Intercropping: Difference between revisions
Jump to navigation
Jump to search
imported>OAbot m Open access bot: url-access updated in citation with #oabot. |
imported>Chiswick Chap →Alley cropping: trim |
||
| Line 1: | Line 1: | ||
{{ | {{Short description|Agricultural method}} | ||
{{use dmy dates |date=December 2022}} | {{use dmy dates |date=December 2022}} | ||
[[File:Intercropping coconut n Tagetes erecta.jpg|thumb|upright=1.2|[[Coconut]] and [[Tagetes erecta|Mexican marigold]], a multilayer cropping<ref>[http://www.fao.org/docrep/003/X3996E/x3996e37.htm#P1_33 ''Improving nutrition through home gardening''], Home Garden Technology Leaflet 13: Multilayer cropping, [[FAO]], 2001</ref> in India]] | |||
{{Agriculture}} | {{Agriculture}} | ||
'''Intercropping''' is a multiple cropping practice that involves the cultivation of two or more crops simultaneously on the same field, a form of [[polyculture]].<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Hatcher |first1=P E |last2=Melander |first2=B |date=2003-09-19 |title=Combining physical, cultural and biological methods: prospects for integrated non-chemical weed management strategies |url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1046/j.1365-3180.2003.00352.x |journal=Weed Research |language=en |volume=43 |issue=5 |pages=303–322 |doi=10.1046/j.1365-3180.2003.00352.x |bibcode=2003WeedR..43..303H |issn=0043-1737|url-access=subscription }}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Abdulkareem |first1=Basim Mohammed |last2=Mokhtassi-Bidgoli |first2=Ali |last3=Ayyari |first3=Mahdi |last4=Keshtkar |first4=Eshagh |last5=Eyni-Nargeseh |first5=Hamed |date=2024-03-15 |title=Enhancing cotton sustainability: Multi-factorial intercropping, irrigation, and weed effects on productivity, quality and physiology |journal=Heliyon |volume=10 |issue=5 | | '''Intercropping''' is a multiple cropping practice that involves the cultivation of two or more crops simultaneously on the same field, a form of [[polyculture]].<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Hatcher |first1=P E |last2=Melander |first2=B |date=2003-09-19 |title=Combining physical, cultural and biological methods: prospects for integrated non-chemical weed management strategies |url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1046/j.1365-3180.2003.00352.x |journal=Weed Research |language=en |volume=43 |issue=5 |pages=303–322 |doi=10.1046/j.1365-3180.2003.00352.x |bibcode=2003WeedR..43..303H |issn=0043-1737|url-access=subscription }}</ref><ref name="Abdulkareem 2024">{{Cite journal |last1=Abdulkareem |first1=Basim Mohammed |last2=Mokhtassi-Bidgoli |first2=Ali |last3=Ayyari |first3=Mahdi |last4=Keshtkar |first4=Eshagh |last5=Eyni-Nargeseh |first5=Hamed |date=2024-03-15 |title=Enhancing cotton sustainability: Multi-factorial intercropping, irrigation, and weed effects on productivity, quality and physiology |journal=Heliyon |volume=10 |issue=5 |article-number=e27135 |doi=10.1016/j.heliyon.2024.e27135 |doi-access=free |issn=2405-8440 |pmc=10912634 |pmid=38444487|bibcode=2024Heliy..1027135A }}</ref> The most common goal of intercropping is to produce a greater yield on a given piece of land by making use of resources or ecological processes that would otherwise not be utilized by a single crop. | ||
== Methods == | == Methods == | ||
The degree of spatial and temporal overlap in the two crops can vary somewhat, but both requirements must be met for a cropping system to be an intercrop. Numerous types of intercropping, all of which vary the temporal and spatial mixture to some degree, have been identified.<ref>{{cite book |doi=10.2134/asaspecpub27.c1|chapter=The Importance of Multiple Cropping in Increasing World Food Supplies |title=Multiple Cropping |series=ASA Special Publications |year=2015 |last1=Andrews |first1=D. J. |last2=Kassam |first2=A. H. |pages=1–10 |isbn= | |||
The degree of spatial and temporal overlap in the two crops can vary somewhat, but both requirements must be met for a cropping system to be an intercrop. Numerous types of intercropping, all of which vary the temporal and spatial mixture to some degree, have been identified.<ref>{{cite book |doi=10.2134/asaspecpub27.c1|chapter=The Importance of Multiple Cropping in Increasing World Food Supplies |title=Multiple Cropping |series=ASA Special Publications |year=2015 |last1=Andrews |first1=D. J. |last2=Kassam |first2=A. H. |pages=1–10 |isbn=978-0-89118-293-1 }}</ref><ref name="Annual intercrops">{{cite journal|last1=Lithourgidis|first1=A.S.|last2=Dordas |first2=C.A.|last3=Damalas|first3=C.A. |last4=Vlachostergios|first4=D.N.|year=2011|title=Annual intercrops: an alternative pathway for sustainable agriculture |url=http://www.cropj.com/anastasios_5_4_2011_396_410.pdf|journal=Australian Journal of Crop Science|volume=5 |issue=4|pages=396–410}}</ref> | |||
=== Mixed intercropping === | === Mixed intercropping === | ||
| Line 18: | Line 20: | ||
=== Temporal === | === Temporal === | ||
=== | Temporal intercropping uses the practice of sowing a fast-growing crop with a slow-growing crop, so that the fast-growing crop is harvested before the slow-growing crop starts to mature. This can provide greater yield than either crop alone.<ref name="Dong 2018">{{cite journal |last1=Dong |first1=Nan |last2=Tang |first2=Ming-Ming |last3=Zhang |first3=Wei-Ping |last4=Bao |first4=Xing-Guo |last5=Wang |first5=Yu |last6=Christie |first6=Peter |last7=Li |first7=Long |title=Temporal Differentiation of Crop Growth as One of the Drivers of Intercropping Yield Advantage |journal=Scientific Reports |volume=8 |issue=1 |date=2018-02-15 |pmid=29449595 |pmc=5814522 |doi=10.1038/s41598-018-21414-w |doi-access=free |url=https://www.nature.com/articles/s41598-018-21414-w.pdf |access-date=2025-09-27}}</ref> | ||
Further temporal separation is found in relay cropping, where the second crop is sown during the growth, often near the onset of reproductive development or [[fruit]]ing, of the first crop, so that the first crop is harvested to make room for the full development of the second. | Further temporal separation is found in relay cropping, where the second crop is sown during the growth, often near the onset of reproductive development or [[fruit]]ing, of the first crop, so that the first crop is harvested to make room for the full development of the second. | ||
[[Crop rotation]] is a related practice but is not a form of intercropping, as the different crops are grown in separate growing seasons rather than in a single season. | [[Crop rotation]] is a related practice but is not a form of intercropping, as the different crops are grown in separate growing seasons rather than in a single season. | ||
=== Alley cropping === | |||
Alley cropping has crop strips alternating with rows of closely spaced tree or hedge species. Normally, the trees are pruned before planting the crop. The cut leafy material - for example, from ''[[Alchornea cordifolia]]'' and ''[[Acioa barteri]]'' - is spread over the crop area to provide nutrients. In addition to nutrients, the hedges serve as windbreaks and reduce erosion.<ref name="Tripathi-Psychas-1992"/> In tropical North and South America, various species of ''[[Inga]]'' such as ''[[Inga edulis|I. edulis]]'' and ''[[Inga oerstediana|I. oerstediana]]'' have been used for alley cropping.<ref>{{cite news |url=https://theecologist.org/2005/feb/20/rainforest-saver |title=The Rainforest Saver |work=[[The Ecologist]] |first=Daniel |last=Elkan |date=20 February 2005}}</ref> [[Weed control]] is inherent to alley cropping, by providing mulch and shade.<ref name="Tripathi-Psychas-1992">{{cite book |last1=Tripathi |first1=Bansh R. |last2=Psychas |first2=Paul J. |title=The AFNETA Alley Farming Training Manual |publisher=[[Alley Farming Network for Tropical Africa]] (AFNETA) |date=1992 |hdl=10568/49807 |volume=1 - Core course in alley farming |isbn=978-131-074-X |oclc=29771935 |publication-place=[[Ibadan]] |pages=xi+180 |s2cid=130266228}} [[AGRIS]] id [http://agris.fao.org/agris-search/search.do?recordID=XF2016015795 XF2016015795]. {{hdl |20.500.12478/5101}}.</ref> | |||
[[Inga]] alley cropping<ref>Adam, David. ''[https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2006/nov/28/climatechange.climatechangeenvironment Earthshakers: the top 100 green campaigners of all time]'' [[The Guardian]], 28 November 2006</ref> offers an alternative to the ecologically destructive [[slash and burn cultivation]]. It increases yields and is more [[sustainable agriculture|sustainable]] as it allows the land to be cultivated repeatedly, eliminating the need for slash and burn to get fertile plots.<ref name=Elkan>{{cite news |last=Elkan |first=Daniel |title=Fired with ambition: 'Slash-and-burn farming has become a major threat to the world's rainforest |newspaper=[[The Guardian]] |date=21 April 2004 |url=https://www.theguardian.com/society/2004/apr/21/environment.environment}}</ref> Inga trees, native to [[Central America|Central]] and [[South America]], grow well on [[acid soils]] of [[tropical rainforest]] or former rainforest. They are [[leguminous]], [[Nitrogen fixation|fixing nitrogen]] into a form usable by plants.<ref name=RFS>rainforestsaver.org: [http://www.rainforestsaver.org/what-inga-alley-cropping What is Inga alley cropping?] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304031512/http://www.rainforestsaver.org/what-inga-alley-cropping |date=4 March 2016 }}</ref> The leaves form a thick mulch that protects both soil and roots from sun and rain. The trees form a thick canopy that cuts off light from the weeds below, and withstand annual pruning.<ref name=RFS/> The technique was developed and trialled by tropical ecologist Mike Hands in [[Costa Rica]] in the late 1980s and early '90s. He showed that the tough leaves of the Inga tree decomposed quickly enough to be useful as a mulch.<ref name=Elkan/> | |||
== Potential benefits == | == Potential benefits == | ||
| Line 34: | Line 41: | ||
Careful planning is required, taking into account the [[soil]], [[climate]], crops, and [[variety (botany) |varieties]]. It is particularly important not to have crops competing with each other for physical space, [[nutrient]]s, [[water]], or [[sunlight]]. Examples of intercropping strategies are planting a deep-[[root]]ed crop with a shallow-rooted crop, or planting a tall crop with a shorter crop that requires partial shade. [[Inga alley cropping]] has been proposed as an alternative to the ecological destruction of [[slash-and-burn farming]].<ref name="Elkan">{{cite news |url=https://www.theguardian.com/society/2004/apr/21/environment.environment |last=Elkan |first=Daniel |title=Fired with ambition: Slash-and-burn farming has become a major threat to the world's rainforest |work=[[The Guardian]] |date=21 April 2004 |access-date=7 December 2022 }}</ref> | Careful planning is required, taking into account the [[soil]], [[climate]], crops, and [[variety (botany) |varieties]]. It is particularly important not to have crops competing with each other for physical space, [[nutrient]]s, [[water]], or [[sunlight]]. Examples of intercropping strategies are planting a deep-[[root]]ed crop with a shallow-rooted crop, or planting a tall crop with a shorter crop that requires partial shade. [[Inga alley cropping]] has been proposed as an alternative to the ecological destruction of [[slash-and-burn farming]].<ref name="Elkan">{{cite news |url=https://www.theguardian.com/society/2004/apr/21/environment.environment |last=Elkan |first=Daniel |title=Fired with ambition: Slash-and-burn farming has become a major threat to the world's rainforest |work=[[The Guardian]] |date=21 April 2004 |access-date=7 December 2022 }}</ref> | ||
When crops are carefully selected, other agronomic benefits are also achieved.<ref | When crops are carefully selected, other agronomic benefits are also achieved.<ref name="Abdulkareem 2024"/><ref>{{Citation |last1=Nawaz |first1=Ahmad |title=Role of Allelopathy in Weed Management |date=2014 |work=Recent Advances in Weed Management |pages=39–61 |editor-last=Chauhan |editor-first=Bhagirath S. |url=https://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007/978-1-4939-1019-9_3 |access-date=2024-08-27 |place=New York, NY |publisher=Springer |language=en |doi=10.1007/978-1-4939-1019-9_3 |isbn=978-1-4939-1019-9 |last2=Farooq |first2=Muhammad |last3=Cheema |first3=Sardar Alam |last4=Cheema |first4=Zahid Ata |editor2-last=Mahajan |editor2-first=Gulshan|url-access=subscription }}</ref><ref>{{Citation |last1=Stomph |first1=TjeerdJan |title=Chapter One - Designing intercrops for high yield, yield stability and efficient use of resources: Are there principles? |date=2020-01-01 |work=Advances in Agronomy |volume=160 |pages=1–50 |editor-last=Sparks |editor-first=Donald L. |url=https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0065211319301075 |access-date=2024-08-27 |publisher=Academic Press |doi=10.1016/bs.agron.2019.10.002 |last2=Dordas |first2=Christos |last3=Baranger |first3=Alain |last4=de Rijk |first4=Joshua |last5=Dong |first5=Bei |last6=Evers |first6=Jochem |last7=Gu |first7=Chunfeng |last8=Li |first8=Long |last9=Simon |first9=Johan|url-access=subscription }}</ref> | ||
=== Mutualism ===<!--do not link to Mutualism (biology), that's something else entirely--> | === Mutualism ===<!--do not link to Mutualism (biology), that's something else entirely--> | ||
Planting two crops in close proximity can especially be beneficial when the two plants interact in a way that increases one or both of the plant's [[Fitness (biology) |fitness]] (and therefore yield). For example, plants that are prone to tip over in wind or heavy rain (lodging-prone plants), may be given structural support by their companion crop.<ref>{{cite book |doi=10.2134/asaspecpub27.c8 |chapter=Plant Interactions in Mixed Crop Communities |title=Multiple Cropping |series=ASA Special Publications |year=2015 |last1=Trenbath |first1=B. R. |pages=129–169 |isbn= | Planting two crops in close proximity can especially be beneficial when the two plants interact in a way that increases one or both of the plant's [[Fitness (biology) |fitness]] (and therefore yield). For example, plants that are prone to tip over in wind or heavy rain (lodging-prone plants), may be given structural support by their companion crop.<ref>{{cite book |doi=10.2134/asaspecpub27.c8 |chapter=Plant Interactions in Mixed Crop Communities |title=Multiple Cropping |series=ASA Special Publications |year=2015 |last1=Trenbath |first1=B. R. |pages=129–169 |isbn=978-0-89118-293-1 }}</ref> [[Parthenocissus |Climbing plants]] such as black pepper can also benefit from structural support. Some plants are used to suppress weeds or provide nutrients.<ref name="Mount Pleasant 2006">{{cite book |author-link=Jane Mount Pleasant |last=Mount Pleasant |first=Jane |editor1=Staller, John E. |editor2=Tykot, Robert H. |editor3=Benz, Bruce F. |title=Histories of Maize: Multidisciplinary Approaches to the Prehistory, Linguistics, Biogeography, Domestication, and Evolution of Maize |chapter=The science behind the Three Sisters mound system: An agronomic assessment of an indigenous agricultural system in the northeast |publisher=Academic Press |location=Amsterdam |year=2006 |pages=529–537 |isbn=978-1-5987-4496-5}}</ref> Delicate or light-sensitive plants may be given shade or protection, or otherwise wasted space can be utilized. An example is the tropical multi-tier system where [[coconut]] occupies the upper tier, [[banana]] the middle tier, and [[pineapple]], [[ginger]], or leguminous [[fodder]], [[herbalism |medicinal]] or [[aromatic plants]] occupy the lowest tier. | ||
Intercropping of compatible plants can also encourage [[biodiversity]], McDaniel et al. 2014 and Lori et al. 2017 finding a legume intercrop to increase [[soil biodiversity |soil diversity]],<ref name="Saleem-et-al-2019">{{cite journal | last1=Saleem | first1=Muhammad | last2=Hu | first2=Jie | last3=Jousset | first3=Alexandre | title=More Than the Sum of Its Parts: Microbiome Biodiversity as a Driver of Plant Growth and Soil Health | journal=[[Annual Review of Ecology, Evolution, and Systematics]] | publisher=[[Annual Reviews (publisher) |Annual Reviews]] | volume=50 | issue=1 | date=2019-11-02 | Intercropping of compatible plants can also encourage [[biodiversity]], McDaniel et al. 2014 and Lori et al. 2017 finding a legume intercrop to increase [[soil biodiversity |soil diversity]],<ref name="Saleem-et-al-2019">{{cite journal |last1=Saleem |first1=Muhammad |last2=Hu |first2=Jie |last3=Jousset |first3=Alexandre |title=More Than the Sum of Its Parts: Microbiome Biodiversity as a Driver of Plant Growth and Soil Health |journal=[[Annual Review of Ecology, Evolution, and Systematics]] |publisher=[[Annual Reviews (publisher) |Annual Reviews]] |volume=50 |issue=1 |date=2019-11-02 |doi=10.1146/annurev-ecolsys-110617-062605 |pages=145–168 |s2cid=199632146 |doi-access=free }}</ref> or by providing a habitat for a variety of [[insect]]s and [[soil biology |soil organisms]] that would not be present in a single-crop environment. These organisms may provide crops valuable nutrients, such as through [[nitrogen fixation]].<ref name="Wagner">{{cite journal |last=Wagner |first=S. C. |date=2011 |title=Biological Nitrogen Fixation |journal=Nature Education Knowledge |volume=3 |issue=10 |page=15 |url=https://www.nature.com/scitable/knowledge/library/biological-nitrogen-fixation-23570419 |access-date=1 May 2019 |archive-date=13 September 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180913194741/http://www.nature.com/scitable/knowledge/library/biological-nitrogen-fixation-23570419 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Wang |first1=Qi |last2=Yang |first2=Shengming |title=Host-secreted antimicrobial peptide enforces symbiotic selectivity in Medicago truncatula |journal=PNAS |volume=114 |issue=26 |pages=6854–6859 |date=2017 |doi=10.1073/pnas.1700715114 |pmid=28607058 |pmc=5495241 |bibcode=2017PNAS..114.6854W |doi-access=free}}</ref><ref name=postgate>{{cite book |last=Postgate |first=J. |year=1998 |title=Nitrogen Fixation |publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]] |at=Chapter 1: The nitrogen cycle; Chapter 3: Physiology; Chapter 4: The free-living microbes}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Smil |first=Vaclav |year=2000 |title=Cycles of Life |publisher=[[Scientific American Library]] |isbn=978-0-7167-6039-9 |at=Chapter: Reactive nitrogen in the biosphere}}</ref> | ||
=== Pest management === | === Pest management === | ||
| Line 46: | Line 53: | ||
{{further |Pest control}} | {{further |Pest control}} | ||
There are several ways in which increasing crop diversity may help improve pest management. For example, such practices may limit outbreaks of crop [[pest (organism) |pest]]s by increasing predator biodiversity.<ref name="AltieriNicholls2004">{{cite book |author1=Miguel Angel Altieri |author2=Clara Ines Nicholls |title=Biodiversity and Pest Management in Agroecosystems, Second Edition |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=gQI0PCnnbI8C |year=2004 |publisher=Psychology Press |isbn= | There are several ways in which increasing crop diversity may help improve pest management. For example, such practices may limit outbreaks of crop [[pest (organism) |pest]]s by increasing predator biodiversity.<ref name="AltieriNicholls2004">{{cite book |author1=Miguel Angel Altieri |author2=Clara Ines Nicholls |title=Biodiversity and Pest Management in Agroecosystems, Second Edition |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=gQI0PCnnbI8C |year=2004 |publisher=Psychology Press |isbn=978-1-56022-923-0}}</ref> Additionally, reducing the homogeneity of the crop can potentially increase the barriers against [[biological dispersal]] of pest organisms through the crop. | ||
There are several ways pests, typically herbivorous insects, can be controlled through intercropping: | There are several ways pests, typically herbivorous insects, can be controlled through intercropping: | ||
| Line 56: | Line 63: | ||
==== Limitations ==== | ==== Limitations ==== | ||
Intercropping to reduce pest damage in agriculture, has been deployed with varying success. For example, while many trap crops have successfully diverted pests off of focal crops in small-scale greenhouse, garden and field experiments,<ref name=" | Intercropping to reduce pest damage in agriculture, has been deployed with varying success. For example, while many trap crops have successfully diverted pests off of focal crops in small-scale greenhouse, garden and field experiments,<ref name="Shelton-2005" /> only a small portion of these plants have been shown to reduce pest damage at larger commercial scales.<ref name="Shelton-2005">{{Cite journal |last1=Shelton |first1=A.M. |last2=Badenes-Perez |first2=F.R. |date=2005-12-06 |title=Concepts and applications of trap cropping in pest management |journal=Annual Review of Entomology |volume=51 |issue=1 |pages=285–308 |doi=10.1146/annurev.ento.51.110104.150959 |pmid=16332213}}</ref><ref name="Holden-2012">{{Cite journal |last1=Holden |first1=Matthew H. |last2=Ellner |first2=Stephen P. |last3=Lee |first3=Doo-Hyung |last4=Nyrop |first4=Jan P. |last5=Sanderson |first5=John P. |date=2012-06-01 |title=Designing an effective trap cropping strategy: the effects of attraction, retention and plant spatial distribution |journal=Journal of Applied Ecology |language=en |volume=49 |issue=3 |pages=715–722 |doi=10.1111/j.1365-2664.2012.02137.x |doi-access=free|bibcode=2012JApEc..49..715H }}</ref> Furthermore, increasing crop diversity through intercropping does not necessarily increase the presence of the predators of crop pests. In a systematic review of the literature, in 2008, in the studies examined, predators of pests tended to increase under crop diversification strategies in only 53 percent of studies, and crop diversification only led to increased yield in only 32% of the studies.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Poveda |first1=Katja |last2=Gómez |first2=María Isabel |last3=Martínez |first3=Eliana |date=2008-12-01 |title=Diversification practices: their effect on pest regulation and production |journal=Revista Colombiana de Entomología |volume=34 |issue=2 |pages=131–144 |doi=10.25100/socolen.v34i2.9269 |s2cid=55888993 |doi-access=free}}</ref> A common explanation for reported trap cropping failures, is that attractive trap plants only protect nearby plants if the insects do not move back into the main crop. In a review of 100 trap cropping examples in 2006, only 10 trap crops were classified as successful at a commercial scale,<ref name="Holden-2012" /> and in all successful cases, trap cropping was supplemented with management practices that specifically limited insect dispersal from the trap crop back into the main crop.<ref name="Holden-2012" /> | ||
== Gallery == | == Gallery == | ||
| Line 62: | Line 69: | ||
<gallery mode=packed> | <gallery mode=packed> | ||
File:Pepper intercropped with coffee, Colombia.jpg|[[Chili pepper]] intercropped with [[coffee]] in [[Colombia]]'s southwestern [[Cauca Department]] | File:Pepper intercropped with coffee, Colombia.jpg|[[Chili pepper]] intercropped with [[coffee]] in [[Colombia]]'s southwestern [[Cauca Department]] | ||
File:Intercropping | File:Vathaba - Intercropping.jpg|Rice in a young banana field | ||
File:Mixed intercropping of oat and rye 2.jpg|Mixed intercropping of [[oat]] and [[rye]] in [[Brastad]], Sweden | File:Mixed intercropping of oat and rye 2.jpg|Mixed intercropping of [[oat]] and [[rye]] in [[Brastad]], Sweden | ||
</gallery> | </gallery> | ||
==See also== | == See also == | ||
* [[ | * [[Chaos gardening]] | ||
* [[Companion planting]] | * [[Companion planting]] | ||
* [[Ecological sanitation]] | * [[Ecological sanitation]] | ||
* [[Food-feed system]] | * [[Food-feed system]] | ||
* [[Organic farming]] | * [[Organic farming]] | ||
* [[Permaculture]] | * [[Permaculture]] | ||
| Line 78: | Line 84: | ||
* [[Three Sisters (agriculture)]] | * [[Three Sisters (agriculture)]] | ||
==References== | == References == | ||
{{reflist|30em}} | {{reflist|30em}} | ||
==External links== | == External links == | ||
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20100607193058/http://king.wsu.edu/foodandfarms/documents/Intercropping.pdf Intercropping] at Washington State University | * [https://web.archive.org/web/20100607193058/http://king.wsu.edu/foodandfarms/documents/Intercropping.pdf Intercropping] at Washington State University | ||
Latest revision as of 12:16, 17 November 2025
Template:Short description Template:Use dmy dates
Script error: No such module "Sidebar". Intercropping is a multiple cropping practice that involves the cultivation of two or more crops simultaneously on the same field, a form of polyculture.[2][3] The most common goal of intercropping is to produce a greater yield on a given piece of land by making use of resources or ecological processes that would otherwise not be utilized by a single crop.
Methods
The degree of spatial and temporal overlap in the two crops can vary somewhat, but both requirements must be met for a cropping system to be an intercrop. Numerous types of intercropping, all of which vary the temporal and spatial mixture to some degree, have been identified.[4][5]
Mixed intercropping
Mixed intercropping consists of multiple crops freely mixed in the available space. In the 21st century, it remains a common practice in Ethiopia, Eritrea, Georgia, and a few other places. Freely mixed intercropping has been practiced for thousands of years. In medieval England, farmers mixed oat and barley, which they called dredge, or dredge corn, to make livestock feed. French peasants similarly ground wheat and rye together to make pain de méteil, or bread of mixed grains. Ease of harvesting and buyer preferences led later farmers to plant single-species fields instead.[6]
Row crops
Script error: No such module "labelled list hatnote".
A row crop is a crop that can be planted in rows wide enough to allow it to be tilled or otherwise cultivated by agricultural machinery, machinery tailored for the seasonal activities of row crops. Such crops are sown by drilling or transplanting rather than broadcasting. They are often grown in market gardening (truck farming) contexts or in kitchen gardens. Growing row crops first started in Ancient China in the 6th century BC.Script error: No such module "Unsubst".
Temporal
Temporal intercropping uses the practice of sowing a fast-growing crop with a slow-growing crop, so that the fast-growing crop is harvested before the slow-growing crop starts to mature. This can provide greater yield than either crop alone.[7]
Further temporal separation is found in relay cropping, where the second crop is sown during the growth, often near the onset of reproductive development or fruiting, of the first crop, so that the first crop is harvested to make room for the full development of the second.
Crop rotation is a related practice but is not a form of intercropping, as the different crops are grown in separate growing seasons rather than in a single season.
Alley cropping
Alley cropping has crop strips alternating with rows of closely spaced tree or hedge species. Normally, the trees are pruned before planting the crop. The cut leafy material - for example, from Alchornea cordifolia and Acioa barteri - is spread over the crop area to provide nutrients. In addition to nutrients, the hedges serve as windbreaks and reduce erosion.[8] In tropical North and South America, various species of Inga such as I. edulis and I. oerstediana have been used for alley cropping.[9] Weed control is inherent to alley cropping, by providing mulch and shade.[8]
Inga alley cropping[10] offers an alternative to the ecologically destructive slash and burn cultivation. It increases yields and is more sustainable as it allows the land to be cultivated repeatedly, eliminating the need for slash and burn to get fertile plots.[11] Inga trees, native to Central and South America, grow well on acid soils of tropical rainforest or former rainforest. They are leguminous, fixing nitrogen into a form usable by plants.[12] The leaves form a thick mulch that protects both soil and roots from sun and rain. The trees form a thick canopy that cuts off light from the weeds below, and withstand annual pruning.[12] The technique was developed and trialled by tropical ecologist Mike Hands in Costa Rica in the late 1980s and early '90s. He showed that the tough leaves of the Inga tree decomposed quickly enough to be useful as a mulch.[11]
Potential benefits
Resource partitioning
Script error: No such module "labelled list hatnote".
Careful planning is required, taking into account the soil, climate, crops, and varieties. It is particularly important not to have crops competing with each other for physical space, nutrients, water, or sunlight. Examples of intercropping strategies are planting a deep-rooted crop with a shallow-rooted crop, or planting a tall crop with a shorter crop that requires partial shade. Inga alley cropping has been proposed as an alternative to the ecological destruction of slash-and-burn farming.[11]
When crops are carefully selected, other agronomic benefits are also achieved.[3][13][14]
Mutualism
Planting two crops in close proximity can especially be beneficial when the two plants interact in a way that increases one or both of the plant's fitness (and therefore yield). For example, plants that are prone to tip over in wind or heavy rain (lodging-prone plants), may be given structural support by their companion crop.[15] Climbing plants such as black pepper can also benefit from structural support. Some plants are used to suppress weeds or provide nutrients.[16] Delicate or light-sensitive plants may be given shade or protection, or otherwise wasted space can be utilized. An example is the tropical multi-tier system where coconut occupies the upper tier, banana the middle tier, and pineapple, ginger, or leguminous fodder, medicinal or aromatic plants occupy the lowest tier.
Intercropping of compatible plants can also encourage biodiversity, McDaniel et al. 2014 and Lori et al. 2017 finding a legume intercrop to increase soil diversity,[17] or by providing a habitat for a variety of insects and soil organisms that would not be present in a single-crop environment. These organisms may provide crops valuable nutrients, such as through nitrogen fixation.[18][19][20][21]
Pest management
Script error: No such module "labelled list hatnote".
There are several ways in which increasing crop diversity may help improve pest management. For example, such practices may limit outbreaks of crop pests by increasing predator biodiversity.[22] Additionally, reducing the homogeneity of the crop can potentially increase the barriers against biological dispersal of pest organisms through the crop.
There are several ways pests, typically herbivorous insects, can be controlled through intercropping:
- Trap cropping, this involves planting a crop nearby that is more attractive for pests compared to the production crop, the pests will target this crop and not the production crop.
- Repellant intercrops, an intercrop that has a repellent effect to certain pests can be used. This system involved the repellant crop masking the smell of the production crop in order to keep pests away from it.
- Push-pull cropping, this is a mixture of trap cropping and repellant intercropping. An attractant crop attracts the pest and a repellant crop is also used to repel the pest away.[23]
Limitations
Intercropping to reduce pest damage in agriculture, has been deployed with varying success. For example, while many trap crops have successfully diverted pests off of focal crops in small-scale greenhouse, garden and field experiments,[24] only a small portion of these plants have been shown to reduce pest damage at larger commercial scales.[24][25] Furthermore, increasing crop diversity through intercropping does not necessarily increase the presence of the predators of crop pests. In a systematic review of the literature, in 2008, in the studies examined, predators of pests tended to increase under crop diversification strategies in only 53 percent of studies, and crop diversification only led to increased yield in only 32% of the studies.[26] A common explanation for reported trap cropping failures, is that attractive trap plants only protect nearby plants if the insects do not move back into the main crop. In a review of 100 trap cropping examples in 2006, only 10 trap crops were classified as successful at a commercial scale,[25] and in all successful cases, trap cropping was supplemented with management practices that specifically limited insect dispersal from the trap crop back into the main crop.[25]
Gallery
-
Rice in a young banana field
See also
- Chaos gardening
- Companion planting
- Ecological sanitation
- Food-feed system
- Organic farming
- Permaculture
- Sustainable agriculture
- Three Sisters (agriculture)
References
<templatestyles src="Reflist/styles.css" />
- ↑ Improving nutrition through home gardening, Home Garden Technology Leaflet 13: Multilayer cropping, FAO, 2001
- ↑ Script error: No such module "Citation/CS1".
- ↑ a b Script error: No such module "Citation/CS1".
- ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
- ↑ Script error: No such module "Citation/CS1".
- ↑ Script error: No such module "Citation/CS1".
- ↑ Script error: No such module "Citation/CS1".
- ↑ a b Script error: No such module "citation/CS1". AGRIS id XF2016015795. Template:Hdl.
- ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
- ↑ Adam, David. Earthshakers: the top 100 green campaigners of all time The Guardian, 28 November 2006
- ↑ a b c Script error: No such module "citation/CS1". Cite error: Invalid
<ref>tag; name "Elkan" defined multiple times with different content - ↑ a b rainforestsaver.org: What is Inga alley cropping? Template:Webarchive
- ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
- ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
- ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
- ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
- ↑ Script error: No such module "Citation/CS1".
- ↑ Script error: No such module "Citation/CS1".
- ↑ Script error: No such module "Citation/CS1".
- ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
- ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
- ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
- ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
- ↑ a b Script error: No such module "Citation/CS1".
- ↑ a b c Script error: No such module "Citation/CS1".
- ↑ Script error: No such module "Citation/CS1".
Script error: No such module "Check for unknown parameters".
External links
- Intercropping at Washington State University