List of architectural styles: Difference between revisions

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{{Short description|A list of architectural styles, categorizing design approaches and movements}}
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[[File:Frederick C. Robie House.JPG|thumb|250px|[[Frederick C. Robie House]], an example of [[Prairie School]] architecture]]
[[File:Frederick C. Robie House.JPG|thumb|250px|[[Frederick C. Robie House]], an example of [[Prairie School]] architecture]]
An [[architectural style]] is characterized by the features that make a building or other structure notable and historically identifiable. A style may include such elements as [[wikt:form|form]], method of [[construction]], [[building materials]], and regional character. Most [[architecture]] can be classified as a chronology of styles which change over time reflecting changing fashions, beliefs and religions, or the emergence of new ideas, technology, or materials which make new styles possible.
An [[architectural style]] is characterised by the features that make a building or other structure notable and historically identifiable. A style may include such elements as [[wikt:form|form]], method of [[construction]], [[building materials]], and regional character. Most [[architecture]] can be classified as a chronology of styles which change over time reflecting changing fashions, beliefs and religions, or the emergence of new ideas, technology, or materials which make new styles possible.


Styles therefore emerge from the history of a society and are documented in the subject of [[architectural history]]. At any time several styles may be fashionable, and when a style changes it usually does so gradually, as architects learn and adapt to new ideas. Styles often spread to other places, so that the style at its source continues to develop in new ways while other countries follow with their own twist. A style may also spread through [[colonialism]], either by foreign colonies learning from their home country, or by settlers moving to a new land. After a style has gone out of fashion, there are often revivals and re-interpretations. For instance, [[classicism]] has been revived many times and found new life as [[neoclassicism]]. Each time it is revived, it is different.
Styles therefore emerge from the history of a society and are documented in the subject of [[architectural history]]. At any time several styles may be fashionable, and when a style changes it usually does so gradually, as architects learn and adapt to new ideas. Styles often spread to other places, so that the style at its source continues to develop in new ways while other countries follow with their own twist. A style may also spread through [[colonialism]], either by foreign colonies learning from their home country, or by settlers moving to a new land. After a style has gone out of fashion, there are often revivals and re-interpretations. For instance, [[classicism]] has been revived many times and found new life as [[neoclassicism]]. Each time it is revived, it is different.


[[Vernacular architecture]] works slightly differently and is listed separately. It is the native method of construction used by local people, usually using labour-intensive methods and local materials, and usually for small structures such as rural cottages. It varies from region to region even within a country, and takes little account of national styles or technology. As western society has developed, vernacular styles have mostly become outmoded by new technology and national building standards.
[[Vernacular architecture]], or simply the vernacular, unlike [[traditional architecture]] is not designed by architects. It represents a native method of construction used by local people, usually using labour-intensive methods and local materials, and usually for small structures such as rural cottages. It varies from region to region even within a country, and takes little account of national styles or technology. As construction technology developed, vernacular styles have often become outmoded by new technology and national building standards.


==Chronology of styles==
==Chronology of styles==
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* [[Talud-tablero]]
* [[Talud-tablero]]
* [[Western Native American]]s
* [[Western Native American]]s
====Ancient African====
*[[Architecture of Ethiopia|Ethiopian]]
*[[Nubian architecture|Nubian]]
*[[Somali architecture|Somali]]


====Mediterranean and Middle-East civilizations====
====Mediterranean and Middle-East civilizations====
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====Ancient Near East and Mesopotamia====
====Ancient Near East and Mesopotamia====
* [[Sumerian architecture|Sumerian]] 5300–2000 BC
* [[Sumerian architecture|Sumerian]] 3500–2000 BC
* [[Elam]]
* [[Elam]] 2700–539 BC
* [[Akkadian Empire|Akkadian]] 2334–2154 BC
* [[Babylonian]] 1894–539 BC
* [[Assyria|Assyrian]] 1365–609 BC
 
====Ancient Arabian====
* [[Nabataean architecture|Nabatean]] 4th cent. BC - 2nd cent. AD
* [[Yemeni architecture|Ancient Yemeni]]  
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* Ancient Persian
* Ancient Persian
** [[Achaemenid architecture|Achaemenid]]
** [[Achaemenid architecture|Achaemenid]]
** [[Parthian architecture|Parthian style]]
** [[Sassanid architecture|Sassanid]]
** [[Sassanid architecture|Sassanid]]
* [[Iranian architecture|Iranian]], c. 8th century+ (Iran)
* [[Iranian architecture|Iranian]], c. 8th century+ (Iran)
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====Early medieval Europe====
====Early medieval Europe====
* [[Architecture of latin Armenia|Latin Armenian]] 4th–16th centuries
* [[Architecture of latin Armenian|Latin Armenian]] 4th–16th centuries
* [[Anglo-Saxon architecture|Anglo-Saxon]] 450s–1066 (England)
* [[Anglo-Saxon architecture|Anglo-Saxon]] 450s–1066 (England)
* [[Architecture of Bulgaria|Bulgarian]] from 681
* [[Architecture of Bulgaria|Bulgarian]] from 681
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** [[Umayyad architecture]] – based in Damascus (c. 660–750)
** [[Umayyad architecture]] – based in Damascus (c. 660–750)
** [[Abbasid architecture]] – based in Baghdad (c. 750–1256)
** [[Abbasid architecture]] – based in Baghdad (c. 750–1256)
** [[Fatimid architecture]] (909–1171)
** [[Mamluk architecture]] – based in Cairo (c. 1256–1517)
** [[Mamluk architecture]] – based in Cairo (c. 1256–1517)
** [[Ottoman architecture]] – based in Istanbul (c. 1517–1918)
** [[Ottoman architecture]] – based in Istanbul (c. 1517–1918)
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*** [[Mamluk architecture]] (1254–1517)
*** [[Mamluk architecture]] (1254–1517)
*** [[Ottoman architecture]] (1517–1820)
*** [[Ottoman architecture]] (1517–1820)
** North Africa ([[Maghrib]])
** North Africa ([[the Maghrib]])
*** Umayyad architecture (705–750)
*** Umayyad architecture (705–750)
*** Abbasid architecture (750–909)
*** Abbasid architecture (750–909)
*** Fatimid architecture (909–1048)
*** Fatimid architecture (909–1048)
*** [[Amazigh]] architecture (1048–1550)
*** [[Moorish architecture]] (788–1550)
**** [[Idrisid dynasty|Idrisid]] architecture (788–974, Far Maghreb)
**** [[Aghlabid architecture]] (800–909, Eastern Maghreb)
**** [[Zirid]] architecture (1048–1148, Middle Maghreb)
**** [[Zirid]] architecture (1048–1148, Middle Maghreb)
**** Almoravid architecture (1040–1147, Far Maghreb)
**** Almoravid architecture (1040–1147, Far Maghreb)
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*** Local styles under local dynasties (1549–present, Far Maghreb)
*** Local styles under local dynasties (1549–present, Far Maghreb)
** Islamic Spain
** Islamic Spain
*** Umayyad architecture (756–1031)
*** [[Umayyad state of Córdoba|Umayyad]] architecture (756–1031)
*** Taifa Kingdoms-1 (1031–1090)
*** Taifa Kingdoms-1 (1031–1090)
*** Almoravid architecture (1090–1147)
*** Almoravid architecture (1090–1147)
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* [[Pueblo architecture|Pueblo]]
* [[Pueblo architecture|Pueblo]]
* [[Puuc]]
* [[Puuc]]
====African architecture====
* [[Hausa architecture|Hausa]]
* [[Songhai architecture|Songhai]]
* [[Yoruba architecture|Yoruba]]


===Early Modern Period and European Colonialism===
===Early Modern Period and European Colonialism===
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* [[Dutch Colonial architecture (New Netherland)|Dutch Colonial]] 1615–1674 (Treaty of Westminster) (New England)
* [[Dutch Colonial architecture (New Netherland)|Dutch Colonial]] 1615–1674 (Treaty of Westminster) (New England)
* [[Chilotan architecture|Chilotan]] 1600+ (Chiloé and southern Chile)
* [[Chilotan architecture|Chilotan]] 1600+ (Chiloé and southern Chile)
* [[First Period]] 1625–1725 pre-American vernacular
* [[First Period architecture|First Period]] 1625–1725 pre-American vernacular
* [[Architecture of the California missions]] 1769–1823, (California, US)
* [[Architecture of the California missions]] 1769–1823, (California, US)
* [[French Colonial]]
* [[French Colonial]]
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===Modernism and other styles contemporary with modernism===
===Modernism and other styles contemporary with modernism===
1880 onwards. The Industrial Revolution had brought steel, plate glass, and mass-produced components. These enabled a brave new world of bold structural frames, with clean lines and plain or shiny surfaces. In the early stages, a popular motto was "[[Ornament and Crime|decoration is a crime]]". In the [[Eastern Bloc]] the Communists rejected the [[Western Bloc]]'s 'decadent' ways, and modernism developed in a markedly more bureaucratic, sombre, and monumental fashion.
1880 onwards. The Industrial Revolution had brought steel, plate glass, and mass-produced components. These enabled structural frames with clean lines and plain or shiny surfaces. In the early stages, a popular motto was "[[Ornament and Crime|decoration is a crime]]". In the [[Eastern Bloc]] the Communists rejected the [[Western Bloc]]'s 'decadent' ways, and modernism developed in a markedly more bureaucratic, sombre, and monumental fashion.


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* [[Avant-garde architecture|Avant-garde]]
* [[Avant-garde architecture|Avant-garde]]
** [[Parametricism]] 2008+
** [[Russian avant-garde]] 1890–1930 ([[Russian Empire]]/[[Soviet Union]])
** [[Russian avant-garde]] 1890–1930 ([[Russian Empire]]/[[Soviet Union]])
** [[Futurist architecture|Futurism]] 1909 (Europe)
* [[Chicago school (architecture)|Chicago School]] 1880–1920, 1940s–1960s (US)
* [[Chicago school (architecture)|Chicago School]] 1880–1920, 1940s–1960s (US)
* [[Functionalism (architecture)|Functionalism]] c. 1900 – 1930s (Europe, US)
* [[Functionalism (architecture)|Functionalism]] c. 1900 – 1930s (Europe, US)
* [[Futurist architecture|Futurism]] 1909 (Europe)
* [[Expressionist architecture|Expressionism]] 1910 – c. 1924
* [[Expressionist architecture|Expressionism]] 1910 – c. 1924
** [[Brick Expressionism]]
** [[Amsterdam School]] 1912–1924 (Netherlands)
** [[Amsterdam School]] 1912–1924 (Netherlands)
* [[Organic architecture]]
* [[Organic architecture]] (Germany, Northern Europe)
* [[New Objectivity (architecture)|New Objectivity]] 1920–1939 (Italy, Germany, Holland, Budapest)
* [[New Objectivity (architecture)|New Objectivity]] 1920–1939 (Italy, Germany, Netherlands, Budapest)
* [[Rationalism (architecture)|Rationalism]] 1920s–1930s (Italy)
* [[Rationalism (architecture)|Rationalism]] 1920s–1930s (Italy)
* [[Bauhaus]] 1919–1930+ (Germany, Northern Europe)
* [[Bauhaus]] 1919–1930+ (Germany, Northern Europe)
* [[De Stijl]] 1920s (Holland, Europe)
* [[De Stijl]] 1920s (Netherlands, Europe)
* [[Moderne architecture|Moderne]] 1925+ (global)
* [[Moderne architecture|Moderne]] 1925+ (global)
** [[Art Deco]] 1925–1940s (global)
** [[Art Deco]] 1925–1940s (global, [[List of Art Deco architecture|list]])
*** [[List of Art Deco architecture]]
** [[Streamline Moderne]] 1930–1937
** [[Streamline Moderne]] 1930–1937
* [[Modern architecture|Modernism]] 1927–1960s
* [[Modern architecture|Modernism]] 1927–1960s
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====Post-Second World War====
====Post-Second World War====
1945–
* Modernism (continued)
* Modernism (continued)
* International Style (continued)
* International Style (continued)
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* [[Metabolist Movement|Metabolist]] 1959 (Japan)
* [[Metabolist Movement|Metabolist]] 1959 (Japan)
* [[Danish Functionalism (architecture)|Danish Functionalism]] 1960s (Denmark)
* [[Danish Functionalism (architecture)|Danish Functionalism]] 1960s (Denmark)
* [[Structural Expressionism]] aka Hi-Tech 1980s+
* [[Tendenza]] 1965-1985 (Italy)
* [[High-tech architecture|High-tech]]/[[Structural Expressionism]] 1970s+
** [[Bowellism]]  1975s+


=====Other 20th century styles=====
=====Other 20th century styles=====
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* [[Ponce Creole]] 1895–1920 ([[Ponce, Puerto Rico|Ponce]] in Puerto Rico)
* [[Ponce Creole]] 1895–1920 ([[Ponce, Puerto Rico|Ponce]] in Puerto Rico)
* [[Heliopolis style]] 1905 – c. 1935 (Egypt)
* [[Heliopolis style]] 1905 – c. 1935 (Egypt)
* [[Mar del Plata style]] 1935–1950 (Mar del Plata, Argentina)
* [[Traditionalist School (architecture)|Traditionalist School]] 1910–1960 (Netherlands, Northern Europe)
* [[Minimal Traditional]] 1930s–1940s (US)
* [[Minimal Traditional]] 1930s–1940s (US)
* [[Soft Portuguese style|Soft Portuguese]] 1940–1955 (Portugal & colonies)
* [[Soft Portuguese style|Soft Portuguese]] 1940–1955 (Portugal & colonies)
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====Postmodernism and early 21st century styles====
====Postmodernism and early 21st century styles====
* [[Postmodern architecture|Postmodernism]] 1945+ (US, UK)
* [[Postmodern architecture|Postmodernism]] 1960+ (US, UK)
* [[Bowellism]]
** [[Deconstructivism]] 1982+ (Europe, US, Far East)
* [[Shed style|Shed Style]]
** [[Shed style|Shed Style]]
* [[Arcology]] 1970s+ (Europe)
* [[Arcology]] 1970s+ (Europe)
* [[Deconstructivism]] 1982+ (Europe, US, Far East)
* [[Critical regionalism]] 1983+
* [[Critical regionalism]] 1983+
* [[Blobitecture]] 2003+
* [[High-tech architecture|High-tech]] 1970s+
* [[Interactive architecture]] 2000+
* [[Interactive architecture]] 2000+
* [[Sustainable architecture]] 2000+
* [[Sustainable architecture]] 2000+
** [[Earthship]] 1980+ (Started in US, now global)
** [[Earthship]] 1980+ (Started in US, now global)
* [[Green building]] 2000+
** [[Green building]] 2000+
* [[Natural building]] 2000+
** [[Natural building]] 2000+
* [[Neo-Andean]] 2005+
* [[Neo-Andean]] 2005+
* [[Neo-futurism]] late 1960s-early 21st century
* [[Neo-futurism]] late 1960s-early 21st century
* [[New Classical Architecture]] 1980+
* [[New Classical Architecture]] 1980+
* [[New London Vernacular]] 2009+
** [[Berlin Style]] 1990s+
* [[Berlin Style]] 1990s+
* [[Blobitecture]] 2003+
* [[Parametricism]] 2008+
* [[Mass timber]] 2010s+
* [[Mass timber]] 2010s+


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* Central and South African countries – [[Rondavel]], [[Xhosa and Zulu Architecture]], [[Zimbabwean Architecture]], [[Sotho-Tswana Architecture]], [[Zulu and Nguni Architecture]], and [[Madagascan Architecture]]
* Central and South African countries – [[Rondavel]], [[Xhosa and Zulu Architecture]], [[Zimbabwean Architecture]], [[Sotho-Tswana Architecture]], [[Zulu and Nguni Architecture]], and [[Madagascan Architecture]]
* [[Dutch Colonial]], [[Cape Dutch]]
* [[Dutch Colonial]], [[Cape Dutch]]
* West African countries – [[Igbo architecture]]


====Asian====
====Asian====
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====Australasian====
====Australasian====
* Australia, New Zealand – [[slab hut]]
* Australia, New Zealand – [[slab hut]]
* Australia – Aborigine [[humpy]]
* Australia – Aboriginal [[humpy]]


==Alphabetical listing==
==Alphabetical listing==
{{columns-list|colwidth=24em|
{{columns-list|colwidth=24em|* [[Acadian architecture]] 1604 Canada
* [[Adam style]] 1770 England
* [[Adam style]] 1770 England
* [[Adirondack Architecture]] 1850s New York, US
* [[Adirondack Architecture]] 1850s New York, US
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* [[Baroque architecture]]
* [[Baroque architecture]]
* [[Bauhaus]]
* [[Bauhaus]]
* [[Beaux-Arts architecture]]
* [[Berlin Style|Berlin style]] 1990s+
* [[Berlin Style|Berlin style]] 1990s+
* [[Biedermeier]] 1815–1848
* [[Biedermeier]] 1815–1848
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* [[Carolingian architecture]] 780s–9th century; France and Germany
* [[Carolingian architecture]] 780s–9th century; France and Germany
* [[Carpenter Gothic]] US and Canada 1840s on
* [[Carpenter Gothic]] US and Canada 1840s on
* [[Châteauesque]] 1870s-1900s Canada and Northeastern USA
* [[Chicago school (architecture)|Chicago school]] 1880s and 1890 US
* [[Chicago school (architecture)|Chicago school]] 1880s and 1890 US
* [[Chilotan architecture]] 1600–present Chiloé and southern Chile
* [[Chilotan architecture]] 1600–present Chiloé and southern Chile
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* [[Structural Expressionism]] 1980s–present
* [[Structural Expressionism]] 1980s–present
* [[Structuralism (architecture)|Structuralism]] 1950–1975
* [[Structuralism (architecture)|Structuralism]] 1950–1975
* [[Sudano-Sahelian architecture]]
* [[Sumerian architecture]] 5300 – 2000 BC
* [[Sumerian architecture]] 5300 – 2000 BC
* [[Sustainable architecture]] 2000–present
* [[Sustainable architecture]] 2000–present
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==See also==
==See also==
* [[National Register of Historic Places architectural style categories]]
* [[Architectural design values]]
* [[Architectural design values]]
* [[Feminism and modern architecture]]
* [[List of house styles]]
* [[List of house styles]]
* [[National Register of Historic Places architectural style categories]]
* [[Sacred architecture]]
* [[Sacred architecture]]
** [[Architecture of cathedrals and great churches]]
** [[Synagogue architecture]]
* [[Timeline of architecture]]
* [[Timeline of architecture]]
* [[Timeline of architectural styles]]
* [[Timeline of architectural styles]]
* [[Parametricism]]
* [[Traditional architecture]]


==References==
==References==

Latest revision as of 15:05, 14 November 2025

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File:Frederick C. Robie House.JPG
Frederick C. Robie House, an example of Prairie School architecture

An architectural style is characterised by the features that make a building or other structure notable and historically identifiable. A style may include such elements as form, method of construction, building materials, and regional character. Most architecture can be classified as a chronology of styles which change over time reflecting changing fashions, beliefs and religions, or the emergence of new ideas, technology, or materials which make new styles possible.

Styles therefore emerge from the history of a society and are documented in the subject of architectural history. At any time several styles may be fashionable, and when a style changes it usually does so gradually, as architects learn and adapt to new ideas. Styles often spread to other places, so that the style at its source continues to develop in new ways while other countries follow with their own twist. A style may also spread through colonialism, either by foreign colonies learning from their home country, or by settlers moving to a new land. After a style has gone out of fashion, there are often revivals and re-interpretations. For instance, classicism has been revived many times and found new life as neoclassicism. Each time it is revived, it is different.

Vernacular architecture, or simply the vernacular, unlike traditional architecture is not designed by architects. It represents a native method of construction used by local people, usually using labour-intensive methods and local materials, and usually for small structures such as rural cottages. It varies from region to region even within a country, and takes little account of national styles or technology. As construction technology developed, vernacular styles have often become outmoded by new technology and national building standards.

Chronology of styles

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Prehistoric

Early civilizations developed, often independently, in scattered locations around the globe. The architecture was often a mixture of styles in timber cut from local forests and stone hewn from local rocks. Most of the timber has gone, although the earthworks remain. Impressively, massive stone structures have survived for years.

Ancient Americas

Ancient African

Mediterranean and Middle-East civilizations

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Ancient Near East and Mesopotamia

Ancient Arabian

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Iranian/Persian

Ancient Asian

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Classical Era in South Asia

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East Asian

Ancient South Asian Architecture

Classical Antiquity

The architecture of Ancient Greece and Ancient Rome, derived from the ancient Mediterranean civilizations such as at Knossos on Crete. They developed highly refined systems for proportions and style, using mathematics and geometry.

Middle Ages

The European Early Middle Ages are generally taken to run from the end of the Roman Empire, around 400 AD, to around 1000 AD. During this period, Christianity made a significant impact on European culture.

Early medieval Europe

Medieval Europe

The dominance of the Church over everyday life was expressed in grand spiritual designs which emphasized piety and sobriety. The Romanesque style was simple and austere. The Gothic style heightened the effect with heavenly spires, pointed arches and religious carvings.[2]

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Byzantine
Romanesque
Timber styles
  • Stave churches, oldest 845(d) in England, in Norway one 11th century, several 12th century, some with Romanesque elements
  • Timber frame styles, mostly Gothic or later (UK, France, Germany, the Netherlands)

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Gothic

1135/40–1520

Asian architecture During its Late classical and medieval ages

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Japanese
Chinese
Korean

South Asia

Late Dravidian temple styles

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( Dravidian influenced) South Asian Architecture styles

Islamic architecture 620–1918

Pre-Columbian Indigenous American Styles

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African architecture

Early Modern Period and European Colonialism

1425–1660. The Renaissance began in Italy and spread through Europe, rebelling against the all-powerful Church, by placing Man at the centre of his world instead of God.[5] The Gothic spires and pointed arches were replaced by classical domes and rounded arches, with comfortable spaces and entertaining details, in a celebration of humanity. The Baroque style was a florid development of this 200 years later, largely by the Catholic Church to restate its religious values.[6]

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Renaissance

c. 1425–1600 (Europe, American colonies)

France

United Kingdom

Spain and Portugal

Colonial

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Baroque

1600–1800, up to 1900

Asian architecture contemporary with Renaissance and post-Renaissance Europe

Japanese
Indian

Late Modern Period and the Industrial Revolution

Neoclassicism

1720–1837 and onward. A time often depicted as a rural idyll by the great painters, but in fact was a hive of early industrial activity, with small kilns and workshops springing up wherever materials could be mined or manufactured. After the Renaissance, neoclassical forms were developed and refined into new styles for public buildings and the gentry.

New Cooperism

Neoclassical

Revivalism and Orientalism

Late 19th and early 20th centuries. The Victorian Era was a time of giant leaps forward in technology and society, such as iron bridges, aqueducts, sewer systems, roads, canals, trains, and factories. As engineers, inventors, and businessmen they reshaped much of the British Empire, including the UK, India, Australia, South Africa, and Canada, and influenced Europe and the United States. Architecturally, they were revivalists who modified old styles to suit new purposes.

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Revivals started before the Victorian Era
Victorian revivals
Orientalism

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Revivals in North America

Other late 19th century styles

Rural styles

Reactions to the Industrial Revolution

Industrial

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Arts and Crafts in Europe

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Arts and Crafts in the US

Modernism and other styles contemporary with modernism

1880 onwards. The Industrial Revolution had brought steel, plate glass, and mass-produced components. These enabled structural frames with clean lines and plain or shiny surfaces. In the early stages, a popular motto was "decoration is a crime". In the Eastern Bloc the Communists rejected the Western Bloc's 'decadent' ways, and modernism developed in a markedly more bureaucratic, sombre, and monumental fashion.

<templatestyles src="Col-begin/styles.css"/>

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Modernism under communism

Fascist/Nazi

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Post-Second World War

Other 20th century styles

Postmodernism and early 21st century styles

Fortified styles

Vernacular styles

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Generic methods

Template:Huts

European

Template:European farmhouse types

North American

Native American

South American

African

Asian

Australasian

  • Australia, New Zealand – slab hut
  • Australia – Aboriginal humpy

Alphabetical listing

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Examples of styles

See also

References

Template:Reflist

  • Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  • Lewis, Philippa; Gillian Darley (1986). Dictionary of Ornament, NY: Pantheon
  • Baker, John Milnes, AIA (1994) American House Styles, NY: Norton

Further reading

  • Hamlin Alfred Dwight Foster, History of Architectural Styles, BiblioBazaar, 2009
  • Carson Dunlop, Architectural Styles, Dearborn Real Estate, 2003
  • Herbert Pothorn, A guide to architectural styles, Phaidon, 1983

External links

Template:Sister project

  1. ↑ Hans Erich Kubach. Architektur der Romanik, 1973/1974, 3-7630-1705-7, p. 63–144 Die erste Romanische Kunst – Frühromanische Architektur
  2. ↑ Robert Stuart (1854), Cyclopedia of architecture: historical, descriptive, typographical, decorative, theoretical and mechanical, alphabetically arranged, familiarly explained, and adapted to the comprehension of workmen, A. S. Barnes & Co, p. 75
  3. ↑ a b Gebaut, Burgundische Romanik – Pontigny – Zisterziensergotik
  4. ↑ a b Really, Mudéjar style had phases according to the general European styles, there was Romanesque Mudéjar, Gothic Mudéjar and even Renaissance Mudéjar.
  5. ↑ Gerald Leinwand, The pageant of world history, Prentice-Hall, 1990, page 330
  6. ↑ Jackson J. Spielvogel (2010), Western Civilization: A Brief History. Cengage Learning. page 333 Template:ISBN
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