [[Rani ki vav]]]]
 In [[Nepal]], the festival dedicated to Durga is called [[Dashain]] (sometimes spelled as Dasain), which literally means "the ten".<ref name="Melton2011"/> Dashain is the longest national holiday of Nepal, and is a public holiday in [[Sikkim]] and [[Bhutan]]. During Dashain, Durga is worshipped in ten forms ([[Shailaputri]], [[Brahmacharini]], [[Chandraghanta]], [[Kushmanda]], [[Skandamata]], [[Katyayani]], [[Kalaratri]], [[Mahagauri]], [[Mahakali]] and Durga) with one form for each day in Nepal. The festival includes animal sacrifice in some communities, as well as the purchase of new clothes and gift giving. Traditionally, the festival is celebrated over 15 days, the first nine-day are spent by the faithful by remembering Durga and her ideas, the tenth day marks Durga's victory over Mahisura, and the last five days celebrate the victory of good over evil.<ref name="Melton2011"/>
-During the first nine days, nine aspects of Durga known as [[Navadurga]] are meditated upon, one by one during the nine-day festival by devout Hindus. Durga is usually worshipped as a celibate and independent goddess. However, in some popular devotional practices—especially in Eastern India, such as in Bengal’s [[Shaktism|Shakta]] folk traditions, she is venerated alongside [[Shiva]], who is regarded as her consort. These traditions also include the worship of [[Lakshmi]], [[Saraswati]], [[Ganesha]] and [[Kartikeya]], who are considered to be her children.<ref name = "celibatemarried" >{{cite book|title=The A to Z of Hinduism|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=xU4ZdatgRysC|page=72|author=Bruce M. Sullivan|publisher=Rowman & Littlefield|year=2001|isbn=9780810840706|quote=Durga is usually regarded as a celibate goddess whose asceticism empowers her, but she may also be regarded as the consort and Sakti of Siva, depending on tradition.|access-date=3 May 2021|archive-date=15 April 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210415064539/https://books.google.com/books?id=xU4ZdatgRysC|url-status=live}}</ref>{{sfn|David Kinsley|1998|p=95}}
+During the first nine days, nine aspects of Durga known as [[Navadurga]] are meditated upon, one by one during the nine-day festival by devout Hindus. Durga is usually worshipped as a celibate and independent goddess. However, in some popular devotional practices—especially in Eastern India, such as in Bengal's [[Shaktism|Shakta]] folk traditions, she is venerated alongside [[Shiva]], who is regarded as her consort. These traditions also include the worship of [[Lakshmi]], [[Saraswati]], [[Ganesha]] and [[Kartikeya]], who are considered to be her children.<ref name = "celibatemarried" >{{cite book |title=The A to Z of Hinduism |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=xU4ZdatgRysC |page=72 |author=Bruce M. Sullivan |publisher=Rowman & Littlefield |year=2001 |isbn=9780810840706 |quote=Durga is usually regarded as a celibate goddess whose asceticism empowers her, but she may also be regarded as the consort and Sakti of Siva, depending on tradition. |access-date=3 May 2021 |archive-date=15 April 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210415064539/https://books.google.com/books?id=xU4ZdatgRysC |url-status=live}}</ref>{{sfn|David Kinsley|1998|p=95}}
 Some Shaktas worship Durga's symbolism and presence as [[Mother Nature]]. In South India, especially Andhra Pradesh, Dussera Navaratri is also celebrated and the goddess is dressed each day as a different Devi, all considered equivalent but another aspect of Durga.
@@ Line 159: / Line 163: @@
 ==Outside Hinduism==
 ===In Buddhism===
-[[file:MET DT238.jpg|thumb|Durga statue from the Buddhist [[Pala Empire]], in which Buddhism and Hinduism coexisted peacefully.<ref>{{Cite web |title=The Goddess Durga Slaying the Demon Buffalo Mahisha {{!}} Bangladesh or India (Bengal) {{!}} Pala-Sena period |url=https://www.metmuseum.org/art/collection/search/38583 |access-date=2023-12-28 |website=The Metropolitan Museum of Art |language=en}}</ref>]]
+[[File:MET DT238.jpg|thumb|Durga statue from the Buddhist [[Pala Empire]], in which Buddhism and Hinduism coexisted peacefully.<ref>{{Cite web |title=The Goddess Durga Slaying the Demon Buffalo Mahisha {{!}} Bangladesh or India (Bengal) {{!}} Pala-Sena period |url=https://www.metmuseum.org/art/collection/search/38583 |access-date=2023-12-28 |website=The Metropolitan Museum of Art |language=en}}</ref>]]
-[[file:COLLECTIE TROPENMUSEUM Beeld van Durga als de godin Kwan Yin in een Chinese tempel te Soerabaja TMnr 10026825.jpg|thumb|Image of Durga, interpreted as a form of [[Guanyin]], in a Chinese temple in [[Surabaya]], [[East Java]], [[Indonesia]]. It resembles Chola art and likely pre-dates the Chinese community in East Java.]]
+[[File:COLLECTIE TROPENMUSEUM Beeld van Durga als de godin Kwan Yin in een Chinese tempel te Soerabaja TMnr 10026825.jpg|thumb|Image of Durga, interpreted as a form of [[Guanyin]], in a Chinese temple in [[Surabaya]], [[East Java]], Indonesia. It resembles Chola art and likely pre-dates the Chinese community in East Java.]]
-[[File:Sikh mural of Durga from a gurdwara.jpg|thumb|Mural of Durga crushing Mahikasur from the Guru Ram Rai Udasin Akhara  located in [[Dehradun]]]]
+[[File:Sikh mural of Durga from a gurdwara.jpg|thumb|Mural of Durga crushing Mahikasur from the Guru Ram Rai Udasin Akhara located in [[Dehradun]]]]
 The Tantric Buddhist [[Vajrayana]] traditions adopted several Hindu deities into its fold, including Durga.<ref name=":0">{{cite journal |last=Calo |first=Ambra |year=2020 |url=https://eprints.soas.ac.uk/32820/1/Pratu_v1_2020_a3_Calo.pdf |trans-title=Durgā Mahiṣāsuramardinī in Likely Tantric Buddhist Context from the Northern Indian Subcontinent to 11th-Century Bali |title=Durga Mahiṣāsuramardinī dalam konteks agama Buddha Tantrayana dari Subkontinen India Utara dan Bali pada abad ke-11 |journal=Pratu: Journal of Buddhist and Hindu Art, Architecture and Archaeology of Ancient to Premodern Southeast Asia |volume=1 |issue=3 |pages=1–20}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Wayman |first=Alex |title=The Buddhist Tantras: Light on Indo-Tibetan esotericism |publisher=Routledge |year=2008 |page=23}}</ref><ref>{{cite book | title=Buddhist Thought: A Complete Introduction to the Indian Tradition | chapter=Mantranaya/Vajrayāna – tantric Buddhism in India | publisher=Routledge | date=2002-01-04 | isbn=978-0-203-18593-3 | doi=10.4324/9780203185933-14 | chapter-url=https://www.taylorfrancis.com/books/9781134623259/chapters/10.4324/9780203185933-14 | pages=204–256}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|author=Hajime Nakamura|title=Indian Buddhism: A Survey with Bibliographical Notes|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=w0A7y4TCeVQC&pg=PA315|year=1980|publisher=Motilal Banarsidass|isbn=978-81-208-0272-8|page=315|access-date=15 February 2017|archive-date=17 February 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170217121415/https://books.google.com/books?id=w0A7y4TCeVQC&pg=PA315|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |first=Shoko |last=Watanabe |year=1955 |title=On Durga and Tantric Buddhism |journal=Chizan Gakuho |issue=18 |pages=36–44}}</ref> Numerous depictions of Durgā Mahiṣāsuramardinī (Durgā slaying the buffalo demon) have been found at Buddhist temple sites (c. 8th–11th century) in [[Afghanistan]], [[Indonesia]] and northeastern India. Durga statues have also been found in major Buddhist sites like [[Nalanda mahavihara|Nalanda]] and [[Vikramashila]].<ref name=":0" />
-In [[Bengal]], late Indian Mahayana Buddhists during the 17th century worshiped Durga during traditional [[Yogini]] Puja celebrations, and some traces of these Mahayana Durga rites survive today, even though the Bengalis who perform them are no longer Buddhist.<ref>{{Cite web |title=For centuries, Hooghly family worships Durga the Buddhist way |url=https://www.telegraphindia.com/west-bengal/for-centuries-hooghly-family-worships-durga-the-buddhist-way/cid/1890024 |access-date=2023-12-28 |website=www.telegraphindia.com |language=en}}</ref>
+In [[Bengal]], late Indian Mahayana Buddhists during the 17th century worshiped Durga during traditional [[Yogini]] Puja celebrations, and some traces of these Mahayana Durga rites survive today, even though the Bengalis who perform them are no longer Buddhist.<ref>{{Cite news |title=For centuries, Hooghly family worships Durga the Buddhist way |url=https://www.telegraphindia.com/west-bengal/for-centuries-hooghly-family-worships-durga-the-buddhist-way/cid/1890024 |access-date=2023-12-28 |work=The Telegraph |language=en}}</ref>
 Images of the Buddhist Durga have also been found in [[Bali]] (surrounded with images of Buddhas and bodhisattvas) and date from the 10th and 11th centuries.<ref name=":0" />
@@ Line 172: / Line 176: @@
 Durga also appears in the ''Sarvadurgatipariśodhana tantra'', though in this text, she appears not in her demon slaying form, but mounted on a lion.<ref name=":0" />
-Several aspects of the popular Vajrayana Buddhist goddess [[Tara (Buddhism)|Tārā]] are believed to have originated as a form of the goddess Durga or to have been influenced by Hindu stories of Durga, including Tara's [[Wrathful deities|fierce forms]].<ref>{{cite book |author=Mallar Ghosh |title=Development of Buddhist Iconography in Eastern India |publisher=Munshiram Manoharlal |year=1980 |isbn=81-215-0208-X |page=17}}</ref><ref name=":1">{{cite book |last=Shaw |first=Miranda |year=2006 |title=Buddhist Goddesses of India |page=313 |publisher=Princeton University Press}}</ref> One form of Tara is even called Durgottāriṇī-tārā who specializes in saving devotees from evil and rides a lion mount, the traditional mount of Durga.<ref name=":1" /> Durgottāriṇī appears in the ''Sādhanamālā'' (237.10; 237.21; 238.4).<ref>{{Cite web |last=www.wisdomlib.org |date=2019-12-10 |title=Durgottarini, Durgottāriṇī: 2 definitions |url=https://www.wisdomlib.org/definition/durgottarini |access-date=2023-12-28 |website=www.wisdomlib.org |language=en}}</ref>
+Several aspects of the popular Vajrayana Buddhist goddess [[Tara (Buddhism)|Tārā]] are believed to have originated as a form of the goddess Durga or to have been influenced by Hindu stories of Durga, including Tara's [[Wrathful deities|fierce forms]].<ref>{{cite book |author=Mallar Ghosh |title=Development of Buddhist Iconography in Eastern India |publisher=Munshiram Manoharlal |year=1980 |isbn=81-215-0208-X |page=17}}</ref><ref name=":1">{{cite book |last=Shaw |first=Miranda |year=2006 |title=Buddhist Goddesses of India |page=313 |publisher=Princeton University Press}}</ref> One form of Tara is even called Durgottāriṇī-tārā who specializes in saving devotees from evil and rides a lion mount, the traditional mount of Durga.<ref name=":1" /> Durgottāriṇī appears in the ''Sādhanamālā'' (237.10; 237.21; 238.4).<ref>{{Cite web |last=www.wisdomlib.org |date=2019-12-10 |title=Durgottarini, Durgottāriṇī: 2 definitions |url=https://www.wisdomlib.org/definition/durgottarini |access-date=2023-12-28 |website=wisdomlib.org |language=en}}</ref>
 In [[Buddhism in Nepal|Nepalese Buddhism]], the Buddhist tantric goddess [[Vajrayogini]] is "often worshiped interchangeably with Durga" during Durga festivals.<ref>{{cite book |last=Amazzone |first=Laura |year=2010 |title=Goddess Durga and Sacred Female Power |page=156 |publisher=University Press of America}}</ref> [[Newar Buddhism|Newar Buddhists]] also worship Durgottāriṇī-tārā during some of their [[Prajnaparamita|Prajñāpāramitā]] rituals.<ref>{{cite book |last=Kim |first=Jinah |year=2013 |title=Receptacle of the Sacred: Illustrated Manuscripts and the Buddhist Book Cult in South Asia |pages=158–162 |publisher=University of California Press}}</ref>
@@ Line 185: / Line 189: @@
 ===In Sikhism===
 {{see also|Chandi di Var}}
-Durga is exalted as the divine in ''[[Dasam Granth]]'', a sacred text of Sikhism that is traditionally attributed to [[Guru Gobind Singh]].<ref name=nesbitt109>{{cite book|author=Eleanor Nesbitt|title=Sikhism: A Very Short Introduction|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=zD8SDAAAQBAJ&q=durga|year=2016|publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=978-0-19-106277-3|pages=108–109|access-date=11 October 2020|archive-date=26 January 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210126192114/https://books.google.com/books?id=zD8SDAAAQBAJ&q=durga|url-status=live}}</ref>
+Durga is exalted as a creation of the divine in ''[[Dasam Granth]]'', a sacred text of Sikhism that is traditionally attributed to [[Guru Gobind Singh]].<ref name=nesbitt109>{{cite book|author=Eleanor Nesbitt|title=Sikhism: A Very Short Introduction|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=zD8SDAAAQBAJ&q=durga|year=2016|publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=978-0-19-106277-3|pages=108–109|access-date=11 October 2020|archive-date=26 January 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210126192114/https://books.google.com/books?id=zD8SDAAAQBAJ&q=durga|url-status=live}}</ref>
 According to Eleanor Nesbitt, this view has been challenged by Sikhs who consider Sikhism to be monotheistic, who hold that a feminine form of the Supreme and a reverence for the Goddess is "unmistakably of Hindu character".<ref name=nesbitt109/>
@@ Line 207: / Line 211: @@
 * [[Devi]]
 * [[Tridevi]]
+* [[Devi Mahatmya]]
 ==Notes==
@@ Line 217: / Line 222: @@
 ===Bibliography===
 {{Refbegin|30em}}
-* {{cite book |author=Laura Amazzone |title=Goddess Durga and Sacred Female Power |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=PM_TNDu8NHUC |year=2012 |publisher=University Press of America |isbn=978-0-7618-5314-5 |access-date=26 November 2015 |archive-date=17 March 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200317121233/https://books.google.com/books?id=PM_TNDu8NHUC |url-status=live }}
+* {{cite book |author=Laura Amazzone |title=Goddess Durga and Sacred Female Power |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=PM_TNDu8NHUC |year=2012 |publisher=University Press of America |isbn=978-0-7618-5314-5 |access-date=26 November 2015 |archive-date=17 March 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200317121233/https://books.google.com/books?id=PM_TNDu8NHUC |url-status=live}}
-* {{cite book |author=Laura Amazzone |editor=Patricia Monaghan |title=Goddesses in World Culture |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=qotjet-Hb0MC |year=2011 |publisher=ABC-CLIO |isbn=978-0-313-35465-6 |access-date=15 February 2017 |archive-date=17 February 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170217102257/https://books.google.com/books?id=qotjet-Hb0MC |url-status=live }}
+* {{cite book |author=Laura Amazzone |editor=Patricia Monaghan |title=Goddesses in World Culture |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=qotjet-Hb0MC |year=2011 |publisher=ABC-CLIO |isbn=978-0-313-35465-6 |access-date=15 February 2017 |archive-date=17 February 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170217102257/https://books.google.com/books?id=qotjet-Hb0MC |url-status=live}}
-* {{cite book |author=Chitrita Banerji |title=The Hour of the Goddess: Memories of Women, Food, and Ritual in Bengal |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=NPYvGv7ER4sC |year=2006 |publisher=Penguin Books India |isbn=978-0-14-400142-2 |access-date=15 February 2017 |archive-date=17 February 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170217102118/https://books.google.com/books?id=NPYvGv7ER4sC |url-status=live }}
+* {{cite book |author=Chitrita Banerji |title=The Hour of the Goddess: Memories of Women, Food, and Ritual in Bengal |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=NPYvGv7ER4sC |year=2006 |publisher=Penguin Books India |isbn=978-0-14-400142-2 |access-date=15 February 2017 |archive-date=17 February 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170217102118/https://books.google.com/books?id=NPYvGv7ER4sC |url-status=live}}
-* {{cite book |author=Douglas Renfrew Brooks |title=Auspicious Wisdom |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=salQJBpUkGkC |year=1992 |publisher=State University of New York Press |isbn=978-0-7914-1145-2 |access-date=15 February 2017 |archive-date=27 June 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140627013858/http://books.google.com/books?id=salQJBpUkGkC |url-status=live }}
+* {{cite book |author=Douglas Renfrew Brooks |title=Auspicious Wisdom |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=salQJBpUkGkC |year=1992 |publisher=State University of New York Press |isbn=978-0-7914-1145-2 |access-date=15 February 2017 |archive-date=27 June 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140627013858/http://books.google.com/books?id=salQJBpUkGkC |url-status=live}}
-* {{cite book |author=C Mackenzie Brown |title=The Triumph of the Goddess: The Canonical Models and Theological Visions of the Devi-Bhagavata Purana |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=p6KumJp_wNgC |year=1990 |publisher=State University of New York Press |isbn=978-0-7914-0364-8 |access-date=15 February 2017 |archive-date=26 December 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191226130045/https://books.google.com/books?id=p6KumJp_wNgC |url-status=live }}
+* {{cite book |author=C Mackenzie Brown |title=The Triumph of the Goddess: The Canonical Models and Theological Visions of the Devi-Bhagavata Purana |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=p6KumJp_wNgC |year=1990 |publisher=State University of New York Press |isbn=978-0-7914-0364-8 |access-date=15 February 2017 |archive-date=26 December 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191226130045/https://books.google.com/books?id=p6KumJp_wNgC |url-status=live}}
-* {{cite book |author=Cheever Mackenzie Brown |title=The Devi Gita: The Song of the Goddess: A Translation, Annotation, and Commentary |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=28CIEnZCcqMC |year=1998 |publisher=State University of New York Press |isbn=978-0-7914-3939-5 |access-date=15 February 2017 |archive-date=24 December 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191224013207/https://books.google.com/books?id=28CIEnZCcqMC |url-status=live }}
+* {{cite book |author=Cheever Mackenzie Brown |title=The Devi Gita: The Song of the Goddess: A Translation, Annotation, and Commentary |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=28CIEnZCcqMC |year=1998 |publisher=State University of New York Press |isbn=978-0-7914-3939-5 |access-date=15 February 2017 |archive-date=24 December 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191224013207/https://books.google.com/books?id=28CIEnZCcqMC |url-status=live}}
-* {{cite book |author=Thomas B. Coburn |author-link=Thomas B. Coburn |title=Encountering the Goddess: A translation of the Devi-Mahatmya and a Study of Its Interpretation |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=c7vIzNrC-coC |year=1991 |publisher=State University of New York Press |isbn=978-0-7914-0446-1 |access-date=15 February 2017 |archive-date=5 February 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170205081952/https://books.google.com/books?id=c7vIzNrC-coC |url-status=live }}
+* {{cite book |author=Thomas B. Coburn |author-link=Thomas B. Coburn |title=Encountering the Goddess: A translation of the Devi-Mahatmya and a Study of Its Interpretation |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=c7vIzNrC-coC |year=1991 |publisher=State University of New York Press |isbn=978-0-7914-0446-1 |access-date=15 February 2017 |archive-date=5 February 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170205081952/https://books.google.com/books?id=c7vIzNrC-coC |url-status=live}}
-* {{cite book |author=Thomas B. Coburn |author-link=Thomas B. Coburn |title=Devī Māhātmya, The Crystallization of the Goddess Tradition |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=hy9kf7_TOHgC |year=2002 |publisher=South Asia Books |isbn=81-208-0557-7 |access-date=15 February 2017 |archive-date=9 December 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211209205927/https://books.google.com/books?id=hy9kf7_TOHgC |url-status=live }}
+* {{cite book |author=Thomas B. Coburn |author-link=Thomas B. Coburn |title=Devī Māhātmya, The Crystallization of the Goddess Tradition |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=hy9kf7_TOHgC |year=2002 |publisher=South Asia Books |isbn=81-208-0557-7 |access-date=15 February 2017 |archive-date=9 December 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211209205927/https://books.google.com/books?id=hy9kf7_TOHgC |url-status=live}}
-* {{cite book|title=Devi: Goddesses in Indian Art and Literature|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=EyAoAQAAIAAJ|first=V. R.|last=Parthasarathy|publisher=Bharatiya Kala Prakashan|year=2009|isbn=978-8-1809-0203-1|access-date=18 November 2020|archive-date=1 October 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221001134348/https://books.google.com/books?id=EyAoAQAAIAAJ|url-status=live}}
+* {{cite book |title=Devi: Goddesses in Indian Art and Literature |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=EyAoAQAAIAAJ |first=V. R. |last=Parthasarathy |publisher=Bharatiya Kala Prakashan |year=2009 |isbn=978-8-1809-0203-1 |access-date=18 November 2020 |archive-date=1 October 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221001134348/https://books.google.com/books?id=EyAoAQAAIAAJ |url-status=live}}
-* {{cite book |author1=Charles Russell Coulter |author2=Patricia Turner |title=Encyclopedia of Ancient Deities |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=VWxekbhM1yEC |year=2013 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-1-135-96397-2 |access-date=15 February 2017 |archive-date=26 October 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211026134825/https://books.google.com/books?id=VWxekbhM1yEC |url-status=live }}
+* {{cite book |author1=Charles Russell Coulter |author2=Patricia Turner |title=Encyclopedia of Ancient Deities |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=VWxekbhM1yEC |year=2013 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-1-135-96397-2 |access-date=15 February 2017 |archive-date=26 October 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211026134825/https://books.google.com/books?id=VWxekbhM1yEC |url-status=live}}
-* {{cite book |author=Paul Reid-Bowen |editor1=Denise Cush |editor2=Catherine Robinson |editor3=Michael York |title=Encyclopedia of Hinduism |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=kzPgCgAAQBAJ |year=2012 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-1-135-18979-2 |access-date=15 February 2017 |archive-date=24 December 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161224010450/https://books.google.com/books?id=kzPgCgAAQBAJ |url-status=live }}
+* {{cite book |author=Paul Reid-Bowen |editor1=Denise Cush |editor2=Catherine Robinson |editor3=Michael York |title=Encyclopedia of Hinduism |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=kzPgCgAAQBAJ |year=2012 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-1-135-18979-2 |access-date=15 February 2017 |archive-date=24 December 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161224010450/https://books.google.com/books?id=kzPgCgAAQBAJ |url-status=live}}
-* {{cite book |author=Alain Daniélou |title=The Myths and Gods of India: The Classic Work on Hindu Polytheism from the Princeton Bollingen Series |url=https://archive.org/details/mythsgodsofindia00dani |url-access=registration |year=1991 |publisher=Inner Traditions / Bear & Co |isbn=978-0-89281-354-4 }}
+* {{cite book |author=Alain Daniélou |title=The Myths and Gods of India: The Classic Work on Hindu Polytheism from the Princeton Bollingen Series |url=https://archive.org/details/mythsgodsofindia00dani |url-access=registration |year=1991 |publisher=Inner Traditions / Bear & Co |isbn=978-0-89281-354-4}}
-* {{cite book |author=Wendy Doniger |title=Merriam-Webster's Encyclopedia of World Religions |url=https://archive.org/details/isbn_9780877790440 |url-access=registration |year=1999 |publisher=Merriam-Webster |isbn=978-0-87779-044-0 }}
+* {{cite book |author=Wendy Doniger |title=Merriam-Webster's Encyclopedia of World Religions |url=https://archive.org/details/isbn_9780877790440 |url-access=registration |year=1999 |publisher=Merriam-Webster |isbn=978-0-87779-044-0}}
-* {{cite book |author1=Robert S Ellwood |author2=Gregory D Alles |title=The Encyclopedia of World Religions |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=1pGbdI4L0qsC&pg=PA126 |year=2007 |publisher=Infobase Publishing |isbn=978-1-4381-1038-7 |access-date=15 February 2017 |archive-date=17 February 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170217102110/https://books.google.com/books?id=1pGbdI4L0qsC&pg=PA126 |url-status=live }}
+* {{cite book |author1=Robert S Ellwood |author2=Gregory D Alles |title=The Encyclopedia of World Religions |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=1pGbdI4L0qsC&pg=PA126 |year=2007 |publisher=Infobase Publishing |isbn=978-1-4381-1038-7 |access-date=15 February 2017 |archive-date=17 February 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170217102110/https://books.google.com/books?id=1pGbdI4L0qsC&pg=PA126 |url-status=live}}
-* {{cite book |author1=Lynn Foulston |author2=Stuart Abbott |title=Hindu Goddesses: Beliefs and Practices |url=https://archive.org/details/hindugoddessesbe0000foul |url-access=registration |year=2009 |publisher=Sussex Academic Press |isbn=978-1-902210-43-8 }}
+* {{cite book |author1=Lynn Foulston |author2=Stuart Abbott |title=Hindu Goddesses: Beliefs and Practices |url=https://archive.org/details/hindugoddessesbe0000foul |url-access=registration |year=2009 |publisher=Sussex Academic Press |isbn=978-1-902210-43-8}}
-* {{cite book |author1=Constance Jones |author2=James D Ryan |title=Encyclopedia of Hinduism |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=OgMmceadQ3gC |year=2006 |publisher=Infobase Publishing |isbn=978-0-8160-7564-5 |access-date=15 February 2017 |archive-date=23 March 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170323232140/https://books.google.com/books?id=OgMmceadQ3gC |url-status=live }}
+* {{cite book |author1=Constance Jones |author2=James D Ryan |title=Encyclopedia of Hinduism |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=OgMmceadQ3gC |year=2006 |publisher=Infobase Publishing |isbn=978-0-8160-7564-5 |access-date=15 February 2017 |archive-date=23 March 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170323232140/https://books.google.com/books?id=OgMmceadQ3gC |url-status=live}}
-* {{cite book |author=David R Kinsley |title=The Goddesses' Mirror: Visions of the Divine from East and West |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=b0jmXOPBXkwC |year=1989 |publisher=State University of New York Press |isbn=978-0-88706-835-5 |access-date=15 February 2017 |archive-date=17 February 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170217102120/https://books.google.com/books?id=b0jmXOPBXkwC |url-status=live }}
+* {{cite book |author=David R Kinsley |title=The Goddesses' Mirror: Visions of the Divine from East and West |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=b0jmXOPBXkwC |year=1989 |publisher=State University of New York Press |isbn=978-0-88706-835-5 |access-date=15 February 2017 |archive-date=17 February 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170217102120/https://books.google.com/books?id=b0jmXOPBXkwC |url-status=live}}
-* {{cite book |author=David Kinsley |year=1998 |orig-year=First published 1986 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=hgTOZEyrVtIC |title=Hindu Goddesses: Visions of the Divine Feminine in the Hindu Religious Tradition |publisher=Motilal Banarsidass Publications |isbn=978-81-208-0394-7 |access-date=26 November 2015 |archive-date=28 October 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201028095902/https://books.google.com/books?id=hgTOZEyrVtIC |url-status=live }}
+* {{cite book |author=David Kinsley |year=1998 |orig-year=First published 1986 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=hgTOZEyrVtIC |title=Hindu Goddesses: Visions of the Divine Feminine in the Hindu Religious Tradition |publisher=Motilal Banarsidass Publications |isbn=978-81-208-0394-7 |access-date=26 November 2015 |archive-date=28 October 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201028095902/https://books.google.com/books?id=hgTOZEyrVtIC |url-status=live}}
-* {{cite book |author=David Kinsley |title=Tantric Visions of the Divine Feminine: The Ten Mahavidyas |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=iob2JIzY9fIC |year=1997 |publisher=University of California Press |isbn=978-0-520-91772-9 }}
+* {{cite book |author=David Kinsley |title=Tantric Visions of the Divine Feminine: The Ten Mahavidyas |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=iob2JIzY9fIC |year=1997 |publisher=University of California Press |isbn=978-0-520-91772-9}}
-* {{cite book |author=Donald J LaRocca |title=The Gods of War: Sacred Imagery and the Decoration of Arms and Armor |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=8B5B4B5IcQkC |year=1996 |publisher=Metropolitan Museum of Art |isbn=978-0-87099-779-2 }}
+* {{cite book |author=Donald J LaRocca |title=The Gods of War: Sacred Imagery and the Decoration of Arms and Armor |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=8B5B4B5IcQkC |year=1996 |publisher=Metropolitan Museum of Art |isbn=978-0-87099-779-2}}
-* {{cite book |author=James G Lochtefeld |title=The Illustrated Encyclopedia of Hinduism: A-M |url=https://archive.org/details/illustratedencyc0000loch |url-access=registration |year=2002 |publisher=The Rosen Publishing Group |isbn=978-0-8239-3179-8 }}
+* {{cite book |author=James G Lochtefeld |title=The Illustrated Encyclopedia of Hinduism: A-M |url=https://archive.org/details/illustratedencyc0000loch |url-access=registration |year=2002 |publisher=The Rosen Publishing Group |isbn=978-0-8239-3179-8}}
-* {{cite book |author=June McDaniel |title=Offering Flowers, Feeding Skulls: Popular Goddess Worship in West Bengal |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=caeJpIj9SdkC |year=2004 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-534713-5 |access-date=26 November 2015 |archive-date=4 January 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170104022224/https://books.google.com/books?id=caeJpIj9SdkC |url-status=live }}
+* {{cite book |author=June McDaniel |title=Offering Flowers, Feeding Skulls: Popular Goddess Worship in West Bengal |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=caeJpIj9SdkC |year=2004 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-534713-5 |access-date=26 November 2015 |archive-date=4 January 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170104022224/https://books.google.com/books?id=caeJpIj9SdkC |url-status=live}}
-* {{cite book |author=Rachel Fell McDermott |title=Mother of My Heart, Daughter of My Dreams: Kali and Uma in the Devotional Poetry of Bengal |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=2PrChFaXgf0C |year=2001 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-803071-3 |access-date=15 February 2017 |archive-date=17 February 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170217101734/https://books.google.com/books?id=2PrChFaXgf0C |url-status=live }}
+* {{cite book |author=Rachel Fell McDermott |title=Mother of My Heart, Daughter of My Dreams: Kali and Uma in the Devotional Poetry of Bengal |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=2PrChFaXgf0C |year=2001 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-803071-3 |access-date=15 February 2017 |archive-date=17 February 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170217101734/https://books.google.com/books?id=2PrChFaXgf0C |url-status=live}}
-* {{cite book|last=Flood|first=Gavin|author-link=Gavin Flood|title=An Introduction to Hinduism|url=https://archive.org/details/introductiontohi0000floo|url-access=registration|year=1996|publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]]|location=Cambridge|isbn=0-521-43878-0}}
+* {{cite book |last=Flood |first=Gavin |author-link=Gavin Flood |title=An Introduction to Hinduism |url=https://archive.org/details/introductiontohi0000floo |url-access=registration |year=1996 |publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]] |location=Cambridge |isbn=0-521-43878-0}}
-* {{cite book |author=Malcolm McLean |title=Devoted to the Goddess: The Life and Work of Ramprasad |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=kXY4uQ9TwI8C |year=1998 |publisher=State University of New York Press |isbn=978-0-7914-3689-9 |access-date=15 February 2017 |archive-date=17 February 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170217101831/https://books.google.com/books?id=kXY4uQ9TwI8C |url-status=live }}
+* {{cite book |author=Malcolm McLean |title=Devoted to the Goddess: The Life and Work of Ramprasad |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=kXY4uQ9TwI8C |year=1998 |publisher=State University of New York Press |isbn=978-0-7914-3689-9 |access-date=15 February 2017 |archive-date=17 February 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170217101831/https://books.google.com/books?id=kXY4uQ9TwI8C |url-status=live}}
-* {{cite book |author=Patricia Monaghan |title=Goddesses in World Culture |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=qotjet-Hb0MC |year=2011 |publisher=ABC-CLIO |isbn=978-0-313-35465-6 |access-date=15 February 2017 |archive-date=17 February 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170217102257/https://books.google.com/books?id=qotjet-Hb0MC |url-status=live }}
+* {{cite book |author=Patricia Monaghan |title=Goddesses in World Culture |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=qotjet-Hb0MC |year=2011 |publisher=ABC-CLIO |isbn=978-0-313-35465-6 |access-date=15 February 2017 |archive-date=17 February 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170217102257/https://books.google.com/books?id=qotjet-Hb0MC |url-status=live}}
-* {{cite book |author=Sree Padma |title=Inventing and Reinventing the Goddess: Contemporary Iterations of Hindu Deities on the Move |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=9Jn_AwAAQBAJ |year=2014 |publisher=Lexington Books |isbn=978-0-7391-9002-9 |access-date=15 February 2017 |archive-date=16 August 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210816064150/https://books.google.com/books?id=9Jn_AwAAQBAJ |url-status=live }}
+* {{cite book |author=Sree Padma |title=Inventing and Reinventing the Goddess: Contemporary Iterations of Hindu Deities on the Move |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=9Jn_AwAAQBAJ |year=2014 |publisher=Lexington Books |isbn=978-0-7391-9002-9 |access-date=15 February 2017 |archive-date=16 August 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210816064150/https://books.google.com/books?id=9Jn_AwAAQBAJ |url-status=live}}
-* {{cite book |author1=Charles Phillips |author2=Michael Kerrigan |author3=David Gould |title=Ancient India's Myths and Beliefs |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=p3-RkE-Xxa0C |year=2011 |publisher=The Rosen Publishing Group |isbn=978-1-4488-5990-0 |access-date=15 February 2017 |archive-date=17 February 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170217102124/https://books.google.com/books?id=p3-RkE-Xxa0C |url-status=live }}
+* {{cite book |author1=Charles Phillips |author2=Michael Kerrigan |author3=David Gould |title=Ancient India's Myths and Beliefs |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=p3-RkE-Xxa0C |year=2011 |publisher=The Rosen Publishing Group |isbn=978-1-4488-5990-0 |access-date=15 February 2017 |archive-date=17 February 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170217102124/https://books.google.com/books?id=p3-RkE-Xxa0C |url-status=live}}
 * {{Cite book |author=Ludo Rocher |year=1986 |author-link=Ludo Rocher |title=The Puranas |publisher=Otto Harrassowitz Verlag |isbn=978-3447025225}}
 * [[Ramprasad Sen|Sen Ramprasad]] (1720–1781). ''Grace and Mercy in Her Wild Hair: Selected Poems to the Mother Goddess''. Hohm Press. {{ISBN|0-934252-94-7}}.
-* {{cite book |author=Hillary Rodrigues |title=Ritual Worship of the Great Goddess: The Liturgy of the Durga Puja with Interpretations |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=onyaEhwhJBUC |year=2003 |publisher=SUNY Press |isbn=978-0-7914-8844-7 |access-date=15 February 2017 |archive-date=8 November 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201108105311/https://books.google.com/books?id=onyaEhwhJBUC |url-status=live }}
+* {{cite book |author=Hillary Rodrigues |title=Ritual Worship of the Great Goddess: The Liturgy of the Durga Puja with Interpretations |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=onyaEhwhJBUC |year=2003 |publisher=SUNY Press |isbn=978-0-7914-8844-7 |access-date=15 February 2017 |archive-date=8 November 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201108105311/https://books.google.com/books?id=onyaEhwhJBUC |url-status=live}}
-* {{cite book|title=The Triumph of the Goddess: The Canonical Models and Theological Visions of the Devi-Bhagavata Purana|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=p6KumJp_wNgC|first=C. Mackenzie|last=Brown|publisher=SUNY Press|year=1990|isbn=9780791403648|access-date=15 February 2017|archive-date=26 December 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191226130045/https://books.google.com/books?id=p6KumJp_wNgC|url-status=live}}
+* {{cite book |title=The Triumph of the Goddess: The Canonical Models and Theological Visions of the Devi-Bhagavata Purana |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=p6KumJp_wNgC |first=C. Mackenzie |last=Brown |publisher=SUNY Press |year=1990 |isbn=9780791403648 |access-date=15 February 2017 |archive-date=26 December 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191226130045/https://books.google.com/books?id=p6KumJp_wNgC |url-status=live}}
-* {{cite web | title=Durga - Hindu mythology | website=Encyclopedia Britannica | date=19 February 2015 | url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/Durga | ref={{sfnref | Encyclopedia Britannica | 2015}} | access-date=15 February 2017 | archive-date=7 May 2017 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170507035548/https://www.britannica.com/topic/Durga | url-status=live }}
+* {{cite web |title=Durga - Hindu mythology |website=Encyclopædia Britannica |date=19 February 2015 |url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/Durga |ref={{sfnref | Encyclopedia Britannica | 2015}} |access-date=15 February 2017 |archive-date=7 May 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170507035548/https://www.britannica.com/topic/Durga |url-status=live}}
-* {{Citation|title=Shankara and Indian Philosophy|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=hshaWu0m1D4C|first=N. V.|last=Isaeva|publisher=SUNY Press|year=1993|isbn=978-0791412817|access-date=18 October 2020|archive-date=14 January 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200114040317/https://books.google.com/books?id=hshaWu0m1D4C|url-status=live}}
+* {{Citation |title=Shankara and Indian Philosophy |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=hshaWu0m1D4C |first=N. V. |last=Isaeva |publisher=SUNY Press |year=1993 |isbn=978-0791412817 |access-date=18 October 2020 |archive-date=14 January 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200114040317/https://books.google.com/books?id=hshaWu0m1D4C |url-status=live}}
-* {{Citation|title=Seeking Mahadevi: Constructing the Identities of the Hindu Great Goddess|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=JfXdGInecRIC|first=Tracy|last=Pintchman|publisher=SUNY Press|year=2014|isbn=978-0791490495|access-date=18 October 2020|archive-date=19 August 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200819130701/https://books.google.com/books?id=JfXdGInecRIC|url-status=live}}
+* {{Citation |title=Seeking Mahadevi: Constructing the Identities of the Hindu Great Goddess |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=JfXdGInecRIC |first=Tracy |last=Pintchman |publisher=SUNY Press |year=2014 |isbn=978-0791490495 |access-date=18 October 2020 |archive-date=19 August 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200819130701/https://books.google.com/books?id=JfXdGInecRIC |url-status=live}}
-* {{Citation|title=Hairakhandi Mantra & Bhajans|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=lf5zBgAAQBAJ|first=M. C. Kalavati|last=Chiulli|publisher=J. Amba Edizioni publishing house|year=2007|isbn=978-8886340465|access-date=18 October 2020|archive-date=26 January 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210126192118/https://books.google.com/books?id=lf5zBgAAQBAJ|url-status=live}}
+* {{Citation |title=Hairakhandi Mantra & Bhajans |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=lf5zBgAAQBAJ |first=M. C. Kalavati |last=Chiulli |publisher=J. Amba Edizioni publishing house |year=2007 |isbn=978-8886340465 |access-date=18 October 2020 |archive-date=26 January 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210126192118/https://books.google.com/books?id=lf5zBgAAQBAJ |url-status=live}}
 {{refend}}

Durga: Difference between revisions

Revision as of 05:33, 20 November 2025

Etymology and nomenclature

Epithets

Etymology and other names

History and texts

Origins

Legends

Attributes and iconography

Worship and festivals

Durga puja

Dashain

Other cultures

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In Buddhism

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Outside the Indian subcontinent

Influence

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Notes

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