Hyksos: Difference between revisions

Latest revision as of 15:43, 6 November 2025

Template:Short description Template:Use dmy dates Template:Multiple image Template:Egyptian Dynasty list The Hyksos (Template:IPAc-en; Egyptian ḥqꜣ(w)-ḫꜣswt, Egyptological pronunciation: heqau khasut,Template:Sfn "ruler(s) of foreign lands"), in modern Egyptology, are the kings of the Fifteenth Dynasty of Egypt Template:Sfn (fl. c. 1650–1550 BC).Template:Efn Their seat of power was the city of Avaris in the Nile Delta, from where they ruled over Lower Egypt and Middle Egypt up to Cusae.

In the Aegyptiaca, a history of Egypt written by the Greco-Egyptian priest and historian Manetho in the 3rd century BC, the term Hyksos is used ethnically to designate people of probable West Semitic, Levantine origin.Template:Sfn Template:Sfn While Manetho portrayed the Hyksos as invaders and oppressors, this interpretation is questioned in modern Egyptology.Template:Sfn Instead, Hyksos rule might have been preceded by groups of Canaanite peoples who gradually settled in the Nile Delta from the end of the Twelfth Dynasty onwards and who may have seceded from the crumbling and unstable Egyptian control at some point during the Thirteenth Dynasty.Template:Sfn

The Hyksos period marks the first in which foreign rulers ruled Egypt.Template:Sfn Many details of their rule, such as the true extent of their kingdom and even the names and order of their kings, remain uncertain. The Hyksos practiced many Levantine or Canaanite customs alongside Egyptian ones.Template:Sfn They have been credited with introducing several technological innovations to Egypt, such as the horse and chariot, as well as the khopesh (sickle sword) and the composite bow, a theory which is disputed.Template:Sfn

The Hyksos did not control all of Egypt. They coexisted with the Sixteenth and Seventeenth Dynasties, which were based in Thebes.Template:Sfn Warfare between the Hyksos and the pharaohs of the late Seventeenth Dynasty eventually culminated in the defeat of the Hyksos by Ahmose I, who founded the Eighteenth Dynasty of Egypt.Template:Sfn In the following centuries, the Egyptians would portray the Hyksos as bloodthirsty and oppressive foreign rulers.

Name

Etymology

Template:Infobox hieroglyphs The term "Hyksos" is derived, via the Greek Script error: No such module "Lang". (Script error: No such module "Lang".), from the Egyptian expression Script error: No such module "Lang". (Template:Transl or Template:Transl, "heqau khasut"), meaning "rulers [of] foreign lands".Template:Sfn Template:Sfn The Greek form is likely a textual corruption of an earlier Script error: No such module "Lang". (Script error: No such module "Lang".).Template:Sfn

The first century Jewish historian Josephus gives the name as meaning "shepherd kings" or "captive shepherds" in his Contra Apion (Against Apion), where he describes the Hyksos as Jews as they appeared in the Hellenistic Egyptian historian Manetho.Template:Sfn Template:Sfn "Their race bore the generic name of Hycsos, which means 'king-shepherds'. For hyc in the sacred language denotes 'king' and sos in the common dialect means 'shepherd' or 'shepherds'; the combined words form Hycsos. Some say that they were Arabians."Template:Sfn

Josephus's rendition may arise from a later Egyptian pronunciation of Script error: No such module "Lang". as Script error: No such module "Lang"., which was then understood to mean "lord of shepherds."Template:Sfn It is unclear if this translation was found in Manetho; an Armenian translation of an epitome of Manetho given by the late antique historian Eusebius gives the correct translation of "foreign kings".Template:Sfn

Use

"It is now commonly accepted in academic publications that the term Script error: No such module "Lang". refers only to the individual foreign rulers of the late Second Intermediate Period,"Template:Sfn especially of the Fifteenth Dynasty, rather than a people. However, Josephus used it as an ethnic term.Template:Efn Its use to refer to the population persists in some academic papers.Template:Sfn

In Ancient Egypt, the term "Hyksos" (Script error: No such module "Lang".) was also used to refer to various Nubian and especially Asiatic rulers both before and after the Fifteenth Dynasty.Template:Sfn Template:Sfn Template:Sfn It was used at least since the Sixth Dynasty of Egypt (c. 2345–2181 BC) to designate chieftains from the Syro-Palestine area.Template:Sfn One of its earliest recorded uses is found c. 1900 BC in the tomb of Khnumhotep II of the Twelfth Dynasty to label a nomad or Canaanite ruler named "Abisha the Hyksos" (using the standard Template:Langx, "Heqa-kasut" for "Hyksos").Template:Sfn Template:Sfn

Template:Multiple image Based on the use of the name in a Hyksos inscription of Sakir-Har from Avaris, the name was used by the Hyksos as a title for themselves.Template:Sfn However, Kim Ryholt argues that "Hyksos" was not an official title of the rulers of the Fifteenth Dynasty, and is never encountered together with royal titulary, only appearing as the title in the case of Sakir-Har. According to Ryholt, "Hyksos" was a generic term encountered separately from royal titulary, and in regnal lists after the end of the Fifteenth Dynasty itself.Template:Sfn However, Vera Müller writes: "Considering that S-k-r-h-r is also mentioned with three names of the traditional Egyptian titulary (Horus name, Golden Falcon name and Two Ladies name) on the same monument, this argument is somehow strange."Template:Sfn Danielle Candelora and Manfred Bietak also argue that the Hyksos used the title officially.Template:Sfn Template:Sfn All other texts in the Egyptian language do not call the Hyksos by this name, instead referring to them as Asiatics (ꜥꜣmw), with the possible exception of the Turin King List in a hypothetical reconstruction from a fragment.Template:Sfn The title is not attested for the Hyksos king Apepi, possibly indicating an "increased adoption of Egyptian decorum".Template:Sfn The names of Hyksos rulers in the Turin list are without the royal cartouche and have the throwstick "foreigners" determinative.Template:Sfn

File:Hyksoskingscarabs.png

Scarabs also attest the use of this title for pharaohs usually assigned to the Fourteenth or Sixteenth Dynasty of Egypt, who are sometimes called "'lesser' Hyksos."Template:Sfn The Theban Seventeenth Dynasty of Egypt is also given the title in some versions of Manetho, a fact which Bietak attributes to textual corruption.Template:Sfn In the Twenty-fifth Dynasty of Egypt and during the Ptolemaic Period, the term Hyksos was adopted as a personal title and epithet by several pharaohs or high Egyptian officials, including the Theban official Mentuemhat, Philip III of Macedon,Template:Sfn Template:Sfn and Ptolemy XIII.Template:Sfn It was also used on the tomb of Egyptian grand priest Petosiris at Tuna el-Gebel in 300 BC to designate the Persian ruler Artaxerxes III, although it is unknown if Artaxerxes adopted this title for himself.Template:Sfn

Origins

Ancient historians

File:Ring scarab - Pharaoh exhibit - Cleveland Museum of Art (cropped).jpg

Blue glazed steatite scarab in a gold mount, with the cartouche of Hyksos ruler Khyan: <hiero>N5:G39-<-x-i-i-A-n->-S34-I10:t:N17</hiero> - "Son of Ra, Khyan, living forever!"

In his epitome of Manetho, Josephus connected the Hyksos with the Jews,Template:Sfn but he also calls them Arabs.Template:Sfn In their own epitomes of Manetho, the Late antique historians Sextus Julius Africanus and Eusebius say that the Hyksos came from Phoenicia.Template:Sfn Until the excavation and discovery of Tell El-Dab'a (the site of the Hyksos capital Avaris) in 1966, historians relied on these accounts for the Hyksos period.Template:Sfn Template:Sfn

Modern historians

Material finds at Tell El-Dab'a indicate that the Hyksos originated in the Levant.Template:Sfn The Hyksos' personal names indicate that they spoke a Western Semitic language and "may be called for convenience sake Canaanites."Template:Sfn

File:Retjenu, tomb of Sobekhotep 18th Dynasty Thebes.jpg

A Retjenu, associated with the Hyksos in some Egyptian inscriptions.Template:Sfn

Kamose, the last king of the Theban Seventeenth Dynasty, refers to Apepi as a "Chieftain of Retjenu" in a stela that implies a Levantine background for this Hyksos king.Template:Sfn According to Anna-Latifa Mourad, the Egyptian application of the term Script error: No such module "Lang". to the Hyksos could indicate a range of backgrounds, including newly arrived Levantines or people of mixed Levantine-Egyptian origin.Template:Sfn

Due to the work of Manfred Bietak, which found similarities in architecture, ceramics and burial practices, scholars currently favor a northern Levantine origin of the Hyksos.Template:Sfn Based particularly on temple architecture, Bietak argues for strong parallels between the religious practices of the Hyksos at Avaris with those of the area around Byblos, Ugarit, Alalakh and Tell Brak, defining the "spiritual home" of the Hyksos as "in northernmost Syria and northern Mesopotamia".Template:Sfn The connection of the Hyksos to Retjenu also suggests a northern Levantine origin: "Theoretically, it is feasible to deduce that the early Hyksos, as the later Apophis, were of elite ancestry from Rṯnw, a toponym [...] cautiously linked with the Northern Levant and the northern region of the Southern Levant."Template:Sfn

Earlier arguments that the Hyksos names might be Hurrian have been rejected,Template:Sfn while early-twentieth-century proposals that the Hyksos were Indo-Europeans "fitted European dreams of Indo-European supremacy, now discredited."Template:Sfn Some have suggested that Hyksos or a part of them was of Maryannu origins as evident by their use and introduction of chariots and horses into Egypt.Template:Sfn Template:Sfn However, this theory has also been rejected by modern scholarship.

History

Early contacts between Egypt and the Levant

Template:Multiple image Historical records suggest that Semitic people and Egyptians had contacts at all periods of Egypt's history.Template:Sfn The MacGregor plaque, an early Egyptian tablet dating to 3000 BC records "The first occasion of striking the East", with the picture of Pharaoh Den smiting a Western Asiatic enemy.Template:Sfn

During the reign of Senusret II, c. 1890 BC, parties of Western Asiatic foreigners visiting the Pharaoh with gifts are recorded, as in the tomb paintings of 12th-dynasty official Khnumhotep II. These foreigners, possibly Canaanites or nomads, are labelled as Aamu (Script error: No such module "Lang".), including the leading man with a Nubian ibex labelled as Abisha the Hyksos (Template:Langx, Heqa-kasut for "Hyksos"), the first known instance of the name "Hyksos".Template:Sfn Template:Sfn Template:Sfn Template:Sfn

Soon after, the Sebek-khu Stele, dated to the reign of Senusret III (reign: 1878–1839 BC), records the earliest known Egyptian military campaign in the Levant. The text reads "His Majesty proceeded northward to overthrow the Asiatics. His Majesty reached a foreign country of which the name was Sekmem (...) Then Sekmem fell, together with the wretched Retenu", where Sekmem (s-k-m-m) is thought to be Shechem and "Retenu" or "Retjenu" are associated with ancient Syria.Template:Sfn Template:Sfn

Background and arrival in Egypt

The only ancient account of the whole Hyksos period is by the Hellenistic Egyptian historian Manetho, who exists only as quoted by others.Template:Sfn As recorded by Josephus, Manetho describes the beginning of Hyksos rule thus:

A people of ignoble origin from the east, whose coming was unforeseen, had the audacity to invade the country, which they mastered by main force without difficulty or even battle. Having overpowered the chiefs, they then savagely burnt the cities, razed the temples of the gods to the ground, and treated the whole native population with the utmost cruelty, massacring some, and carrying off the wives and children of others into slavery (Contra Apion I.75-77).Template:Sfn

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File:Hyksos dagger handle.jpg

Electrum dagger handle of a soldier of Hyksos pharaoh Apepi, illustrating the soldier hunting with a short bow and sword. Inscriptions: "The perfect god, the lord of the two lands, Nebkhepeshre Apepi" and "Follower of his lord Nehemen", found at a burial at Saqqara.Template:Sfn Now at the Luxor Museum.Template:Sfn Template:Sfn

Manetho's invasion narrative is "nowadays rejected by most scholars."Template:Sfn It is likely that more recent foreign invasions of Egypt influenced him.Template:Sfn Instead, it appears that the establishment of Hyksos rule was mostly peaceful and did not involve an invasion of an entirely foreign population.Template:Sfn Archaeology shows a continuous Asiatic presence at Avaris for over 150 years before the beginning of Hyksos rule,Template:Sfn with gradual Canaanite settlement beginning there Template:Circa during the Twelfth Dynasty.Template:Sfn Strontium isotope analysis of the inhabitants of Middle Kingdom and Second Intermediate Period Avaris also dismissed the invasion model in favor of a migration one. Contrary to the model of a foreign invasion, the study did not find more males moving into the region, but instead found a sex bias towards females, with a high proportion of 77% of females being non-locals.^[1]^[2]

Manfred Bietak argues that Hyksos "should be understood within a repetitive pattern of the attraction of Egypt for western Asiatic population groups that came in search of a living in the country, especially the Delta, since prehistoric times."Template:Sfn He notes that Egypt had long depended on the Levant for expertise in areas of shipbuilding and seafaring, with possible depictions of Asiatic shipbuilders being found from reliefs from the Sixth Dynasty ruler Sahure. The Twelfth Dynasty of Egypt is known to have had many Asiatic immigrants serving as soldiers, household or temple serfs, and various other jobs. Avaris in the Nile Delta attracted many Asiatic immigrants in its role as a hub of international trade and seafaring.Template:Sfn

The final powerful pharaoh of the Egyptian Thirteenth Dynasty was Sobekhotep IV, who died around 1725 BC, after which Egypt appears to have splintered into various kingdoms, including one based at Avaris ruled by the Fourteenth Dynasty.Template:Sfn Based on their names, this dynasty was already primarily of West Asian origin.Template:Sfn After an event in which their palace was burned,Template:Sfn the Fourteenth Dynasty would be replaced by the Hyksos Fifteenth Dynasty, which would establish "loose control over northern Egypt by intimidation or force,"Template:Sfn thus greatly expanding the area under Avaris's control.Template:Sfn

Kim Ryholt argues that the Fifteenth Dynasty invaded and displaced the Fourteenth. However, Alexander Ilin-Tomich argues that this is "not sufficiently substantiated."Template:Sfn Bietak interprets a stela of Neferhotep III to indicate that Egypt was overrun by roving mercenaries around the time of the Hyksos ascension to power.Template:Sfn

Kingdom

Script error: No such module "Labelled list hatnote". Template:Location map+ The length of time the Hyksos ruled is unclear. The fragmentary Turin King List says that there were six Hyksos kings who collectively ruled 108 years,Template:Sfn however, in 2018. Kim Ryholt proposed a new reading of as many as 149 years, while Thomas Schneider proposed a length between 160 and 180 years.Template:Sfn In 2024, Manfred Bietak defended the reading of the Turin King List as only showing a reign of 108 years, arguing that the longer reign periods were incompatible with the archaeology of the Hyksos capital, Avaris.Template:Sfn Bietak stressed that:

"If we use the average phase estimate of 30-32 years at Tell el-Dab'a (ie. Avaris) for the Hyksos Period, which includes half of Phase E/2 and the Phases E/1, D/3 and D/2, we arrive at 105-112 years. This aligns closely to the 108 years read by Farina and von Beckerath for the Hyksos Period. In contrast, the more recently proposed estimates of 140-149, 160-169, and 180-189 years result in averages of 40, 42.5, 46, 48, 51.5, and 54 years for each phase. These estimates are incompatible with the other phases of this stratigraphy as they would require significant compressions of the overall period to fit into the timeframes established by the fixed points. Such compression would result in a completely one-sided entity with elongated reigns within an unstable period....Our model for the chronology of the Hyksos period, based on the stratigraphy at Tell el-Dab'a, makes the elongation of the Hyksos Period to 140-189 years highly unlikely, and in the higher realm, absolutely impossible."Template:Sfn

The rule of the Hyksos overlaps with that of the native Egyptian pharaohs of the Sixteenth and Seventeenth Dynasties, better known as the Second Intermediate Period. The area under direct control of the Hyksos was probably limited to the eastern Nile delta.Template:Sfn Their capital city was Avaris at a fork on the now-dry Pelusiac branch of the Nile. Memphis may have also been an important administrative center,Template:Sfn although the nature of any Hyksos presence there remains unclear.Template:Sfn

According to Anna-Latifa Mourad, other sites with likely Levantine populations or strong Levantine connections in the Delta include Tell Farasha and Tell el-Maghud, located between Tell Basta and Avaris,Template:Sfn El-Khata'na, southwest of Avaris, and Inshas.Template:Sfn The increased prosperity of Avaris may have attracted more Levantines to settle in the eastern Delta.Template:Sfn Kom el-Hisn, at the edge of the Western Delta, shows Near Eastern goods but individuals mostly buried in an Egyptian style, which Mourad takes to mean that they were most likely Egyptians heavily influenced by Levantine traditions or, more likely, Egyptianized Levantines.Template:Sfn The site of Tell Basta (Bubastis), at the confluence of the Pelusiac and Tanitic branches of the Nile, contains monuments to the Hyksos kings Khyan and Apepi, but little other evidence of Levantine habitation.Template:Sfn Tell el-Habwa (Tjaru), located on a branch of the Nile near the Sinai, also shows evidence of non-Egyptian presence. However, most of the population appears to have been Egyptian or Egyptianized Levantines.Template:Sfn Tell El-Habwa would have provided Avaris with grain and trade goods.Template:Sfn

File:Headband with Heads of Gazelles and a Stag Between Stars or Flowers ca. 1648–1540 BCE.jpg

Near-eastern inspired diadem with heads of gazelles and a stag between stars or flowers, belonging to an elite lady discovered at a tomb at Tell el-Dab'a (Avaris) dating from the late Hyksos period (1648–1540 BC).Template:Sfn Template:Sfn Now at the Metropolitan Museum of Art.^[3]

In the Wadi Tumilat, Tell el-Maskhuta shows a great deal of Levantine pottery and an occupation history closely correlated to the Fifteenth Dynasty,Template:Sfn nearby Tell el-Rataba and Tell el-Sahaba show possible Hyksos-style burials and occupation,Template:Sfn Tell el-Yahudiyah, located between Memphis and the Wadi Tumilat, contains a large earthwork that the Hyksos may have built, as well as evidence of Levantine burials from as early as the Thirteenth Dynasty,Template:Sfn as well as characteristic Hyksos-era pottery known as Tell el-Yahudiyeh Ware The Hyksos settlements in the Wadi Tumilat would have provided access to Sinai, the southern Levant, and possibly the Red Sea.Template:Sfn

The sites Tell el-Kabir, Tell Yehud, Tell Fawziya, and Tell Geziret el-Faras are noted by scholars other than Mourad to contain "elements of 'Hyksos culture'", but there is no published archaeological material for them.Template:Sfn

The Hyksos claimed to be rulers of both Lower and Upper Egypt; however, their southern border was marked at Hermopolis and Cusae.Template:Sfn Some objects might suggest a Hyksos presence in Upper Egypt, but they may have been Theban war booty or attest simply to short-term raids, trade, or diplomatic contact.Template:Sfn The nature of Hyksos control over the region of Thebes remains unclear.Template:Sfn Most likely Hyksos rule covered the area from Middle Egypt to southern Palestine.Template:Sfn Older scholarship believed, due to the distribution of Hyksos goods with the names of Hyksos rulers in places such as Baghdad and Knossos, that Hyksos had ruled a vast empire, but it seems more likely to have been the result of diplomatic gift exchange and far-flung trade networks.Template:Sfn Template:Sfn

Wars with the Seventeenth Dynasty

The conflict between Thebes and the Hyksos is known exclusively from pro-Theban sources, and it is not easy to construct a chronology.Template:Sfn These sources propagandistically portray the conflict as a war of national liberation. This perspective was formerly taken by scholars as well but is no longer thought to be accurate.Template:Sfn Template:Sfn

Hostilities between the Hyksos and the Theban Seventeenth Dynasty appear to have begun during the reign of Theban king Seqenenra Taa. Seqenenra Taa's mummy shows that he was killed by several blows of an axe to the head, apparently in battle with the Hyksos.Template:Sfn It is unclear why hostilities may have started. The much later fragmentary New Kingdom tale The Quarrel of Apophis and Seqenenre blames the Hyksos ruler Apepi/Apophis for initiating the conflict by demanding that Seqenenre Tao remove a pool of hippopotamuses near Thebes.Template:Sfn However, this is a satire on the Egyptian story-telling genre of the "king's novel" rather than a historical text.Template:Sfn A contemporary inscription at Wadi el Hôl may also refer to hostilities between Seqenenra and Apepi.Template:Sfn

File:Sequenre tao.JPG

Mummified head of Seqenenre Tao, bearing axe wounds. The common theory is that he died in a battle against the Hyksos.Template:Sfn

Three years later, c. 1542 BC,Template:Sfn Seqenenre Tao's successor Kamose initiated a campaign against several cities loyal to the Hyksos, the account of which is preserved on three monumental stelae set up at Karnak.Template:Sfn Template:Sfn Template:Sfn The first of the three, Carnarvon Tablet includes a complaint by Kamose about the divided and occupied state of Egypt:

To what effect do I perceive it, my might, while a ruler is in Avaris and another in Kush, I sitting joined with an Asiatic and a Nubian, each man having his (own) portion of this Egypt, sharing the land with me. There is no passing him as far as Memphis, the water of Egypt. He has possession of Hermopolis, and no man can rest, being deprived by the levies of the Setiu. I shall engage in battle with him and I shall slit his body, for my intention is to save Egypt, striking the Asiatics.Template:Sfn

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Following a common literary device, Kamose's advisors are portrayed as trying to dissuade the king, who attacks anyway.Template:Sfn He recounts his destruction of the city of Nefrusy as well as several other cities loyal to the Hyksos. On a second stele, Kamose claims to have captured Avaris, but returned to Thebes after capturing a messenger between Apepi and the king of Kush.Template:Sfn Kamose appears to have died soon afterward (c. 1540 BC).Template:Sfn

Ahmose I continued the war against the Hyksos, most likely conquering Memphis, Tjaru, and Heliopolis early in his reign, the latter two of which are mentioned in an entry of the Rhind mathematical papyrus.Template:Sfn Knowledge of Ahmose I's campaigns against the Hyksos mostly comes from the tomb of Ahmose, son of Ebana, who gives a first-person account claiming that Ahmose I sacked Avaris:Template:Sfn "Then there was fighting in Egypt to the south of this town [Avaris], and I carried off a man as a living captive. I went down into the water—for he was captured on the city side—and crossed the water carrying him. [...] Then Avaris was despoiled, and I brought spoil from there.Template:Sfn

Template:Multiple image Thomas Schneider places the conquest in year 18 of Ahmose's reign.Template:Sfn However, excavations of Tell El-Dab'a (Avaris) show no widespread destruction of the city, which instead seems to have been abandoned by the Hyksos.Template:Sfn Manetho, as recorded in Josephus, states that the Hyksos were allowed to leave after concluding a treaty:Template:Sfn

Thoumosis ... invested the walls [of Avaris] with an army of 480,000 men, and endeavoured to reduce [the Hyksos] to submission by siege. Despairing of achieving his object, he concluded a treaty, under which [the Hyksos] were all to evacuate Egypt and go whither they would unmolested. Upon these terms no fewer than two hundred and forty thousand, entire households with their possessions, left Egypt and traversed the desert to Syria. (Contra Apion I.88-89)Template:Sfn

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Although Manetho indicates that the Hyksos population was expelled to the Levant, there is no archaeological evidence for this, and Manfred Bietak argues based on archaeological finds throughout Egypt that it is likely that numerous Asiatics were resettled in other locations in Egypt as artisans and craftsmen.Template:Sfn Many may have remained at Avaris, as pottery and scarabs with typical "Hyksos" forms continued to be produced uninterrupted throughout the Eastern Delta.Template:Sfn Canaanite cults also continued to be worshiped at Avaris.Template:Sfn

Following the capture of Avaris, Ahmose, son of Ebana, records that Ahmose I captured Sharuhen (possibly Tell el-Ajjul), which some scholars argue was a city in Canaan under Hyksos control.Template:Sfn

Rule and administration

File:Asiatic official Munich (retouched).jpg

An official wearing the "mushroom-headed" hairstyle also seen in contemporary paintings of Western Asiatic foreigners such as in the tomb of Khnumhotep II, at Beni Hasan. Excavated in Avaris, the Hyksos capital. Dated to 1802–1640 BC. Staatliche Sammlung für Ägyptische Kunst.^[4]Template:Sfn^[5]Template:Sfn

Administration

The Hyksos show a mix of Egyptian and Levantine cultural traits.Template:Sfn Their rulers adopted the full ancient Egyptian royal titulary and employed Egyptian scribes and officials.Template:Sfn They also used Near-Eastern forms of administration, such as employing a chancellor (Script error: No such module "Lang".) as the head of their administration.Template:Sfn

Rulers

The names, the order, length of rule, and even the number of Fifteenth Dynasty rulers are not known with complete certainty. After the end of their rule, the Hyksos kings were not considered legitimate rulers of Egypt and were omitted from most king lists.Template:Sfn The fragmentary Turin King List included six Hyksos kings, however only the name of the last, Khamudi, is preserved.Template:Sfn Six names are also preserved in the various epitomes of Manetho, however, it is difficult to reconcile the Turin King List and other sources with names known from Manetho,Template:Sfn mainly due to the "corrupted name forms" in Manetho.Template:Sfn The name Apepi/Apophis appears in multiple sources, however.Template:Sfn

Various other archaeological sources also provide names of rulers with the Hyksos title,Template:Sfn however, the majority of kings from the second intermediate period are attested once on a single object, with only three exceptions.Template:Sfn Ryholt associates two other rulers known from inscriptions with the dynasty, Khyan and Sakir-Har.Template:Sfn The name of Khyan's son, Yanassi, is also preserved from Tell El-Dab'a.Template:Sfn The two best attested kings are Khyan and Apepi.Template:Sfn Scholars generally agree that Apepi and Khamudi are the last two kings of the dynasty,Template:Sfn and Apepi is attested as a contemporary of Seventeenth-Dynasty pharaohs Kamose and Ahmose I.Template:Sfn Ryholt has proposed that Yanassi did not rule and that Khyan directly preceded Apepi,Template:Sfn but most scholars agree that the order of kings is: Khyan, Yanassi, Apepi, Khamudi.Template:Sfn There is less agreement on the early rulers. Sakir-Har is proposed by Schneider, Ryholt, and Bietak to have been the first king.Template:Sfn Template:Sfn Template:Sfn

Recently, archaeological finds have suggested that Khyan may have been a contemporary of the Thirteenth Dynasty pharaoh Sobekhotep IV, potentially making him an early rather than a late Hyksos ruler.Template:Sfn This has prompted attempts to reconsider the entire chronology of the Hyksos period, which as of 2018 had not yet reached any consensus.Template:Sfn

Some kings are attested from either fragments of the Turin King List or from other sources who may have been Hyksos rulers. According to Ryholt, kings Semqen and Aperanat, known from the Turin King List, may have been early Hyksos rulers,Template:Sfn however Jürgen von Beckerath assigns these kings to the Sixteenth Dynasty of Egypt.Template:Sfn Another king known from scarabs, Sheshi,Template:Sfn is believed by many scholars to be a Hyksos king,Template:Sfn however Ryholt assigns this king to the Fourteenth Dynasty of Egypt.Template:Sfn Manfred Bietak proposes that a king recorded as Yaqub-Har may also have been a Hyksos king of the Fifteenth Dynasty.Template:Sfn Bietak suggests that many of the other kings attested on scarabs may have been vassal kings of the Hyksos.Template:Sfn

Hyksos rulers in various sourcesTemplate:Sfn Template:Sfn Template:Sfn
ManethoTemplate:Sfn	Turin King List	Genealogy of Ankhefensekhmet	Identification by Redford (1992)Template:Sfn	Identification by Ryholt (1997)Template:Sfn	Identification by Bietak (2012)Template:Sfn	Identification by Schneider (2006) (reconstructed Semitic name in parentheses)Template:Sfn Template:Sfn Template:Efn
Salitis/Saites (19 years)	X 15	Schalek Template:Efn	Sheshi	?Semqen (Šamuqēnu)?	?Sakir-Har?	? (Šarā-Dagan [Šȝrk[n]])
Bnon (44 years)	X 16.... 3 years		Yaqub-Har	?Aper-Anat ('Aper-'Anati)?	?Meruserre Yaqub-Har?	? (*Bin-ʿAnu)
Apachnan/Pachnan (36/61 years)	X 17... 8 years 3 months		Khyan	Sakir-Har	Seuserenre Khyan	Khyan ([ʿApaq-]Hajran)
Iannas/Staan (50 years)	X 18... 10 (20, 30) years		Yanassi (Yansas-X)	Khyan	Yanassi (Yansas-idn)	Yanassi (Jinaśśi'-Ad)
Apophis (61/14 years)	X 19... 40 + x years	Apepi (?'A-ken?)Template:Efn	Apepi	Apepi	A-user-Re Apepi	Apepi (Apapi)
Archles/Assis (40/30 years)Template:Efn			identifies with ?Khamudi?	identifies with Khamudi	Identifies with Khamudi	Sakir-Har (Sikru-Haddu)
Archles/Assis (40/30 years)Template:Efn	X 20 Khamudi		?Khamudi?Template:Efn	Khamudi	Khamudi	not in Manetho (Halmu'di)
Sum: 259 yearsTemplate:Efn	Sum: 108 yearsTemplate:Efn

None of the proposed identifications besides of Apepi and Apophis is considered certain.Template:Sfn

In Sextus Julius Africanus's epitome of Manetho, the rulers of Sixteenth Dynasty are also identified as "shepherds" (i.e. Hyksos) rulers.Template:Sfn Following the work of Ryholt in 1997, most but not all scholars now identify the Sixteenth Dynasty as a native Egyptian dynasty based in Thebes, following Eusebius's epitome of Manetho; this dynasty would be contemporary to the Hyksos.Template:Sfn

Diplomacy

File:Khyan.jpg

Lion inscribed with the name of the Hyksos ruler Khyan, found in Baghdad, suggesting relations with Babylon. The prenomen of Khyan and epithet appear on the breast. British Museum, EA 987.Template:Sfn^[6]

The Hyksos engagement in long-distance diplomacy is confirmed by a cuneiform letter discovered in the ruins of Avaris. Hyksos diplomacy with Crete and ancient Near East is also confirmed by the presence of gifts from the Hyksos court in those places.Template:Sfn Khyan, one of the Hyksos rulers, is known for his wide-ranging contacts, as objects in his name have been found at Knossos and Hattusha indicating diplomatic contacts with Crete and the Hittites, and a sphinx with his name was bought on the art market at Baghdad and might demonstrate diplomatic contacts with Babylon, possibly with the first Kassites ruler Gandash.Template:Sfn^[6]

The Theban rulers of the Seventeenth Dynasty are known to have imitated the Hyksos both in their architecture and regnal names.Template:Sfn There is evidence of friendly relations between the Hyksos and Thebes, including possibly a marriage alliance, before the reign of the Theban pharaoh Seqenenra Tao.Template:Sfn

An intercepted letter between Apepi and the King of Kingdom of Kerma, also called Kush, to the south of Egypt recorded on the Carnarvon Tablet has been interpreted as evidence of an alliance between the Hyksos and Kermans.Template:Sfn Intensive contacts between Kerma and the Hyksos are further attested by seals with the names of Asiatic rulers or with designs known from Avaris at Kerma.Template:Sfn The troops of Kerma are known to have raided as far north as Elkab according to an inscription of Sobeknakht II.Template:Sfn According to his second stele, Kamose was effectively caught between the campaign for the siege of Avaris in the north and the offensive of Kerma in the south; it is unknown whether or not the Kermans and Hyksos were able to combine forces against him.Template:Sfn Kamose reports returning "in triumph" to Thebes. Lutz Popko suggests that this "was perhaps a mere tactical retreat to prevent a war on two fronts".Template:Sfn Ahmose I was also forced to confront a threat from the Nubians during his siege of Avaris: he was able to stop the forces of Kerma by sending a strong fleet, killing their ruler named A'ata.Template:Sfn Template:Sfn Ahmose I boasts about these successes on his tomb at Thebes.Template:Sfn The Kermans also appear to have provided mercenaries to the Hyksos.Template:Sfn

Vassalage

Many scholars have described the Egyptian dynasties contemporary to the Hyksos as "vassal" dynasties, an idea partially derived from the Nineteenth-Dynasty literary text The Quarrel of Apophis and Seqenenre,Template:Sfn in which it is said "the entire land paid tribute to him [Apepi], delivering their taxes in full as well as bringing all good produce of Egypt."Template:Sfn The belief in Hyksos vassalage was challenged by Ryholt as "a baseless assumption."Template:Sfn Roxana Flammini suggests instead that Hyksos exerted influence through (sometimes imposed) personal relationships and gift-giving.Template:Sfn Manfred Bietak continues to refer to Hyksos vassals, including minor dynasties of West Semitic rulers in Egypt.Template:Sfn

Society and culture

Royal construction and patronage

Template:Multiple image

File:Statue Khyan CG389 Naville.jpg

Remains of a statue of the Twelfth Dynasty reappropriated by Hyksos ruler "Khyan", with his name inscribed on the sides over an erasure.Template:Sfn

The Hyksos do not appear to have produced any court art,Template:Sfn instead appropriating monuments from earlier dynasties by writing their names on them. Many of these are inscribed with the name of King Khyan.Template:Sfn A large palace at Avaris has been uncovered, built in the Levantine rather than the Egyptian style, most likely by Khyan.Template:Sfn King Apepi is known to have patronized Egyptian scribal culture, commissioning the copying of the Rhind Mathematical Papyrus.Template:Sfn The stories preserved in the Westcar Papyrus may also date from his reign.Template:Sfn

The so-called "Hyksos sphinxes" or "Tanite sphinxes" are a group of royal sphinxes depicting the earlier pharaoh Amenemhat III (Twelfth Dynasty) with some unusual traits compared to conventional statuary, for example prominent cheekbones and the thick mane of a lion, instead of the traditional nemes headcloth. The name "Hyksos sphinxes" was given due to the fact that these were later reinscribed by several of the Hyksos kings, and were initially thought to represent the Hyksos kings themselves. Nineteenth-century scholars attempted to use the statues' features to assign a racial origin to the Hyksos.Template:Sfn These Sphinxes were seized by the Hyksos from cities of the Middle Kingdom and then transported to their capital Avaris where they were reinscribed with the names of their new owners and adorned their palace.Template:Sfn Seven of those sphinxes are known, all from Tanis, and now mostly located in the Cairo Museum.Template:Sfn Template:Sfn Other statues of Amenehat III were found in Tanis and are associated with the Hyksos in the same manner.

Burial practices

Evidence for distinct Hyksos burial practices in the archaeological record include burying their dead within settlements rather than outside them like the Egyptians.Template:Sfn While some of the tombs include Egyptian-style chapels, they also include burials of young females, probably sacrifices, placed in front of the tomb chamber.Template:Sfn There are also no surviving Hyksos funeral monuments in the desert in the Egyptian style, though these may have been destroyed.Template:Sfn The Hyksos also interred infants who died in imported Canaanite amphorae.Template:Sfn The Hyksos also practiced the burial of horses and other equids, likely a composite custom of the Egyptian association of the god Set with the donkey and near-eastern notions of equids as representing status.Template:Sfn

Technology

The Hyksos use of horse burials suggest that the Hyksos introduced both the horse and the chariot to Egypt,Template:Sfn however no archaeological, pictorial, or textual evidence exists that the Hyksos possessed chariots, which are first mentioned as ridden by the Egyptians in warfare against them by Ahmose, son of Ebana, at the close of Hyksos rule.Template:Sfn In any case, it does not appear that chariots played any large role in the Hyksos rise to power or their expulsion.Template:Sfn Josef Wegner further argues that horse-riding may have been present in Egypt as early as the late Middle Kingdom, prior to the adoption of chariot technology.Template:Sfn

Traditionally, the Hyksos have also been credited with introducing a number of other military innovations, such as the sickle-sword and composite bow; however, "[t]o what extent the kingdom of Avaris should be credited for these innovations is debatable," with scholarly opinion currently divided.Template:Sfn It is also possible that the Hyksos introduced more advanced bronze working techniques, though this is inconclusive. They may have worn full-body armor,Template:Sfn whereas the Egyptians did not wear armor or helmets until the New Kingdom.^[7]

The Hyksos also introduced better weaving techniques and new musical instruments to Egypt.Template:Sfn They introduced improvements in viniculture as well.Template:Sfn

Egyptian duckbill-shaped axe blade of Syro-Palestinian type, a lethal technology probably introduced by the Hyksos (1981–1550 BC).[7]

Egyptian duckbill-shaped axe blade of Syro-Palestinian type, a lethal technology probably introduced by the Hyksos (1981–1550 BC).^[7]
A bronze Hyksos-period spearhead, found in Lachish (1780–1580 BC).[8]

A bronze Hyksos-period spearhead, found in Lachish (1780–1580 BC).^[8]
The horse was probably introduced to Egypt by the Hyksos, and became a favourite subject of Egyptian art, as in this whip handle from the reign of Amenhotep III (1390–1353 BC).[9]

The horse was probably introduced to Egypt by the Hyksos, and became a favourite subject of Egyptian art, as in this whip handle from the reign of Amenhotep III (1390–1353 BC).^[9]
The two-wheeled horse chariot, here found in the tomb of Tutankhamun, may have been introduced to Egypt by the Hyksos.Template:Sfn

The two-wheeled horse chariot, here found in the tomb of Tutankhamun, may have been introduced to Egypt by the Hyksos.Template:Sfn
The Rhind Mathematical Papyrus was copied for the Hyksos king Apepi.

The Rhind Mathematical Papyrus was copied for the Hyksos king Apepi.

Trade and economy

File:"Tell el-Yahudiya" Vase in the Shape of a Duck MET 23.3.40 left.jpg

An example of Egyptian Tell el-Yahudiyeh Ware, a Levantine-influenced style.

The early period of Hyksos presence established their capital of Avaris "as the commercial capital of the Delta".Template:Sfn The trading relations of the Hyksos were mainly with Canaan and Cyprus.Template:Sfn Template:Sfn Trade with Canaan is said to have been "intensive", especially with many imports of Canaanite wares, and may have reflected the Canaanite origins of the dynasty.Template:Sfn Trade was mostly with the cities of the northern Levant, but connections with the southern Levant also developed.Template:Sfn Additionally, trade was conducted with Faiyum, Memphis, oases in Egypt, Nubia, and Mesopotamia.Template:Sfn Trade relations with Cyprus were also very important, particularly at the end of the Hyksos period.Template:Sfn Template:Sfn Aaron Burke has interpreted the equid burials in Avaris of evidence that the people buried with them were involved in the caravan trade.Template:Sfn Anna-Latifa Mourad argues that "Hyksos were particularly interested in opening new avenues of trade, securing strategic posts in the eastern Delta that could give access to land-based and sea-based trade routes."Template:Sfn These include the apparent Hyksos settlements of Tell el-Habwa I and Tell el-Maskhuta in the eastern Delta.Template:Sfn

According to the Kamose stelae, the Hyksos imported "chariots and horses, ships, timber, gold, lapis lazuli, silver, turquoise, bronze, axes without number, oil, incense, fat and honey".Template:Sfn The Hyksos also exported large quantities of material looted from southern Egypt, especially Egyptian sculptures, to the areas of Canaan and Syria.Template:Sfn These transfers of Egyptian artifacts to the Near East may especially be attributed to king Apepi.Template:Sfn The Hyksos also produced local, Levantine-influenced industries, such as Tell el-Yahudiyeh Ware.Template:Sfn

There is little evidence of trade between Upper and Lower Egypt during the Hyksos period, and Manfred Bietak proposes that there was "a mutual trade boycott". Bietak proposes that this decreased the Hyksos ability to trade with the Mediterranean and weakened their economy.Template:Sfn

Religion

File:Scarab of a pharaoh as weather god by Khruner.jpg

Drawing of a Hyksos-era scarab found at Tell el-Dab'a depicting the pharaoh as the Near-Eastern weather god (Baal) or vice versa.Template:Sfn The aim appears to be to present the Hyksos ruler as a divine figure.Template:Sfn Original privately owned, kept at the University of Fribourg.Template:Sfn

Temples in Avaris existed both in Egyptian and Levantine style, the latter presumably for Levantine gods.Template:Sfn The Hyksos are known to have worshiped the Canaanite storm god Baal, who was associated with the Egyptian god Set.Template:Sfn Set appears to have been the patron god of Avaris as early as the Fourteenth Dynasty.Template:Sfn Hyksos iconography of their kings on some scarabs shows a mixture of Egyptian pharaonic dress with a raised club, the iconography of Baal.Template:Sfn Despite later sources claiming the Hyksos were opposed to the worship of other gods, votive objects given by Hyksos rulers to gods such as Ra, Hathor, Sobek, and Wadjet have also survived.Template:Sfn

Genetic impact

Genetic data from mummies of the Third Intermediate Period (787-544 BCE), published in 2017 and again analyzed in 2025,Template:Sfn Template:Sfn showed marginal continuity from the Nuwayrat Old Kingdom individual (NUE001) sample, complemented by a significant Levantine ancestry influx. The main ancestry source of the Third Intermediate Period mummies was Bronze Age Levant ancestry, appearing at around 64% in the main model (P=0.32).Template:Sfn The best-fit three-source model showed 46% for Levantine, 18% for Mesopotamian, and 36% for Moroccan-type ancestry (P=0.24).Template:Sfn This shift towards majoritary Levantine ancestry could have originated in the proposed Bronze Age Canaanite expansion of the end of the Middle Kingdom and the advent of the Second Intermediate Period of Egypt, associated with the rise of the Hyksos and the Late Bronze Age collapse.Template:Sfn

A study of dental traits by Nina Maaranen and Sonia Zakrzewski in 2021 on 90 people of Avaris indicated that individuals defined as locals and non-locals were not ancestrally different from one another. The results were in line with the archaeological evidence, suggesting Avaris was an important hub in the Middle Bronze Age eastern Mediterranean trade network, welcoming people from beyond its borders.^[10]

Potential biblical connections

In the Manethonian–Josephus tradition

Josephus, and most of the writers of antiquity, associated the Hyksos with the Jews.Template:Sfn Quoting from Manetho's Aegyptiaca, Josephus states that when the Hyksos were expelled from Egypt, they founded Jerusalem (Contra Apion I.90).Template:Sfn It is unclear if this is original to Manetho or Josephus's own addition, as Manetho does not mention "Jews" or "Hebrews" in his preserved account of the expulsion.Template:Sfn Josephus's account of Manetho connects the expulsion of the Hyksos to another event two hundred years later, in which a group of lepers led by the priest Osarseph were expelled from Egypt to the abandoned Avaris. There they ally with the Hyksos and rule over Egypt for thirteen years before being driven out, during which time they oppress the Egyptians and destroy their temples. After the expulsion, Osarseph changes his name to Moses (Contra Apion I.227-250).Template:Sfn Assmann argues that this second account is largely a mixture of the experiences of the later Amarna period with the Hyksos invasion, with Osarseph likely standing in for Akhenaten.Template:Sfn Template:Sfn The final mention of Osarseph, in which he changes his name to Moses, may be a later interpolation.Template:Sfn The second account is sometimes held not to have been written by Manetho at all.Template:Sfn

In modern scholarship

Script error: No such module "Labelled list hatnote". The majority of modern scholars do not believe that the Egyptian story elements in the Bible can be demonstrated with historical methods. However, some scholars have attempted to tie the narratives of the Hyksos period to the exodus period.Template:Sfn

Scholars such as Jan Assmann and Donald Redford, for instance, have suggested that the story of the biblical exodus may have been wholly or partially inspired by the expulsion of the Hyksos.Template:Sfn Template:Sfn Template:Sfn Archaeologists Israel Finkelstein and Neil Asher Silberman argue that the exodus narrative perhaps evolved from vague memories of the Hyksos expulsion, spun to encourage resistance to the 7th century domination of Judah by Egypt.^[11] An identification with the Hyksos would only depart minimally from accepted biblical chronology, and their expulsion is the only known large-scale expulsion of Asiatics from a location in Egypt.Template:Sfn Other scholars, such with Manfred Bietak, have pointed out several problems with such theories, including the conflict between the portrayal of the Hyksos as a ruling elite with a background in trade and seafaring and the biblical portrayal of the Israelites as oppressed in Egypt.Template:Sfn

File:Semitic visiters to Egypt, in the Tomb of Knumhotep II, circa 1900 BCE.jpg

Semitic visitors to Egypt, in the Tomb of Khnumhotep II, c. 1900 BC

John Bright states that Egyptian and Biblical records both suggest that Semitic people maintained access to Egypt at all periods of Egypt's history, and he suggested that it is tempting to suppose that Joseph who, according to the Old Testament (Genesis 39:50), was in favour at the Egyptian court and held high administrative positions next to the ruler of the land, was associated to the Hyksos rule in Egypt during the Fifteenth Dynasty. Such a connection might have been facilitated by their shared Semitic ethnicity. He also wrote that there is no proof for these events.Template:Sfn Howard Vos has suggested that the "coat of many colors" said to have been worn by Joseph could be similar to the colorful garments seen in the painting of foreigners in the tomb of Khnumhotep II.Template:Sfn

Ronald B. Geobey notes a number of problems with identifying the narrative of Joseph with events either prior to or during the Hyksos' rule, such as the detail that the Egyptians abhorred Joseph's people ("shepherds"; Gen. 46:31) and numerous anachronisms.Template:Sfn Manfred Bietak suggests that the story fits better with the ambience of the later Twentieth Dynasty of Egypt, in particular with the xenophobic policy of pharaoh Setnakhte (1189–1186 BC).Template:Sfn And Donald Redford argues that "to read [the Joseph story] as history is quite wrongheaded,"Template:Sfn while Megan Bishop Moore and Brad E. Kelle note the lack of any extra-biblical evidence for the events of Genesis, including the Joseph story, or Exodus.Template:Sfn

A number of scholars do not believe that the exodus has any historical basis at all, while only scholars "on the fundamentalist fringe" accept the entire biblical account "unless [it] can be absolutely disproved".Template:Sfn The current consensus among archaeologists is that, if an Israelite exodus from Egypt occurred, it must have happened instead in the Nineteenth Dynasty of Egypt (13th century BC), given the first appearance of a distinctive Israelite culture in the archaeological record.Template:Sfn The potential connection of the Hyksos to the exodus is no longer a central focus of scholarly study of the Hyksos,Template:Sfn but this supposed connection to the Exodus has continued to inspire popular interest.Template:Sfn

Legacy

File:Four Foreign Chieftains, Tomb of Puyemre MET DT10871.jpg

"Four Foreign Chieftains" from tomb TT39 (Metropolitan Museum of Art, MET DT10871). Ca. 1479–1458 BC

File:Block from a Relief Depicting a Battle MET 213 S3BR2 01GG.jpg

Egyptian relief depicting a battle against West Asiatics. Reign of Amenhotep II, Eighteenth Dynasty, c. 1427–1400 BC.

The Hyksos' rule continued to be condemned by New Kingdom pharaohs such as Hatshepsut, who, 80 years after their defeat, claimed to rebuild many shrines and temples which they had neglected.Template:Sfn

Ramses II moved Egypt's capital to the Delta, building Pi-Ramesses near the site of Avaris,Template:Sfn where he set up a stela marking the 400th anniversary of the cult of Set. Scholars used to suggest that this marked 400 years since the Hyksos had established their rule, however the lists of Ramesses' ancestors continued to omit the Hyksos and there is no evidence that they were honored during his reign.Template:Sfn The Turin King List, which includes the Hyksos and all other disputed or disgraced former rulers of Egypt, appears to date from the reign of Ramesses or one of his successors.Template:Sfn The Hyksos are marked as foreign kings via a throw-stick determinative rather than a divine determinative after their names, and the use of the title Script error: No such module "Lang". rather than the usual royal title.Template:Sfn Kim Ryholt notes that these measures are unique to the Hyksos rulers and "may therefore have been a direct result of what seems to have been deliberate attempt to obliterate the memory of their kingship after their defeat."Template:Sfn

Egyptian presence in the Levant

It is "often accepted" that Egypt established an empire in Canaan at the end of the wars against the Hyksos.Template:Sfn Campaigns against locations in Canaan and Syria were conducted by Ahmose I and Thutmose I at the beginning of the Eighteenth Dynasty, as recorded in the tombs of Ahmose, son of Ebana and Ahmose pen-Nekhebet; Thutmose I is also mentioned as having hunted elephants in Syria in inscriptions at the temple of Hatshepsut at Deir el-Bahari.Template:Sfn Thutmose III is known to have campaigned widely, conquering the "Shasu" Bedouins of northern Canaan, and the land of Retjenu, as far as Syria and Mittani in numerous military campaigns circa 1450 BC.Template:Sfn Template:Sfn However, Felix Höflmayer argues that there is little evidence of other campaigns and that "there is no evidence that would suggest such a scenario" as an Egyptian empire during the Eighteenth Dynasty.Template:Sfn As regards claims that the campaigns in the Near East were spurred on by Hyksos rule, Thomas Schneider argues that "the empire building started with a delay of two generations and seeing a direct nexus may be as much a historical fallacy as it would be to link the fall of the Soviet Union in [1991] to the end of the Second World War in 1945, two generations earlier."Template:Sfn

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Later accounts

File:Ramses-ii-relief-from-memphis2.png

A relief of Ramses II from Memphis showing him capturing enemies: a Nubian, a Libyan and a Syrian, c. 1250 BC. Cairo Museum.Template:Sfn

The Nineteenth-Dynasty story The Quarrel of Apophis and Seqenenre claimed that the Hyksos worshiped no god but Set, making the conflict into one between Ra, the patron of Thebes, and Set as patron of Avaris.Template:Sfn Furthermore, the battle with the Hyksos was interpreted in light of the mythical battle between the gods Horus and Set, transforming Set into an Asiatic deity while also allowing for the integration of Asiatics into Egyptian society.Template:Sfn

Manetho's portrayal of the Hyksos, written nearly 1300 years after the end of Hyksos rule and found in Josephus, is even more negative than the New Kingdom sources.Template:Sfn This account portrayed the Hyksos "as violent conquerors and oppressors of Egypt" has been highly influential for perceptions of the Hyksos until modern times.Template:Sfn Marc van de Mieroop argues that Josephus's portrayal of the initial Hyksos invasion is no more trustworthy than his later claims that they were related to the Exodus, supposedly portrayed in Manetho as performed by a band of lepers.Template:Sfn

Early modern depictions

The discovery of the Hyksos in the 19th century, and their study following the decipherment of ancient Egyptian scripts, led to various theories about their history, origin, ethnicity and appearance, often illustrated with picturesque and imaginative details.

Hyksos invasion as imagined in the 19th century by Hermann Vogel (19th century)

Hyksos invasion as imagined in the 19th century by Hermann Vogel (19th century)
The Expulsion of the Hyksos (1906)

The Expulsion of the Hyksos (1906)

Notes

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Citations

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References

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External links

Template:Sister project

Template:Rulers of the Ancient Near East

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@@ Line 6: / Line 6: @@
 | header=Hyksos
 | image1 = Painting of foreign delegation in the tomb of Khnumhotep II circa 1900 BCE (Detail mentioning "Abisha the Hyksos" in hieroglyphs).jpg
-| caption1 = A man described as "Abisha the Hyksos"<br />('''<big><big>𓋾𓈎𓈉</big></big>''' ḥqꜣ-ḫꜣswt, ''Heqa-kasut'' for "Hyksos"), leading a group of ''[[Aamu]]''.<br />Tomb of [[Khnumhotep II]] (circa 1900 BC).{{sfn|Van de Mieroop|2011|p=131}}{{sfn|Bard|2015|p=188}}<br />This is one of the earliest known uses of the term "Hyksos".{{sfn|Willems|2010|p=96}}
+| caption1 = A man described as "Abisha the Hyksos"<br />({{langx|egy|{{script|Egyp|{{huge|𓋾𓈎𓐰𓈉}}}}|translit=ḥqꜣ-ḫꜣswt|label=none}}, ''Heqa-kasut'' for "Hyksos"), leading a group of ''[[Aamu]]''.<br />Tomb of [[Khnumhotep II]] (circa 1900 BC).{{sfn|Van de Mieroop|2011|p=131}}{{sfn|Bard|2015|p=188}}<br />This is one of the earliest known uses of the term "Hyksos".{{sfn|Willems|2010|p=96}}
 }}
 {{Egyptian Dynasty list}}
 The '''Hyksos''' ({{IPAc-en|ˈ|h|ɪ|k|s|ɒ|s}}; [[Egyptian language|Egyptian]] ''[[wikt:ḥqꜣ|ḥqꜣ(w)]]-[[wikt:ḫꜣst|ḫꜣswt]]'', [[Egyptological pronunciation]]: ''heqau khasut'',{{sfn|Bourriau|2000|p=174}} "ruler(s) of foreign lands"), in modern [[Egyptology]], are the kings of the [[Fifteenth Dynasty of Egypt]]{{sfn|Bietak|2001|p=136}} (fl. c. 1650–1550 BC).{{efn|Approximate dates vary by source. Bietak gives c. 1640–1532 BC,{{sfn|Bietak|2012|p=1}} Schneider gives c. 1639–1521 BC,{{sfn|Schneider|2006|p=196}} and Stiebing gives c. 1630–1530 BC.{{sfn|Stiebing|2009|p=197}}|name=|group=}} Their seat of power was the city of [[Avaris]] in the [[Nile Delta]], from where they ruled over [[Lower Egypt]] and [[Middle Egypt]] up to [[Cusae]].
 In the ''Aegyptiaca'', a history of Egypt written by the Greco-Egyptian priest and historian [[Manetho]] in the 3rd century BC, the term Hyksos is used ethnically to designate people of probable West Semitic, [[Levant]]ine origin.{{sfn|Van de Mieroop|2011|p=131}}{{sfn|Mourad|2015|p=10}} While Manetho portrayed the Hyksos as invaders and oppressors, this interpretation is questioned in modern Egyptology.{{sfn|Ilin-Tomich|2016|p=5}} Instead, Hyksos rule might have been preceded by groups of [[Canaan]]ite peoples who gradually settled in the Nile Delta from the end of the [[Twelfth Dynasty of Egypt|Twelfth Dynasty]] onwards and who may have seceded from the crumbling and unstable Egyptian control at some point during the [[Thirteenth Dynasty of Egypt|Thirteenth Dynasty]].{{sfn|Bourriau|2000|pp=177–178}}
@@ Line 22: / Line 22: @@
 |title = Hyksos
 |width = 230px
-|name = {{center|<hiero>q\:xAst-HqA\..q\:xAst:Z2-HqA\</hiero>}}
+|name = {{center|<hiero>HqA-q:xAst..HqA-q:xAst:Z2</hiero>}}
 |name transcription = ''ḥqꜣ-ḫꜣsw'' / ''ḥqꜣw-ḫꜣswt'',{{sfn|Flammini|2015|p=240}}{{sfn|Ben-Tor|2007|p=1}}<br />"heqau khasut"{{sfn|Bourriau|2000|p=174}}{{efn|Spelling of the hieroglyphs in sources describing the archaeological record of the historical Hyksos: first set of characters is the singular, as appearing in [[:File:Painting_of_foreign_delegation_in_the_tomb_of_Khnumhotep_II_circa_1900_BCE_(Detail_mentioning_"Abisha_the_Hyksos"_in_hieroglyphs).jpg|Abisha the Hyksos]] in the tomb of [[Khnumhotep II]], c.1900 BC.{{sfn|Kamrin|2009}} The second set is in the plural, as appears in the inscriptions of known Hyksos rulers [[Sakir-Har]], [[Semqen]], [[Khyan]] and [[Aperanat]].<ref>{{cite web |title=The Sakir-Har door jamb inscription (slide 12) |work=The Second Intermediate Period: The Hyksos |url=https://www.brown.edu/Departments/Joukowsky_Institute/courses/historyofegyptone11/files/18876478.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190202021123/https://www.brown.edu/Departments/Joukowsky_Institute/courses/historyofegyptone11/files/18876478.pdf |archive-date=2019-02-02 |url-status=live}}</ref>}}<br />'''"Hyksos"'''
 |name explanation = ''Ruler(s) of the foreign countries''{{sfn|Flammini|2015|p=240}}
@@ Line 29: / Line 29: @@
 |image1 description=Standard characters for "Hyksos" in the label for "[[:File:Painting_of_foreign_delegation_in_the_tomb_of_Khnumhotep_II_circa_1900_BCE_(Detail_mentioning_"Abisha_the_Hyksos"_in_hieroglyphs).jpg|Abisha the Hyksos]]" in the tomb of [[Khnumhotep II]], c. 1900 BC.{{sfn|Kamrin|2009|p=25}} The crook (<big>'''[[List of Egyptian hieroglyphs|𓋾]]'''</big>, ''ḥqꜣ'') means "ruler", the hill (<big>'''[[List of Egyptian hieroglyphs|𓈎]]'''</big>) is a phonetic complement q/ḳ to 𓋾 while <big>'''[[𓈉]]'''</big> stands for (foreign) "country", pronounced ''ḫꜣst'', ''plural ḫꜣswt''.<br />The sign [[List of Egyptian hieroglyphs|𓏥]] marks the plural.{{sfn|Kamrin|2009|p=25}}
 |}}
-The term "Hyksos" is derived, via the Greek {{lang|grc|Ὑκσώς|italics=yes}} ({{lang|grc|Hyksôs|italics=yes}}), from the Egyptian expression <big>'''𓋾𓈎[[𓈉]]'''</big> ({{lang|egy|ḥqꜣ-ḫꜣswt|italics=yes}} or {{lang|egy|ḥqꜣw-ḫꜣswt|italics=yes}}, "heqau khasut"), meaning "rulers [of] foreign lands".{{sfn|Flammini|2015|p=240}}{{sfn|Ben-Tor|2007|p=1}} The Greek form is likely a textual corruption of an earlier {{lang|grc|Ὑκουσσώς|italics=yes}} ({{lang|grc|Hykoussôs|italics=yes}}).{{sfn|Schneider|2008|p=305}}
+The term "Hyksos" is derived, via the Greek {{lang|grc|Ὑκσώς|italics=yes}} ({{lang|grc|Hyksôs|italics=yes}}), from the Egyptian expression {{lang|egy|{{script|Egyp|{{huge|𓋾𓈎𓐰[[𓈉]]}}}}}} ({{transl|egy|ḥqꜣ-ḫꜣswt}} or {{transl|egy|ḥqꜣw-ḫꜣswt}}, "heqau khasut"), meaning "rulers [of] foreign lands".{{sfn|Flammini|2015|p=240}}{{sfn|Ben-Tor|2007|p=1}} The Greek form is likely a textual corruption of an earlier {{lang|grc|Ὑκουσσώς|italics=yes}} ({{lang|grc|Hykoussôs|italics=yes}}).{{sfn|Schneider|2008|p=305}}
 The [[first century]] Jewish historian [[Josephus]] gives the name as meaning "shepherd kings" or "captive shepherds" in his ''[[Against Apion|Contra Apion]]'' (Against Apion), where he describes the Hyksos as Jews as they appeared in the Hellenistic Egyptian historian [[Manetho]].{{sfn|Mourad|2015|p=9}}{{sfn|Loprieno|2003|p=144}} "Their race bore the generic name of Hycsos, which means 'king-shepherds'. For ''hyc'' in the sacred language denotes 'king' and ''sos'' in the common dialect means 'shepherd' or 'shepherds'; the combined words form Hycsos. Some say that they were Arabians."{{sfn|Josephus|1926|p=195}}
@@ Line 39: / Line 39: @@
 In Ancient Egypt, the term "Hyksos" ({{lang|egy|ḥqꜣ-ḫꜣswt|italics=yes}}) was also used to refer to various Nubian and especially Asiatic rulers both before and after the Fifteenth Dynasty.{{sfn|Bourriau|2000|p=174}}{{sfn|Candelora|2017|pp=208–209}}{{sfn|Ryholt|1997|pp=123–124}} It was used at least since the [[Sixth Dynasty of Egypt]] (c. 2345–2181 BC) to designate chieftains from the [[Syria (region)|Syro]]-[[Palestine (region)|Palestine]] area.{{sfn|Kamrin|2009|p=25}} One of its earliest recorded uses is found c. 1900 BC in the tomb of [[Khnumhotep II]] of the [[Twelfth Dynasty of Egypt|Twelfth Dynasty]] to label a [[nomad]] or [[Canaan]]ite ruler named "[[:File:Painting_of_foreign_delegation_in_the_tomb_of_Khnumhotep_II_circa_1900_BCE_(Detail_mentioning_"Abisha_the_Hyksos"_in_hieroglyphs).jpg|Abisha the Hyksos]]"
-(using the standard <big>'''𓋾𓈎𓈉'''</big>, ''ḥqꜣ-ḫꜣswt'', "Heqa-kasut" for "Hyksos").{{sfn|Willems|2010|p=96}}{{sfn|Curry|2018}}
+(using the standard {{langx|egy|{{script|Egyp|{{huge|𓋾𓈎𓐰𓈉}}}}|translit=ḥqꜣ-ḫꜣswt|label=none}}, "Heqa-kasut" for "Hyksos").{{sfn|Willems|2010|p=96}}{{sfn|Curry|2018}}
 {{multiple image|perrow=2|total_width=200|caption_align=center
@@ Line 70: / Line 70: @@
 Earlier arguments that the Hyksos names might be [[Hurrian]] have been rejected,{{sfn|Ilin-Tomich|2016|p=6}} while early-twentieth-century proposals that the Hyksos were Indo-Europeans "fitted European dreams of Indo-European supremacy, now discredited."{{sfn|Van de Mieroop|2011|p=166}} Some have suggested that Hyksos or a part of them was of [[Maryannu]] origins as evident by their use and introduction of chariots and horses into Egypt.{{sfn|Woudhuizen|2006|p=30}}{{sfn|Glassman|2017|p=479–480}} However, this theory has also been rejected by modern scholarship.
-A study of dental traits by Nina Maaranen and Sonia Zakrzewski in 2021 on 90 people of Avaris indicated that individuals defined as locals and non-locals were not ancestrally different from one another. The results were in line with the archaeological evidence, suggesting Avaris was an important hub in the Middle Bronze Age eastern Mediterranean trade network, welcoming people from beyond its borders.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Stantis |first1=Chris |last2=Maaranen |first2=Nina |date=2021-01-01 |title=The people of Avaris: Intra-regional biodistance analysis using dental non-metric traits |url=https://www.academia.edu/66925960 |journal=Bioarchaeology of the Near East}}</ref>
 == History ==
@@ Line 84: / Line 82: @@
 | image1 = Procession of the Aamu, Tomb of Khnumhotep II (composite).jpg
 | image2 = Drawing of the procession of the Aamu group tomb of Khnumhotep II at Beni Hassan.jpg
-| footer = A group of West Asiatic foreigners, possibly [[Canaan]]ites, labelled as ''[[Aamu]]'' ({{lang|egy|ꜥꜣmw|italics=yes}}), including the leading man with a [[Nubian ibex]] labelled as ''Abisha the Hyksos'' ('''<big><big>𓋾𓈎𓈉</big></big>''' ḥqꜣ-ḫꜣsw, ''Heqa-kasut'' for "Hyksos"). Tomb of [[12th dynasty|12th-dynasty]] official [[Khnumhotep II]], at [[Beni Hasan]] (c. 1890 BC).{{sfn|Van de Mieroop|2011|p=131}}{{sfn|Bard|2015|p=188}}{{sfn|Kamrin|2009|p=25}}{{sfn|Curry|2018}}
+| footer = A group of West Asiatic foreigners, possibly [[Canaan]]ites, labelled as ''[[Aamu]]'' ({{lang|egy|ꜥꜣmw|italics=yes}}), including the leading man with a [[Nubian ibex]] labelled as ''Abisha the Hyksos'' ({{langx|egy|{{script|Egyp|{{huge|𓋾𓈎𓐰𓈉}}}}|translit=ḥqꜣ-ḫꜣsw|label=none}}, ''Heqa-kasut'' for "Hyksos"). Tomb of [[12th dynasty|12th-dynasty]] official [[Khnumhotep II]], at [[Beni Hasan]] (c. 1890 BC).{{sfn|Van de Mieroop|2011|p=131}}{{sfn|Bard|2015|p=188}}{{sfn|Kamrin|2009|p=25}}{{sfn|Curry|2018}}
 | alt1 =
 | caption1 =
@@ Line 91: / Line 89: @@
 Historical records suggest that Semitic people and Egyptians had contacts at all periods of Egypt's history.{{sfn|Bright|2000|p=97}} The [[MacGregor plaque]], an early Egyptian tablet dating to 3000 BC records "The first occasion of striking the East", with the picture of Pharaoh [[Den (pharaoh)|Den]] smiting a Western Asiatic enemy.{{sfn|Russmann|James|2001|pp=67–68}}
-During the reign of [[Senusret II]], c. 1890 BC, [[:File:Procession_of_the_Aamu,_Tomb_of_Khnumhotep_II_(composite).jpg|parties of Western Asiatic foreigners visiting the Pharaoh with gifts]] are recorded, as in the tomb paintings of [[12th dynasty|12th-dynasty]] official [[Khnumhotep II]]. These foreigners, possibly [[Canaan]]ites or [[nomads]], are labelled as ''[[Aamu]]'' ({{lang|egy|ꜥꜣmw|italics=yes}}), including the leading man with a [[Nubian ibex]] labelled as ''Abisha the Hyksos'' ('''𓋾𓈎𓈉''' ḥqꜣ-ḫꜣsw, ''Heqa-kasut'' for "Hyksos"), the first known instance of the name "Hyksos".{{sfn|Van de Mieroop|2011|p=131}}{{sfn|Bard|2015|p=188}}{{sfn|Kamrin|2009|p=25}}{{sfn|Curry|2018}}
+During the reign of [[Senusret II]], c. 1890 BC, [[:File:Procession_of_the_Aamu,_Tomb_of_Khnumhotep_II_(composite).jpg|parties of Western Asiatic foreigners visiting the Pharaoh with gifts]] are recorded, as in the tomb paintings of [[12th dynasty|12th-dynasty]] official [[Khnumhotep II]]. These foreigners, possibly [[Canaan]]ites or [[nomads]], are labelled as ''[[Aamu]]'' ({{lang|egy|ꜥꜣmw|italics=yes}}), including the leading man with a [[Nubian ibex]] labelled as ''Abisha the Hyksos'' ({{langx|egy|{{script|Egyp|{{huge|𓋾𓈎𓐰𓈉}}}}|translit=ḥqꜣ-ḫꜣsw}}, ''Heqa-kasut'' for "Hyksos"), the first known instance of the name "Hyksos".{{sfn|Van de Mieroop|2011|p=131}}{{sfn|Bard|2015|p=188}}{{sfn|Kamrin|2009|p=25}}{{sfn|Curry|2018}}
 Soon after, the [[Sebek-khu Stele]], dated to the reign of [[Senusret III]] (reign: 1878–1839 BC), records the earliest known Egyptian military campaign in the Levant. The text reads "His Majesty proceeded northward to overthrow the Asiatics. His Majesty reached a foreign country of which the name was Sekmem (...) Then Sekmem fell, together with the wretched [[Retenu]]", where Sekmem (s-k-m-m) is thought to be [[Shechem]] and "Retenu" or "[[Retjenu]]" are associated with ancient [[Syria]].{{sfn|Pritchard|2016|p=230}}{{sfn|Steiner|Killebrew|2014|p=73}}
@@ Line 100: / Line 98: @@
 [[File:Hyksos dagger handle.jpg|thumb|upright=1.35|[[Electrum]] dagger handle of a soldier of Hyksos pharaoh [[Apepi (pharaoh)|Apepi]], illustrating the soldier hunting with a short bow and sword. Inscriptions: "The perfect god, the lord of the two lands, Nebkhepeshre [[Apepi (pharaoh)|Apepi]]" and "Follower of his lord Nehemen", found at a burial at [[Saqqara]].{{sfn|O'Connor|2009|pp=116–117}} Now at the [[Luxor Museum]].{{sfn |Wilkinson |2013a |p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=wVbGDwAAQBAJ&pg=PT96 96]}}{{sfn |Daressy |1906 |pp=115–120}}]]
-Manetho's invasion narrative is "nowadays rejected by most scholars."{{sfn|Ilin-Tomich|2016|p=5}} It is likely that more recent foreign invasions of Egypt influenced him.{{sfn|Bietak|2012|p=1}} Instead, it appears that the establishment of Hyksos rule was mostly peaceful and did not involve an invasion of an entirely foreign population.{{sfn|Mourad|2015|p=130}} Archaeology shows a continuous Asiatic presence at Avaris for over 150&nbsp;years before the beginning of Hyksos rule,{{sfn|Bietak|2006|p=285}} with gradual Canaanite settlement beginning there {{circa|1800 BC}} during the [[Twelfth Dynasty of Egypt|Twelfth Dynasty]].{{sfn|Ben-Tor|2007|p=1}} Strontium isotope analysis of the inhabitants of Middle Kingdom and Second Intermediate Period Avaris also dismissed the invasion model in favor of a migration one. Contrary to the model of a foreign invasion, the study did not find more males moving into the region, but instead found a sex bias towards females, with a high proportion of 77% of females being non-locals.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Stantis|first1=Chris|last2=Kharobi|first2=Arwa|last3=Maaranen|first3=Nina|last4=Nowell|first4=Geoff M.|last5=Bietak|first5=Manfred|last6=Prell|first6=Silvia|last7=Schutkowski|first7=Holger|date=2020-07-15|title=Who were the Hyksos? Challenging traditional narratives using strontium isotope (87Sr/86Sr) analysis of human remains from ancient Egypt|journal=PLOS ONE|language=en|volume=15|issue=7|pages=e0235414|doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0235414|issn=1932-6203|pmc=7363063|pmid=32667937|bibcode=2020PLoSO..1535414S |doi-access=free }}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Stantis|first1=Chris|last2=Kharobi|first2=Arwa|last3=Maaranen|first3=Nina|last4=Macpherson|first4=Colin|last5=Bietak|first5=Manfred|last6=Prell|first6=Silvia|last7=Schutkowski|first7=Holger|date=2021-06-01|title=Multi-isotopic study of diet and mobility in the northeastern Nile Delta|journal=Archaeological and Anthropological Sciences|language=en|volume=13|issue=6|pages=105|doi=10.1007/s12520-021-01344-x|s2cid=235271929 |issn=1866-9565|doi-access=free|bibcode=2021ArAnS..13..105S }}</ref>
+Manetho's invasion narrative is "nowadays rejected by most scholars."{{sfn|Ilin-Tomich|2016|p=5}} It is likely that more recent foreign invasions of Egypt influenced him.{{sfn|Bietak|2012|p=1}} Instead, it appears that the establishment of Hyksos rule was mostly peaceful and did not involve an invasion of an entirely foreign population.{{sfn|Mourad|2015|p=130}} Archaeology shows a continuous Asiatic presence at Avaris for over 150&nbsp;years before the beginning of Hyksos rule,{{sfn|Bietak|2006|p=285}} with gradual Canaanite settlement beginning there {{circa|1800 BC}} during the [[Twelfth Dynasty of Egypt|Twelfth Dynasty]].{{sfn|Ben-Tor|2007|p=1}} Strontium isotope analysis of the inhabitants of Middle Kingdom and Second Intermediate Period Avaris also dismissed the invasion model in favor of a migration one. Contrary to the model of a foreign invasion, the study did not find more males moving into the region, but instead found a sex bias towards females, with a high proportion of 77% of females being non-locals.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Stantis|first1=Chris|last2=Kharobi|first2=Arwa|last3=Maaranen|first3=Nina|last4=Nowell|first4=Geoff M.|last5=Bietak|first5=Manfred|last6=Prell|first6=Silvia|last7=Schutkowski|first7=Holger|date=2020-07-15|title=Who were the Hyksos? Challenging traditional narratives using strontium isotope (87Sr/86Sr) analysis of human remains from ancient Egypt|journal=PLOS ONE|language=en|volume=15|issue=7|article-number=e0235414|doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0235414|issn=1932-6203|pmc=7363063|pmid=32667937|bibcode=2020PLoSO..1535414S |doi-access=free }}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Stantis|first1=Chris|last2=Kharobi|first2=Arwa|last3=Maaranen|first3=Nina|last4=Macpherson|first4=Colin|last5=Bietak|first5=Manfred|last6=Prell|first6=Silvia|last7=Schutkowski|first7=Holger|date=2021-06-01|title=Multi-isotopic study of diet and mobility in the northeastern Nile Delta|journal=Archaeological and Anthropological Sciences|language=en|volume=13|issue=6|page=105|doi=10.1007/s12520-021-01344-x|s2cid=235271929 |issn=1866-9565|doi-access=free|bibcode=2021ArAnS..13..105S }}</ref>
 [[Manfred Bietak]] argues that Hyksos "should be understood within a repetitive pattern of the attraction of Egypt for western Asiatic population groups that came in search of a living in the country, especially the Delta, since prehistoric times."{{sfn|Bietak|2006|p=285}} He notes that Egypt had long depended on the Levant for expertise in areas of shipbuilding and seafaring, with possible depictions of Asiatic shipbuilders being found from reliefs from the [[Sixth Dynasty of Egypt|Sixth Dynasty]] ruler [[Sahure]]. The Twelfth Dynasty of Egypt is known to have had many Asiatic immigrants serving as soldiers, household or temple serfs, and various other jobs. [[Avaris]] in the Nile Delta attracted many Asiatic immigrants in its role as a hub of international trade and seafaring.{{sfn|Bietak|2012|p=4}}
@@ Line 126: / Line 124: @@
 {{Location map~ |Northern Egypt|label=[[Beni Hasan]]|position=right|mark=Blue pog.svg|lat_deg=27.933333|lon_deg=30.883333|label_size=50}}
 }}
-The length of time the Hyksos ruled is unclear. The fragmentary [[Turin King List]] says that there were six Hyksos kings who collectively ruled 108 years,{{sfn|Ryholt|1997|p=186}} however in 2018 Kim Ryholt proposed a new reading of as many as 149 years, while Thomas Schneider proposed a length between 160 and 180 years.{{sfn|Aston|2018|pp=31–32}} The rule of the Hyksos overlaps with that of the native Egyptian pharaohs of the [[Sixteenth Dynasty of Egypt|Sixteenth]] and [[Seventeenth Dynasty of Egypt|Seventeenth]] Dynasties, better known as the [[Second Intermediate Period of Egypt|Second Intermediate Period]].
+The length of time the Hyksos ruled is unclear. The fragmentary [[Turin King List]] says that there were six Hyksos kings who collectively ruled 108 years,{{sfn|Ryholt|1997|p=186}} however, in 2018. Kim Ryholt proposed a new reading of as many as 149 years, while Thomas Schneider proposed a length between 160 and 180 years.{{sfn|Aston|2018|pp=31–32}} In 2024, [[Manfred Bietak]] defended the reading of the Turin King List as only showing a reign of 108 years, arguing that the longer reign periods were incompatible with the archaeology of the Hyksos capital, Avaris.{{sfn|Bietak|2024}}  Bietak stressed that:
+: "If we use the average phase estimate of 30-32 years at Tell el-Dab'a (ie. Avaris) for the Hyksos Period, which includes half of Phase E/2 and the Phases E/1, D/3 and D/2, we arrive at 105-112 years. This aligns closely to the 108 years read by [[Giulio Farina|Farina]] and [[Jürgen von Beckerath|von Beckerath]] for the Hyksos Period. In contrast, the more recently proposed estimates of 140-149, 160-169, and 180-189 years result in averages of 40, 42.5, 46, 48, 51.5, and 54 years for each phase. These estimates are incompatible with the other phases of this stratigraphy as they would require significant compressions of the overall period to fit into the timeframes established by the fixed points. Such compression would result in a completely one-sided entity with elongated reigns within an unstable period....Our model for the chronology of the Hyksos period, based on the stratigraphy at Tell el-Dab'a, makes the elongation of the Hyksos Period to 140-189 years highly unlikely, and in the higher realm, absolutely impossible."{{sfn|Bietak|2024}}
-The area under direct control of the Hyksos was probably limited to the eastern [[Nile delta]].{{sfn|Ilin-Tomich|2016|p=7}} Their capital city was [[Avaris]] at a fork on the now-dry Pelusiac branch of the Nile. [[Memphis, Egypt|Memphis]] may have also been an important administrative center,{{sfn|Bourriau|2000|p=183}} although the nature of any Hyksos presence there remains unclear.{{sfn|Ilin-Tomich|2016|p=7}}
+The rule of the Hyksos overlaps with that of the native Egyptian pharaohs of the [[Sixteenth Dynasty of Egypt|Sixteenth]] and [[Seventeenth Dynasty of Egypt|Seventeenth]] Dynasties, better known as the [[Second Intermediate Period of Egypt|Second Intermediate Period]]. The area under direct control of the Hyksos was probably limited to the eastern [[Nile delta]].{{sfn|Ilin-Tomich|2016|p=7}} Their capital city was [[Avaris]] at a fork on the now-dry Pelusiac branch of the Nile. [[Memphis, Egypt|Memphis]] may have also been an important administrative center,{{sfn|Bourriau|2000|p=183}} although the nature of any Hyksos presence there remains unclear.{{sfn|Ilin-Tomich|2016|p=7}}
 According to Anna-Latifa Mourad, other sites with likely Levantine populations or strong Levantine connections in the Delta include Tell Farasha and Tell el-Maghud, located between Tell Basta and Avaris,{{sfn|Mourad|2015|pp=43–44}} El-Khata'na, southwest of Avaris, and [[Inshas]].{{sfn|Mourad|2015|p=48}} The increased prosperity of Avaris may have attracted more Levantines to settle in the eastern Delta.{{sfn|Mourad|2015|p=130}} Kom el-Hisn, at the edge of the Western Delta, shows Near Eastern goods but individuals mostly buried in an Egyptian style, which Mourad takes to mean that they were most likely Egyptians heavily influenced by Levantine traditions or, more likely, Egyptianized Levantines.{{sfn|Mourad|2015|p=49–50}} The site of [[Tell Basta]] (Bubastis), at the confluence of the Pelusiac and Tanitic branches of the Nile, contains monuments to the Hyksos kings Khyan and Apepi, but little other evidence of Levantine habitation.{{sfn|Mourad|2015|p=21}} Tell el-Habwa ([[Tjaru]]), located on a branch of the Nile near the Sinai, also shows evidence of non-Egyptian presence. However, most of the population appears to have been Egyptian or Egyptianized Levantines.{{sfn|Mourad|2015|pp=44–48}} Tell El-Habwa would have provided Avaris with grain and trade goods.{{sfn|Mourad|2015|pp=129–130}}
@@ Line 227: / Line 226: @@
 | Khyan
 | Yanassi (Yansas-idn)
-| Yanassi (Jinaśśi’-Ad)
+| Yanassi (Jinaśśi'-Ad)
 |-
@@ Line 279: / Line 278: @@
 | align = right
 | direction =horizontal
-| header=The so-called "Hyksos Sphinxes"
+| header=The so-called "Hyksos sphinxes"
 | image1 = Hyksos Sphinxes.jpg
 | image2 = Sphinx Amenemhat3 Budge.jpg
-| footer=The so-called "Hyksos Sphinxes" are peculiar sphinxes of [[Amenemhat III]] which were reinscribed by several Hyksos rulers, including [[Apepi (pharaoh)|Apepi]]. Earlier Egyptologists thought these were the faces of actual Hyksos rulers.{{sfn|el-Shahawy|2005|p=160}}
+| footer=The so-called "[[Tanite sphinxes|Hyksos sphinxes]]" are peculiar sphinxes of [[Amenemhat III]] which were reinscribed by several Hyksos rulers, including [[Apepi (pharaoh)|Apepi]]. Earlier Egyptologists thought these were the faces of actual Hyksos rulers.{{sfn|el-Shahawy|2005|p=160}}
 }}
-[[File:Hyksos sphinxes tanis.png|thumb]]
 [[File:Statue Khyan CG389 Naville.jpg|thumb|upright|Remains of a statue of the [[Twelfth Dynasty of Egypt|Twelfth Dynasty]] reappropriated by Hyksos ruler "[[Khyan]]", with his name inscribed on the sides over an erasure.{{sfn|Griffith|1891|p=28|ps=. "The name of Khyan on the statue from Bubastis is written over an erasure, that the statue is of the XIIth Dynasty, and that Khyan was a Hyksôs king."}}]]
 The Hyksos do not appear to have produced any court art,{{sfn|Bietak|1999|p=379}} instead appropriating monuments from earlier dynasties by writing their names on them. Many of these are inscribed with the name of King [[Khyan]].{{sfn|Müller|2018|p=212}} A large palace at Avaris has been uncovered, built in the Levantine rather than the Egyptian style, most likely by Khyan.{{sfn|Bard|2015|p=213}} King [[Apepi (pharaoh)|Apepi]] is known to have patronized Egyptian scribal culture, commissioning the copying of the [[Rhind Mathematical Papyrus]].{{sfn|Van de Mieroop|2011|pp=151–153}} The stories preserved in the [[Westcar Papyrus]] may also date from his reign.{{sfn|Redford|1992|p=122}}
-The so-called "[[Commons:Category:Hyksos sphinxes of Amenemhat III|Hyksos sphinxes]]" or "Tanite sphinxes" are a group of royal sphinxes depicting the earlier pharaoh [[Amenemhat III]] (Twelfth Dynasty) with some unusual traits compared to conventional statuary, for example prominent cheekbones and the thick mane of a lion, instead of the traditional [[nemes]] headcloth. The name "Hyksos sphinxes" was given due to the fact that these were later reinscribed by several of the Hyksos kings, and were initially thought to represent the Hyksos kings themselves. Nineteenth-century scholars attempted to use the statues' features to assign a racial origin to the Hyksos.{{sfn|Candelora|2018|p=54}} These Sphinxes were seized by the Hyksos from cities of the [[Middle Kingdom of Egypt|Middle Kingdom]] and then transported to their capital [[Avaris]] where they were reinscribed with the names of their new owners and adorned their palace.{{sfn|el-Shahawy|2005|p=160}} Seven of those sphinxes are known, all from [[Tanis]], and now mostly located in the [[Cairo Museum]].{{sfn|el-Shahawy|2005|p=160}}{{sfn|Sayce|1895|p=17}} [[:File:Statues of Shepherd Kings by Boston Public Library.jpg|Other statues of Amenehat III]] were found in Tanis and are associated with the Hyksos in the same manner.
+The so-called "[[Tanite sphinxes|Hyksos sphinxes]]" or "Tanite sphinxes" are a group of royal sphinxes depicting the earlier pharaoh [[Amenemhat III]] (Twelfth Dynasty) with some unusual traits compared to conventional statuary, for example prominent cheekbones and the thick mane of a lion, instead of the traditional [[nemes]] headcloth. The name "Hyksos sphinxes" was given due to the fact that these were later reinscribed by several of the Hyksos kings, and were initially thought to represent the Hyksos kings themselves. Nineteenth-century scholars attempted to use the statues' features to assign a racial origin to the Hyksos.{{sfn|Candelora|2018|p=54}} These Sphinxes were seized by the Hyksos from cities of the [[Middle Kingdom of Egypt|Middle Kingdom]] and then transported to their capital [[Avaris]] where they were reinscribed with the names of their new owners and adorned their palace.{{sfn|el-Shahawy|2005|p=160}} Seven of those sphinxes are known, all from [[Tanis]], and now mostly located in the [[Cairo Museum]].{{sfn|el-Shahawy|2005|p=160}}{{sfn|Sayce|1895|p=17}} [[:File:Statues of Shepherd Kings by Boston Public Library.jpg|Other statues of Amenehat III]] were found in Tanis and are associated with the Hyksos in the same manner.
 ===Burial practices===
@@ Line 294: / Line 292: @@
 ===Technology===
-[[File:Rhind Mathematical Papyrus.jpg|thumb|The [[Rhind Mathematical Papyrus]] was copied for the Hyksos king [[Apepi (pharaoh)|Apepi]].]]
 The Hyksos use of horse burials suggest that the Hyksos introduced both the [[horse]] and the [[chariot]] to Egypt,{{sfn|Hernández|2014|p=112}} however no archaeological, pictorial, or textual evidence exists that the Hyksos possessed chariots, which are first mentioned as ridden by the Egyptians in warfare against them by [[Ahmose, son of Ebana]], at the close of Hyksos rule.{{sfn|Herslund|2018|p=151}} In any case, it does not appear that chariots played any large role in the Hyksos rise to power or their expulsion.{{sfn|Stiebing|2009|p=166}} Josef Wegner further argues that [[Domestication of the horse|horse-riding]] may have been present in Egypt as early as the late Middle Kingdom, prior to the adoption of chariot technology.{{sfn|Wegner|2015|p=76}}
@@ Line 306: / Line 303: @@
 File:Whip Handle in the Shape of a Horse 1390-1353 BCE.jpg|The horse was probably introduced to Egypt by the Hyksos, and became a favourite subject of Egyptian art, as in this whip handle from the reign of [[Amenhotep III]] (1390–1353 BC).<ref>{{cite web |title=Whip handle |url=https://www.metmuseum.org/art/collection/search/544853 |website=www.metmuseum.org}}</ref>
 File:Chariot of Tutankhamun.jpg|The two-wheeled horse chariot, here found in the tomb of [[Tutankhamun]], may have been introduced to Egypt by the Hyksos.{{sfn|Hernández|2014|p=112}}
+File:Rhind Mathematical Papyrus.jpg|The [[Rhind Mathematical Papyrus]] was copied for the Hyksos king [[Apepi (pharaoh)|Apepi]].
 </gallery>
@@ Line 319: / Line 317: @@
 [[File:Scarab of a pharaoh as weather god by Khruner.jpg|thumb|upright|Drawing of a Hyksos-era scarab found at [[Tell el-Dab'a]] depicting the pharaoh as the Near-Eastern weather god ([[Baal]]) or vice versa.{{sfn|Keel|1996|pp=125–126}} The aim appears to be to present the Hyksos ruler as a divine figure.{{sfn|Morenz|Popko|2010|p=104}} Original privately owned, kept at the [[University of Fribourg]].{{sfn|Keel|1996|p=126}}]]
 Temples in Avaris existed both in Egyptian and Levantine style, the latter presumably for Levantine gods.{{sfn|O'Connor|2009|p=109}} The Hyksos are known to have worshiped the Canaanite storm god [[Baal]], who was associated with the Egyptian god [[Set (deity)|Set]].{{sfn|Bietak|1999|pp=377–378}} Set appears to have been the patron god of Avaris as early as the [[Fourteenth Dynasty of Egypt|Fourteenth Dynasty]].{{sfn|Bourriau|2000|p=177}} Hyksos iconography of their kings on some [[scarab (artifact)|scarab]]s shows a mixture of Egyptian pharaonic dress with a raised club, the iconography of Baal.{{sfn|Morenz|Popko|2010|p=104}} Despite later sources claiming the Hyksos were opposed to the worship of other gods, votive objects given by Hyksos rulers to gods such as [[Ra]], [[Hathor]], [[Sobek]], and [[Wadjet]] have also survived.{{sfn|Ryholt|1997|pp=148–149}}
+===Genetic impact===
+Genetic data from mummies of the [[Third Intermediate Period]] (787-544 BCE), published in 2017 and again analyzed in 2025,{{sfn|Morez Jacobs|Irish|Cooke|Anastasiadou|2025|p=6}}{{sfn|Schuenemann|Peltzer|Welte|van Pelt|2017}} showed marginal continuity from the [[Nuwayrat]] [[Old Kingdom individual (NUE001)]] sample, complemented by a significant Levantine ancestry influx. The main ancestry source of the Third Intermediate Period mummies was Bronze Age Levant ancestry, [[:File:Ancestry proportions of the Third Intermediate Period genomes for the best-fit model (qpAdm).png|appearing at around 64% in the main model]] (P=0.32).{{sfn|Morez Jacobs|Irish|Cooke|Anastasiadou|2025|p=6}} The best-fit three-source model showed 46% for Levantine, 18% for Mesopotamian, and 36% for Moroccan-type ancestry (P=0.24).{{sfn|Morez Jacobs|Irish|Cooke|Anastasiadou|2025|p=Supplementary Table 7}} This shift towards majoritary Levantine ancestry could have originated in the proposed Bronze Age [[Canaan|Canaanite]] expansion of the end of the [[Middle Kingdom of Egypt|Middle Kingdom]] and the advent of the [[Second Intermediate Period of Egypt]], associated with the rise of the Hyksos and the [[Late Bronze Age collapse]].{{sfn|Morez Jacobs|Irish|Cooke|Anastasiadou|2025|p=6}}
+A study of dental traits by Nina Maaranen and [[Sonia Zakrzewski]] in 2021 on 90 people of Avaris indicated that individuals defined as locals and non-locals were not ancestrally different from one another. The results were in line with the archaeological evidence, suggesting Avaris was an important hub in the Middle Bronze Age eastern Mediterranean trade network, welcoming people from beyond its borders.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Stantis |first1=Chris |last2=Maaranen |first2=Nina |date=2021-01-01 |title=The people of Avaris: Intra-regional biodistance analysis using dental non-metric traits |url=https://www.academia.edu/66925960 |journal=Bioarchaeology of the Near East}}</ref>
 ==Potential biblical connections==
@@ Line 392: / Line 395: @@
 {{Refbegin|30em|indent=yes}}
 * {{cite book |last=Allen |first=James P. |title=Middle Egyptian: An Introduction to the Language and Culture of Hieroglyphs |date=2000 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-0-521-77483-3 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=gMxfheT1XQIC&pg=PA299}}
-* {{cite book| last=Assmann| first=Jan|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=XEMadfTi_U4C&q=Osarsiph&pg=PA227|year=2003|publisher=Harvard University Press|isbn=9780674012110 |title=The mind of Egypt: history and meaning in the time of the Pharaohs|author-link=Jan Assmann}}
+* {{cite book| last=Assmann| first=Jan|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=XEMadfTi_U4C&q=Osarsiph&pg=PA227|year=2003|publisher=Harvard University Press|isbn=978-0-674-01211-0 |title=The mind of Egypt: history and meaning in the time of the Pharaohs|author-link=Jan Assmann}}
 * {{cite book|first=Jan |last=Assmann |author-link=Jan Assmann|title=From Akhenaten to Moses: Ancient Egypt and Religious Change|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=VsjmCwAAQBAJ|year=2014|publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-977-416-631-0}}
-* {{cite book| last=Assmann| first=Jan |author-link=Jan Assmann| title=The Invention of Religion: Faith and Covenant in the Book of Exodus| publisher=Princeton University Press| year=2018| isbn=9781400889235| url=https://books.google.com/books?id=K7s7DwAAQBAJ}}
+* {{cite book| last=Assmann| first=Jan |author-link=Jan Assmann| title=The Invention of Religion: Faith and Covenant in the Book of Exodus| publisher=Princeton University Press| year=2018| isbn=978-1-4008-8923-5| url=https://books.google.com/books?id=K7s7DwAAQBAJ}}
 * {{harvc|last=Aston|first=David A. |c=How Early (and How Late) Can Khyan Really Be: An Essay Based on ›Conventional Archaeological Methods< |in1=Forstner-Müller |in2=Moeller |year=2018 |pages=15–56}}
 * {{cite book |last1=Baker |first1=Rosalie F. |last2=Baker |first2=Charles F. |title=Ancient Egyptians: People of the Pyramids |date=2001 |publisher=Oxford University Press |location=USA |isbn=978-0-19-512221-3 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=gw5prEJQq10C&pg=PA86}}
-* {{cite book |last=Bard |first=Kathryn A. |author-link=Kathryn A. Bard |title=An Introduction to the Archaeology of Ancient Egypt |edition=2nd |publisher=Wiley-Blackwell |year=2015|isbn=9780470673362 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=lFscBgAAQBAJ&pg=PA188}}
+* {{cite book |last=Bard |first=Kathryn A. |author-link=Kathryn A. Bard |title=An Introduction to the Archaeology of Ancient Egypt |edition=2nd |publisher=Wiley-Blackwell |year=2015|isbn=978-0-470-67336-2 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=lFscBgAAQBAJ&pg=PA188}}
 * {{cite book|last=von Beckerath |first=Jürgen |author-link=Jürgen von Beckerath|title= Handbuch der ägyptischen Königsnamen|publisher=von Zabern |year=1999 |isbn= 3-8053-2591-6 }}
 * {{cite book |last=Ben-Tor |first=Daphne |title=Scarabs, Chronology, and Connections: Egypt and Palestine in the Second Intermediate Period |publisher=Vandenhoeck and Ruprecht |year=2007 |url=https://www.zora.uzh.ch/id/eprint/137119/1/Ben-Tor_2007_Scarabs_Chronology_and_Interconnections.pdf }}
-* {{cite book |last=Bietak |first=Manfred |author-link=Manfred Bietak |chapter=The Spiritual Roots of the Hyksos Elite: An Analysis of Their Sacred Architecture, Part I |title=The Enigma of the Hyksos |editor-last1=Bietak |editor-first1=Manfred |editor-last2=Prell |editor-first2=Silvia |publisher=Harrassowitz |year=2019 |pages=47–67 |isbn=9783447113328}}
+* {{cite book |last=Bietak |first=Manfred |author-link=Manfred Bietak |chapter=The Spiritual Roots of the Hyksos Elite: An Analysis of Their Sacred Architecture, Part I |title=The Enigma of the Hyksos |editor-last1=Bietak |editor-first1=Manfred |editor-last2=Prell |editor-first2=Silvia |publisher=Harrassowitz |year=2019 |pages=47–67 |isbn=978-3-447-11332-8}}
 * {{cite book|last=Bietak |first=Manfred |author-link=Manfred Bietak |chapter=On the Historicity of the Exodus: What Egyptology Today Can Contribute to Assessing the Biblical Account of the Sojourn in Egypt |title=Israel's Exodus in Transdisciplinary Perspective: Text, Archaeology, Culture, and Geoscience|editor1=Thomas E. Levy|editor2=Thomas Schneider|editor3=William H.C. Propp|chapter-url=https://www.academia.edu/11769454|date=2015|publisher=Springer|isbn=978-3-319-04768-3 |pages=17–37}}
 * {{cite book|last=Bietak|first=Manfred|editor-last=Redford|chapter=Hyksos|location=Oxford|editor-first=Donald B.|editor-link=Donald B. Redford|date=2001|title=The Oxford Encyclopedia of Ancient Egypt, Volume 2|publisher=Oxford University Press|pages=136–143|isbn=978-0-19-510234-5}}
-*{{cite encyclopedia|last=Bietak |first=Manfred |author-link=Manfred Bietak |article=Hyksos |encyclopedia=The Encyclopedia of Ancient History |year=2012 |publisher=John Wiley & Sons |doi=10.1002/9781444338386.wbeah15207 |isbn=9781444338386 |editor-last1=Bagnell |editor-first1=Roger S. |display-editors=etal }}
+*{{cite encyclopedia|last=Bietak |first=Manfred |author-link=Manfred Bietak |article=Hyksos |encyclopedia=The Encyclopedia of Ancient History |year=2012 |publisher=John Wiley & Sons |doi=10.1002/9781444338386.wbeah15207 |isbn=978-1-4443-3838-6 |editor-last1=Bagnell |editor-first1=Roger S. |display-editors=etal }}
 * {{Cite book |last=Woudhuizen |first=Frederik Christiaan |author-link=Frederik Christiaan Woudhuizen |url= |title=The Ethnicity of the Sea Peoples |date=2006 |publisher=[[Erasmus Universiteit Rotterdam]] |language=en|oclc=69663674}}
-* {{Citation |last=Glassman |first=Ronald M. |title=From Canaanites to Phoenicians |date=2017 |work=The Origins of Democracy in Tribes, City-States and Nation-States |pages=479–494 |editor-last=Glassman |editor-first=Ronald M. |url=https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-51695-0_50 |access-date= |place=Cham |publisher=Springer International Publishing |language=en |doi=10.1007/978-3-319-51695-0_50 |isbn=978-3-319-51695-0|url-access=subscription }}
+* {{Citation |last=Glassman |first=Ronald M. |title=From Canaanites to Phoenicians |date=2017 |work=The Origins of Democracy in Tribes, City-States and Nation-States |pages=479–494 |editor-last=Glassman |editor-first=Ronald M. |place=Cham |publisher=Springer International Publishing |language=en |doi=10.1007/978-3-319-51695-0_50 |isbn=978-3-319-51695-0}}
 * {{cite journal |last=Bietak |first=Manfred |author-link=Manfred Bietak |title=The Egyptian community in Avaris during the Hyksos period |journal=Ägypten und Levante / Egypt and the Levant |volume=26 |year=2016 |pages=263–274 |doi=10.1553/AEundL26s263 |jstor=44243953 |url=http://epub.oeaw.ac.at/?arp=0x0034aea0 }}
 * {{cite book|last=Bietak |first=Manfred |author-link=Manfred Bietak |chapter=FROM WHERE CAME THE HYKSOS AND WHERE DID THEY GO? |title=THE SECOND INTERMEDIATE PERIOD (THIRTEENTH–SEVENTEENTH DYNASTIES): Current Research, Future Prospects |url=https://www.academia.edu/10074987| editor-last1=Maréee |editor-first1=Marcel |year=2010|publisher=Peeters |pages=139–181 }}
-* {{cite book| last=Bietak |first=Manfred |author-link=Manfred Bietak |chapter=The predecessors of the Hyksos |title=Confronting the Past: Archaeological and Historical Essays on Ancient Israel in Honor of William G. Dever |year=2006 |editor-last1=Gitin |editor-first1=Seymour |editor-last2=Wright |editor-first2=Edward J. |editor-last3=Dessel |editor-first3=J. P. |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=oYearm8YobQC&q=Hyksos+invasion&pg=PA285 |publisher=Eisenbrauns |isbn=9781575061177 }}
+* {{cite book| last=Bietak |first=Manfred |author-link=Manfred Bietak |chapter=The predecessors of the Hyksos |title=Confronting the Past: Archaeological and Historical Essays on Ancient Israel in Honor of William G. Dever |year=2006 |editor-last1=Gitin |editor-first1=Seymour |editor-last2=Wright |editor-first2=Edward J. |editor-last3=Dessel |editor-first3=J. P. |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=oYearm8YobQC&q=Hyksos+invasion&pg=PA285 |publisher=Eisenbrauns |isbn=978-1-57506-117-7 }}
-* {{cite encyclopedia |last=Bietak |first=Manfred |author-link=Manfred Bietak |year=1999 |chapter=Hyksos |title=Encyclopedia of the Archaeology of Ancient Egypt |editor-last=Bard |editor-first=Kathryn A. |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=AWSGAgAAQBAJ&q=Hyksos |pages=377–379 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=9781134665259 }}
+* {{cite encyclopedia |last=Bietak |first=Manfred |author-link=Manfred Bietak |year=1999 |chapter=Hyksos |title=Encyclopedia of the Archaeology of Ancient Egypt |editor-last=Bard |editor-first=Kathryn A. |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=AWSGAgAAQBAJ&q=Hyksos |pages=377–379 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-1-134-66525-9 }}
+*{{cite book|first=Manfred |last=Bietak |chapter-url=https://www.academia.edu/116416519 |chapter=The Timespan of Hyksos Rule (15th Dynasty) |title=Chronos, Stratigraphic Analysis, Pottery Seriation and Radiocarbon Dating in Mediterranean Chronology |editor1=J. Driessen |editor2=T. Fantuzzi  |year=2024 |publisher= Presses Universitaires de Louvain |pages=57–81}}
 * {{cite book|last=Bourriau |first=Janine |year=2000 |chapter=The Second Intermediate Period (c. 1650-1550 BC) |title=The Oxford History of Ancient Egypt |editor-last1=Shaw |editor-first1=Ian |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-280458-7 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=yugRDAAAQBAJ&q=%22The+Middle+Kingdom+Renaissance%22}}
 * {{cite book |last1=Bright |first1=John |author-link=John Bright (biblical scholar) |edition=4th |title=A History of Israel |date=2000 |publisher=Westminster John Knox Press |isbn=978-0-664-22068-6 |page=97 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=0VG67yLs-LAC&pg=PA87}}
 * {{cite book |last1=Bunson |first1=Margaret |title=Encyclopedia of Ancient Egypt |date=2014 |publisher=Infobase Publishing |isbn=978-1-4381-0997-8 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=-6EJ0G-4jyoC}}
-* {{cite book|last=Burke |first=Aaron A. |chapter=Amorites in the Eastern Nile Delta: The Identity of Asiatics at Avaris during the Early Middle Kingdom |title=The Enigma of the Hyksos |editor-last1=Bietak |editor-first1=Manfred |editor-last2=Prell |editor-first2=Silvia |publisher=Harrassowitz |year=2019 |pages=67–91 |chapter-url=https://www.academia.edu/40770694 |isbn=9783447113328}}
+* {{cite book|last=Burke |first=Aaron A. |chapter=Amorites in the Eastern Nile Delta: The Identity of Asiatics at Avaris during the Early Middle Kingdom |title=The Enigma of the Hyksos |editor-last1=Bietak |editor-first1=Manfred |editor-last2=Prell |editor-first2=Silvia |publisher=Harrassowitz |year=2019 |pages=67–91 |chapter-url=https://www.academia.edu/40770694 |isbn=978-3-447-11332-8}}
 *{{cite journal |last=Candelora |first=Danielle |title=Entangled in Orientalism: How the Hyksos Became a Race |journal=Journal of Egyptian History |volume=11 |year=2018 |issue=1–2 |pages=45–72 |doi=10.1163/18741665-12340042|s2cid=216703371 }}
 * {{cite journal|last=Candelora |first=Danielle |title=Defining the Hyksos: A Reevaluation of the Title ḥqꜣ-ḫꜣswt and Its Implications for Hyksos Identity |url=https://www.academia.edu/35623418 |journal=Journal of the American Research Center in Egypt |year=2017 |volume=53 |pages=203–221 |doi=10.5913/jarce.53.2017.a010}}
@@ Line 425: / Line 429: @@
 * {{cite journal|last=Geobey |first=Ronald A. |title=Joseph the Infiltrator, Jacob the Conqueror?: Reexamining the Hyksos–Hebrew Correlation |journal=Journal of Biblical Literature |volume=136 |issue=1 |year=2017 |pages=23–37 |doi=10.1353/jbl.2017.0001 |s2cid=164637479 |url=https://muse.jhu.edu/article/652356/ |url-access=subscription }}
 * {{cite book|last1=Geraty|first1=L. T. |chapter=Exodus Dates and Theories |title=Israel's Exodus in Transdisciplinary Perspective: Text, Archaeology, Culture, and Geoscience|editor1=Thomas E. Levy|editor2=Thomas Schneider |editor3=William H.C. Propp|chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=xpe1BwAAQBAJ&pg=PA58|date=2015 |pages=55–64|publisher=Springer|isbn=978-3-319-04768-3}}
-* {{cite book| last1=Grabbe| first1=Lester| title=Ancient Israel: What Do We Know and How Do We Know It?| year=2017| publisher=Bloomsbury| url=https://books.google.com/books?id=4lzyDQAAQBAJ| isbn=9780567670434}}
+* {{cite book| last1=Grabbe| first1=Lester| title=Ancient Israel: What Do We Know and How Do We Know It?| year=2017| publisher=Bloomsbury| url=https://books.google.com/books?id=4lzyDQAAQBAJ| isbn=978-0-567-67043-4}}
 * {{cite book |last=Griffith |first=F. Ll |title=Archaeological Report 1890/91 - 1911/12: Comprising the Recent Work of the Egypt Exploration Fund and the Progress of Egyptology During the Year 1890/91-1911/12 |year=1891 |publisher=Kegan Paul, Trench, Trübner |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=nxxGAQAAMAAJ}}
 * {{cite book |last=Gruen |first=Erich S. |title=The Construct of Identity in Hellenistic Judaism: Essays on Early Jewish Literature and History |chapter=The Use and Abuse of the Exodus Story |publisher=de Gruyter |year=2016 |pages=197–228 |jstor=j.ctvbkjxph.14 }}
-* {{cite book |last1=Hawass |first1=Zahi A. |last2=Vannini |first2=Sandro |title=The lost tombs of Thebes: life in paradise |date=2009 |publisher=Thames & Hudson |isbn=9780500051597 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=YjZZAAAAYAAJ}}
+* {{cite book |last1=Hawass |first1=Zahi A. |last2=Vannini |first2=Sandro |title=The lost tombs of Thebes: life in paradise |date=2009 |publisher=Thames & Hudson |isbn=978-0-500-05159-7 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=YjZZAAAAYAAJ}}
 * {{cite journal| last=Hernández |first=Roberto A. Díaz |title=The Role of the War Chariot in the Formation of the Egyptian Empire in the Early 18th Dynasty |journal=Studien zur Altägyptischen Kultur |volume=43 |year=2014 |pages=109–122 |jstor=44160271 }}
-* {{cite book |last=Herslund |first=Ole |chapter=Chronicling Chariots: Texts, Writing and Language of New Kingdom Egypt |title=Chariots in Ancient Egypt: The Tano Chariot, A Case Study |editor-last1=Veldmeijer |editor-first1=André J |editor-last2=Ikram |editor-first2= Salima |publisher=Sidestone Press |year=2018 |isbn=9789088904684 }}
+* {{cite book |last=Herslund |first=Ole |chapter=Chronicling Chariots: Texts, Writing and Language of New Kingdom Egypt |title=Chariots in Ancient Egypt: The Tano Chariot, A Case Study |editor-last1=Veldmeijer |editor-first1=André J |editor-last2=Ikram |editor-first2= Salima |publisher=Sidestone Press |year=2018 |isbn=978-90-8890-468-4 }}
-*{{cite book|author-last1=Höflmayer |author-first1=Felix |chapter=Egypt’s “Empire” in the Southern Levant during the Early 18th Dynasty |title=Policies of Exchange Political Systems and Modes of Interaction in the Aegean and the Near East in the 2nd Millenium B.C.E: Proceedings of the International Symposium at the University of Freiburg Institute for Archaeological Studies, 30th May - 2nd June 2012 |editor-last1=Eder |editor-first1=Birgitta |editor-last2=Pruzsinszky |editor-first2=Regine |publisher=Austrian Academy of Sciences Press |year=2015 |volume=2 |pages=191–206 |jstor=j.ctt1bkm4rg.15 |isbn=9783700176619 }}
+*{{cite book|author-last1=Höflmayer |author-first1=Felix |chapter=Egypt's "Empire" in the Southern Levant during the Early 18th Dynasty |title=Policies of Exchange Political Systems and Modes of Interaction in the Aegean and the Near East in the 2nd Millenium B.C.E: Proceedings of the International Symposium at the University of Freiburg Institute for Archaeological Studies, 30th May - 2nd June 2012 |editor-last1=Eder |editor-first1=Birgitta |editor-last2=Pruzsinszky |editor-first2=Regine |publisher=Austrian Academy of Sciences Press |year=2015 |volume=2 |pages=191–206 |jstor=j.ctt1bkm4rg.15 |isbn=978-3-7001-7661-9 }}
 * {{cite book |last=Hölbl |first=Günther |title=A History of the Ptolemaic Empire |date=2001 |publisher=Psychology Press |isbn=978-0-415-23489-4 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=dEiydV7c3w4C&pg=PA79}}
 * {{cite encyclopedia |last=Ilin-Tomich |first=Alexander |chapter=Second Intermediate Period |editor-last1=Wendrich |editor-first1=Willeke |display-editors=etal |encyclopedia=UCLA Encyclopedia of Egyptology |year=2016 |chapter-url=https://escholarship.org/uc/item/72q561r2 }}
@@ Line 438: / Line 442: @@
 * {{cite journal|last=Keel |first=Othmar |title=Ein weiterer Skarabäus mit einer Nilpferdjagd, die Ikonographie der sogenannten Beamtenskarabäen und der ägyptische König auf Skarabäen vor dem Neuen Reich |journal=Ägypten und Levante / Egypt and the Levant |volume=6 |year=1996 |pages=119–136 |jstor=23788869 }}
 * {{cite journal |last1=Kopetzky |first1=Karin |last2=Bietak |first2=Manfred |title=A Seal Impression of the Green Jasper Workshop from Tell El-Dabʿa |journal=Ägypten und Levante / Egypt and the Levant |date=2016 |volume=26 |pages=357–375 |doi=10.1553/AEundL26s357 |jstor=44243958|url=http://hw.oeaw.ac.at/?arp=0x0034aeaa }}
-* {{cite book |editor-last=Lichthelm |editor-first=Miriam |year=2019 |title=Ancient Egyptian Literature |publisher=University of California Press |doi=10.2307/j.ctvqc6j1s |jstor=j.ctvqc6j1s |isbn=9780520973619|s2cid=63441582 }}
+* {{cite book |editor-last=Lichthelm |editor-first=Miriam |year=2019 |title=Ancient Egyptian Literature |publisher=University of California Press |doi=10.2307/j.ctvqc6j1s |jstor=j.ctvqc6j1s |isbn=978-0-520-97361-9|s2cid=63441582 }}
 * {{Cite book|last1=Loprieno |first1=Antonio |chapter=Views of the Past in Egypt During the First Millennium BC |title='Never Had the Like Occurred': Egypt's View of its Past |editor-last1=Tait |editor-first1=John |year=2003}}
-* {{cite book |last=Montet |first=Pierre |title=Lives of the pharaohs |date=1968 |publisher=Weidenfeld and Nicolson |isbn=9780600354529 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=rLZxAAAAMAAJ}}
+* {{cite book |last=Montet |first=Pierre |title=Lives of the pharaohs |date=1968 |publisher=Weidenfeld and Nicolson |isbn=978-0-600-35452-9 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=rLZxAAAAMAAJ}}
 * {{cite book |last1 = Moore|first1 = Megan Bishop|last2 = Kelle|first2 = Brad E|title = Biblical History and Israel's Past: The Changing Study of the Bible and History|publisher = Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing|year = 2011|isbn = 978-0-8028-6260-0|url = https://books.google.com/books?id=Qjkz_8EMoaUC&pg=PA91}}
-* {{Cite book|last1=Morenz |first1=Ludwig D. |last2=Popko |first2=Lutz |chapter=The Second Intermediate Period and the New Kingdom |title=A Companion to Ancient Egypt |volume=1 |editor-last1=Lloyd |editor-first1=Alan B. |year=2010 |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=RK2pLin2sPAC&pg=PA101|publisher=Wiley-Blackwell |pages=101–119 |isbn=9781444320060 }}
+* {{Cite book|last1=Morenz |first1=Ludwig D. |last2=Popko |first2=Lutz |chapter=The Second Intermediate Period and the New Kingdom |title=A Companion to Ancient Egypt |volume=1 |editor-last1=Lloyd |editor-first1=Alan B. |year=2010 |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=RK2pLin2sPAC&pg=PA101|publisher=Wiley-Blackwell |pages=101–119 |isbn=978-1-4443-2006-0 }}
+* {{cite journal |last1=Morez Jacobs |first1=Adeline |last2=Irish |first2=Joel D. |last3=Cooke |first3=Ashley |last4=Anastasiadou |first4=Kyriaki |last5=Barrington |first5=Christopher |last6=Gilardet |first6=Alexandre |last7=Kelly |first7=Monica |last8=Silva |first8=Marina |last9=Speidel |first9=Leo |last10=Tait |first10=Frankie |last11=Williams |first11=Mia |last12=Brucato |first12=Nicolas |last13=Ricaut |first13=Francois-Xavier |last14=Wilkinson |first14=Caroline |last15=Madgwick |first15=Richard |last16=Holt |first16=Emily |last17=Nederbragt |first17=Alexandra J. |last18=Inglis |first18=Edward |last19=Hajdinjak |first19=Mateja |last20=Skoglund |first20=Pontus |last21=Girdland-Flink |first21=Linus |title=Whole-genome ancestry of an Old Kingdom Egyptian |journal=Nature |date=2 July 2025 |pages=1–8 |doi=10.1038/s41586-025-09195-5 |pmid=40604286 |url=https://www.nature.com/articles/s41586-025-09195-5 |language=en |issn=1476-4687|doi-access=free |pmc=12367555 }}
 * {{cite journal |last=Morgan |first=Lyvia |title=An Aegean Griffin in Egypt: The Hunt Frieze at Tell el-Dab´a |journal=Ägypten und Levante / Egypt and the Levant |date=2010 |volume=20 |pages=303–323 |doi=10.1553/AEundL20s303 |jstor=23789943}}
-* {{cite book |last=Mourad |first=Anna-Latifa |title=Rise of the Hyksos: Egypt and the Levant from the Middle Kingdom to the early Second Intermediate Period |publisher=Oxford Archaeopress|year=2015 |doi=10.2307/j.ctvr43jbk |jstor=j.ctvr43jbk |isbn=9781784911348 }}
+* {{cite book |last=Mourad |first=Anna-Latifa |title=Rise of the Hyksos: Egypt and the Levant from the Middle Kingdom to the early Second Intermediate Period |publisher=Oxford Archaeopress|year=2015 |doi=10.2307/j.ctvr43jbk |jstor=j.ctvr43jbk |isbn=978-1-78491-134-8 }}
 * {{harvc|last=Müller|first=Vera |c=Chronological Concepts for the Second Intermediate Period and Their Implications for the Evaluation of Its Material Culture |in1=Forstner-Müller |in2=Moeller |year=2018 |pages=199–216}}
-* {{cite book|last=O'Connor |first=David |chapter=Egypt, the Levant, and the Aegean: From the Hyksos Period to the Rise of the New Kingdom |pages=108–122 |title=Beyond Babylon: art, trade, and diplomacy in the second millennium B.C. |editor-last1=Aruz |editor-first1=Joan |editor-last2=Benzel |editor-first2=Kim |editor-last3=Evans |editor-first3=Jean M. |publisher=Yale University Press |year=2009|chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=gr5BgOwEJicC&q=Hyksos+15th+Dynasty&pg=PA108 |isbn=9780300141436 }}
+* {{cite book|last=O'Connor |first=David |chapter=Egypt, the Levant, and the Aegean: From the Hyksos Period to the Rise of the New Kingdom |pages=108–122 |title=Beyond Babylon: art, trade, and diplomacy in the second millennium B.C. |editor-last1=Aruz |editor-first1=Joan |editor-last2=Benzel |editor-first2=Kim |editor-last3=Evans |editor-first3=Jean M. |publisher=Yale University Press |year=2009|chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=gr5BgOwEJicC&q=Hyksos+15th+Dynasty&pg=PA108 |isbn=978-0-300-14143-6 }}
 * {{harvc|last=Polz|first=Daniel |c=The Territorial Claim and the Political Role of the Theban State at the End of the Second Intermediate Period: A Case Study |in1=Forstner-Müller |in2=Moeller |year=2018 |pages=217–233}}
 * {{cite encyclopedia |last=Popko |first=Lutz |title=Late Second Intermediate Period to Early New Kingdom |chapter=Late Second Intermediate Period |encyclopedia=UCLA Encyclopedia of Egyptology |year=2013 |chapter-url=https://escholarship.org/uc/item/7qf6v8wr |editor-last1=Wendrich |editor-first1=Willeke |display-editors=etal }}
@@ Line 453: / Line 458: @@
 * {{cite journal |last=Raspe |first=Lucia |title=Manetho on the Exodus: A Reappraisal |journal=Jewish Studies Quarterly |volume=5 |year=1998 |issue=2 |pages=124–155 |jstor=40753208 }}
 * {{cite book|last=Redford|first=Donald B. |author-link=Donald B. Redford|title=Egypt, Canaan, and Israel in Ancient Times|year=1992|publisher=Princeton University Press|isbn=978-0-691-03606-9 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=hTXfDwAAQBAJ&q=Egypt,+Canaan,+and+Israel+in+Ancient+Times}}
-* {{cite book |last=Redmount| first=Carol A.| title=The Oxford History of the Biblical World| chapter=Bitter Lives: Israel In And Out of Egypt| editor-last=Coogan| editor-first=Michael D.| year=2001| orig-year=1998 |publisher=Oxford University Press| isbn=9780199881482| chapter-url= https://books.google.com/books?id=4DVHJRFW3mYC&q=%22The+exodus+saga+in+the+bible%22&pg=PA59|pages=58–89}}
+* {{cite book |last=Redmount| first=Carol A.| title=The Oxford History of the Biblical World| chapter=Bitter Lives: Israel In And Out of Egypt| editor-last=Coogan| editor-first=Michael D.| year=2001| orig-date=1998 |publisher=Oxford University Press| isbn=978-0-19-988148-2| chapter-url= https://books.google.com/books?id=4DVHJRFW3mYC&q=%22The+exodus+saga+in+the+bible%22&pg=PA59|pages=58–89}}
 * {{cite book |last=Richardson |first=Dan |title=Cairo and the Pyramids (Rough Guides Snapshot Egypt) |date=2013 |publisher=Rough Guides UK |isbn=978-1-4093-3544-3 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=VgtCeNKcs-IC&pg=PT14}}
-* {{Cite book|last1=Ritner |first1=Robert K. |last2=Simpson |first2=William Kelly |last3=Tobin |first3=Vincent A. |last4=Wente |first4=Edward F. |editor-last1=Simpson |editor-first1=William Kelly |title=The Literature of Ancient Egypt: An Anthology of Stories, Instructions, and Poetry |year=2003 |publisher=Yale University Press |jstor=j.ctt5vm2m5 |isbn=9780300099201}}
+* {{Cite book|last1=Ritner |first1=Robert K. |last2=Simpson |first2=William Kelly |last3=Tobin |first3=Vincent A. |last4=Wente |first4=Edward F. |editor-last1=Simpson |editor-first1=William Kelly |title=The Literature of Ancient Egypt: An Anthology of Stories, Instructions, and Poetry |year=2003 |publisher=Yale University Press |jstor=j.ctt5vm2m5 |isbn=978-0-300-09920-1}}
 * {{cite book |last=Roy |first=Jane |title=The Politics of Trade: Egypt and Lower Nubia in the 4th Millennium BC |year=2011 |publisher=Brill |isbn=978-90-04-19610-0 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=9En6tzUJCXkC }}
 * {{cite book |last1=Russmann |first1=Edna R. |last2=James |first2=Thomas Garnet Henry |title=Eternal Egypt: Masterworks of Ancient Art from the British Museum |date=2001 |publisher=University of California Press |isbn=978-0-520-23086-6 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=xNmoKfdeJ1sC&pg=PA67}}
 * {{harvc|last=Ryholt|first=Kim |author-link=Kim Ryholt |c=Seals and History of the 14th and 15th Dynasties |in1=Forstner-Müller |in2=Moeller |year=2018 |pages=235–276}}
 * {{cite journal |author-last=Ryholt|author-first=Kim |title=The Turin King-List |author-link=Kim Ryholt |journal=Ägypten und Levante / Egypt and the Levant |year=2004 |volume=14 |pages=135–155 |jstor=23788139 }}
-* {{cite book |last=Ryholt|first=Kim |author-link=Kim Ryholt |title=The Political Situation in Egypt during the Second Intermediate Period c.1800-1550 B.C. |year=1997 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ANRi7cM5ZwsC |publisher=Museum Tuscalanum Press |isbn=9788772894218}}
+* {{cite book |last=Ryholt|first=Kim |author-link=Kim Ryholt |title=The Political Situation in Egypt during the Second Intermediate Period c.1800-1550 B.C. |year=1997 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ANRi7cM5ZwsC |publisher=Museum Tuscalanum Press |isbn=978-87-7289-421-8}}
 * {{cite book |last=Sayce |first=A. H. |title=The Egypt of the Hebrews and Herodotos |date=1895 |publisher=Books on Demand |isbn=978-3-7347-3964-4 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=EWeNDwAAQBAJ&pg=PT17}}
-* {{cite book |last=Schneider |first=Thomas |chapter=The Relative Chronology of the Middle Kingdom and the Hyksos Period |title=Ancient Egyptian Chronology |editor-last1=Hornung |editor-first1=Erik |editor-last2=Krauss |editor-first2=Rolf |editor-last3=Warburton |editor-first3=David A. |year=2006 |publisher=Brill |isbn=9004113851 |pages=168–196 |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Gux5DwAAQBAJ&dq=Schneider+Relative+chronology+middle+kingdom&pg=PA168}}
+* {{cite book |last=Schneider |first=Thomas |chapter=The Relative Chronology of the Middle Kingdom and the Hyksos Period |title=Ancient Egyptian Chronology |editor-last1=Hornung |editor-first1=Erik |editor-last2=Krauss |editor-first2=Rolf |editor-last3=Warburton |editor-first3=David A. |year=2006 |publisher=Brill |isbn=90-04-11385-1 |pages=168–196 |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Gux5DwAAQBAJ&dq=Schneider+Relative+chronology+middle+kingdom&pg=PA168}}
 * {{cite journal |last=Schneider |first=Thomas |title=Das Ende der Kurzen Chronologie: Eine Kritische Bilanz der Debatte zur Absoluten Datierung des Mittleren Reiches und der Zweiten Zwischenzeit |journal=Ägypten und Levante / Egypt and the Levant |year=2008 |volume=18 |pages=275–313 |doi=10.1553/AEundL18s275 |jstor=23788616 |url=http://epub.oeaw.ac.at/?arp=6618-4inhalt/AuL-18_13-Schneider_s275-314.pdf }}
 *{{cite journal|last=Schneider|first=Thomas |title=Hyksos Research in Egyptology and Egypt's Public Imagination: A Brief Assessment of Fifty Years of Assessments |journal=Journal of Egyptian History |volume=11 |year=2018 |issue=1–2 |pages=73–86 |doi=10.1163/18741665-12340043 |s2cid=240039656 }}
-* {{cite book| last1=Shaw| first1=Ian| editor1-last=Shaw| editor1-first=Ian| editor2-last=Jameson| editor2-first=Robert| title=A Dictionary of Archaeology| chapter=Israel, Israelites| year=2002| publisher=Wiley Blackwell| isbn=9780631235835 |page=313| chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=zmvNogJO2ZgC&pg=PA313}}
+* {{cite journal |last1=Schuenemann |first1=Verena J. |last2=Peltzer |first2=Alexander |last3=Welte |first3=Beatrix |last4=van Pelt |first4=W. Paul |last5=Molak |first5=Martyna |last6=Wang |first6=Chuan-Chao |last7=Furtwängler |first7=Anja |last8=Urban |first8=Christian |last9=Reiter |first9=Ella |last10=Nieselt |first10=Kay |last11=Teßmann |first11=Barbara |last12=Francken |first12=Michael |last13=Harvati |first13=Katerina |last14=Haak |first14=Wolfgang |last15=Schiffels |first15=Stephan |last16=Krause |first16=Johannes |title=Ancient Egyptian mummy genomes suggest an increase of Sub-Saharan African ancestry in post-Roman periods |journal=Nature Communications |date=30 May 2017 |volume=8 |issue=1 |article-number=15694 |doi=10.1038/ncomms15694 |url=https://www.nature.com/articles/ncomms15694 |language=en |issn=2041-1723}}
+* {{cite book| last1=Shaw| first1=Ian| editor1-last=Shaw| editor1-first=Ian| editor2-last=Jameson| editor2-first=Robert| title=A Dictionary of Archaeology| chapter=Israel, Israelites| year=2002| publisher=Wiley Blackwell| isbn=978-0-631-23583-5 |page=313| chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=zmvNogJO2ZgC&pg=PA313}}
 * {{cite book |last1=Steiner |first1=Margreet L. |last2=Killebrew |first2=Ann E. |title=The Oxford Handbook of the Archaeology of the Levant: c. 8000-332 BCE |year=2014 |location=Oxford |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-166254-6 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=B29oAgAAQBAJ&pg=PT97}}
 * {{cite book|last=Stiebing |first=William H. Jr. |title=Ancient Near Eastern History and Culture |edition=2nd |year=2009|publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-0-321-42297-2 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=DoyTDAAAQBAJ}}
-* {{cite book| last=Van de Mieroop |first=Marc |author-link=Marc van de Mieroop |title=A History of Ancient Egypt |year=2011 |publisher=Wiley-Blackwell |isbn=9781405160704 }}
+* {{cite book| last=Van de Mieroop |first=Marc |author-link=Marc van de Mieroop |title=A History of Ancient Egypt |year=2011 |publisher=Wiley-Blackwell |isbn=978-1-4051-6070-4 }}
-* {{cite book|last1=Verbrugghe |first1=Gerald P. |last2=Wickersham |first2=John M. |title=Berossos and Manetho, introduced and translated: native traditions in ancient Mesopotamia and Egypt |year=1996 |isbn=0472107224 |publisher=University of Michigan Press }}
+* {{cite book|last1=Verbrugghe |first1=Gerald P. |last2=Wickersham |first2=John M. |title=Berossos and Manetho, introduced and translated: native traditions in ancient Mesopotamia and Egypt |year=1996 |isbn=0-472-10722-4 |publisher=University of Michigan Press }}
 * {{cite book |last=Vos |first=Howard |title=Nelson's New Illustrated Bible Manners and Customs: How the People of the Bible Really Lived |date=1999 |publisher=Thomas Nelson |isbn=978-1-4185-8569-3 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Py9Y_HejORQC&pg=PP75}}
 * {{cite journal |last=Wegner |first=Josef |title=A ROYAL NECROPOLIS AT SOUTH ABYDOS: New Light on Egypt's Second Intermediate Period |journal=Near Eastern Archaeology |volume=78 |issue=2 |year=2015 |pages=68–78 |doi=10.5615/neareastarch.78.2.0068 |jstor=10.5615/neareastarch.78.2.0068 |s2cid=163519900 }}
 * {{cite book |last1=Weigall |first1=Arthur E. P. Brome |title=A History of the Pharaohs |date=2016 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-1-108-08291-4 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=TGKcCwAAQBAJ&pg=PA188}}
-* {{cite book |last=Wilkinson |first=Toby |title=The Rise and Fall of Ancient Egypt |publisher=Random House |year=2013 |isbn=9780553384901 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=P07rgiJjsk4C&q=The+Rise+and+Fall+of+Ancient+Egypt }}
+* {{cite book |last=Wilkinson |first=Toby |title=The Rise and Fall of Ancient Egypt |publisher=Random House |year=2013 |isbn=978-0-553-38490-1 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=P07rgiJjsk4C&q=The+Rise+and+Fall+of+Ancient+Egypt }}
 * {{cite book |last1=Wilkinson |first1=Toby |title=Lives of the Ancient Egyptians |publisher=Thames and Hudson |year=2013a |isbn=978-0-500-77162-4 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=wVbGDwAAQBAJ}}
 * {{Cite book|last1=Willems |first1=Harco |chapter=The First Intermediate Period and the Middle Kingdom |title=A Companion to Ancient Egypt |volume=1 |editor-last1=Lloyd |editor-first1=Alan B. |year=2010 |publisher=Wiley-Blackwell |pages=81–100 }}
@@ Line 480: / Line 486: @@
 ==Further reading==
-* {{Citation |last=Forstner-Müller |first=Irene |title=The Hyksos State |date=2022 |work=The Oxford History of the Ancient Near East |volume=III |pages=1–47 |url=https://academic.oup.com/book/41909/chapter/354771682 |access-date= |publisher=[[Oxford University Press]] |language=en |doi=10.1093/oso/9780190687601.003.0023 |isbn=978-0-19-068760-1 |doi-access=|url-access=subscription }}
+* {{Citation |last=Forstner-Müller |first=Irene |title=The Hyksos State |date=2022 |work=The Oxford History of the Ancient Near East |volume=III |pages=1–47 |url=https://academic.oup.com/book/41909/chapter/354771682 |publisher=[[Oxford University Press]] |language=en |doi=10.1093/oso/9780190687601.003.0023 |isbn=978-0-19-068760-1 |doi-access=|url-access=subscription }}
 == External links ==
@@ Line 490: / Line 496: @@
 [[Category:Fifteenth Dynasty of Egypt]]
 [[Category:Canaan]]
-[[Category:Semitic-speaking peoples]]
+[[Category:Canaanite people]]
 [[Category:Nile Delta]]
 [[Category:Invasions of Egypt]]

Hyksos: Difference between revisions

Latest revision as of 15:43, 6 November 2025

Contents

Name

Etymology

Use

Origins

Ancient historians

Modern historians

History

Early contacts between Egypt and the Levant

Background and arrival in Egypt

Kingdom

Wars with the Seventeenth Dynasty

Rule and administration

Administration

Rulers

Diplomacy

Vassalage

Society and culture

Royal construction and patronage

Burial practices

Technology

Trade and economy

Religion

Genetic impact

Potential biblical connections

In the Manethonian–Josephus tradition

In modern scholarship

Legacy

Egyptian presence in the Levant

Later accounts

Early modern depictions

See also

Notes

Citations

References

Further reading

External links

Navigation menu

Hyksos: Difference between revisions

Latest revision as of 15:43, 6 November 2025

Name

Etymology

Use

Origins

Ancient historians

Modern historians

History

Early contacts between Egypt and the Levant

Background and arrival in Egypt

Kingdom

Wars with the Seventeenth Dynasty

Rule and administration

Administration

Rulers

Diplomacy

Vassalage

Society and culture

Royal construction and patronage

Burial practices

Technology

Trade and economy

Religion

Genetic impact

Potential biblical connections

In the Manethonian–Josephus tradition

In modern scholarship

Legacy

Egyptian presence in the Levant

Later accounts

Early modern depictions

See also

Notes

Citations

References

Further reading

External links

Navigation menu

Search