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'''Chernozem''' ({{IPAc-en|ˈ|tʃ|ɜːr|n|ə|z|ɛ|m}} {{respell|CHUR-nə-zem}}),{{efn|{{lang-rus|Чернозём|p=tɕɪrnɐˈzʲɵm|r=Černozjom}}; {{lit|black ground}}<ref>{{cite book|title=Russia Investment and Business Guide|date=2007|publisher=International Business Publications|isbn=9781433041686|page=63|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=BFC0zTM4TkAC&q=Chernozyom&pg=PA63|access-date=11 January 2018|language=en}}{{Dead link|date=May 2023 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref><ref name=Etymonline>{{Cite web |title=chernozem {{!}} Etymology, origin and meaning of chernozem by etymonline |url=https://www.etymonline.com/word/chernozem |access-date=5 October 2022 |website=www.etymonline.com |language=en}}</ref>}} also called '''black soil''', '''regur soil''' or '''black cotton soil''', is a black-colored [[soil]] containing a high percentage of [[humus]]<ref name=Merriam-Webster>{{cite web   | url = http://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/chernozem | title = Chernozem | access-date = 7 July 2008| year = 2008 | work= Merriam-Webster Online Dictionary}}</ref> (4% to 16%) and high percentages of [[phosphorus]] and [[ammonia]] compounds.<ref>{{cite news |title=How Chemical Pre-Treatments in Particle Size Analysis Impact Wind Erosion Modeling |url=https://www.azom.com/article.aspx?ArticleID=20616 |access-date=30 August 2022 |work=AZoM.com |date=28 July 2021 |language=en}}</ref> Chernozem is very [[soil fertility|fertile]] soil and can produce high [[agricultural yield]]s with its high moisture-storage capacity.{{Efn|Prolonged use may still require replenishment with fertilizers because it easily can get depleted of nutrients.}} Chernozems are a Reference Soil Group of the [[World Reference Base for Soil Resources]] (WRB).
'''Chernozem''' ({{IPAc-en|ˈ|tʃ|ɜːr|n|ə|z|ɛ|m}} {{respell|CHUR-nə-zem}}),{{efn|{{lang-rus|Чернозём|p=tɕɪrnɐˈzʲɵm|r=Černozjom}}; {{langx|uk|Чорнозем|Chornozem}}; {{lit|black ground}}.<ref name="Etymon">{{cite web |title=Origin and history of chernozem |url=https://www.etymonline.com/word/chernozem |access-date=28 November 2025 |website=www.etymonline.com |language=en }}</ref>}} also called '''black soil''', '''black earth''', '''dark earth''', '''regur soil''' or '''black cotton soil''', is a black-colored [[soil]] containing a high percentage of [[humus]]<ref name="Webster">{{cite web |url=http://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/chernozem |title=Chernozem |access-date=28 November 2025 |year=2008 |work=[[Merriam-Webster]] online dictionary }}</ref> (4% to 16%) and high percentages of [[phosphorus]] and [[ammonia]] compounds.<ref>{{cite web |last=McAleese |first=John |title=How chemical pre-treatments in particle size analysis impact wind erosion modeling |url=https://www.azom.com/article.aspx?ArticleID=20616 |access-date=28 November 2025 |work=AZoM.com |date=28 July 2021 |language=en }}</ref> Chernozem is very [[soil fertility|fertile]] and can produce high [[agricultural yield]]s with its high [[Soil water (retention)|moisture-storage capacity]]. However, prolonged [[Agriculture|agricultura]]l use of chernozems still require replenishment with [[fertilizer]]s because they easily can get depleted of [[nutrient]]s through continuous decrease in humus content.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Dzanagov |first1=Sozyrko Khasanbekovich |last2=Lazarov |first2=Taimuraz Konstantinovich |last3=Basiev |first3=Aslan Eseevich |last4=Kanukov |first4=Zaurbek Tamerlanovich |last5=Khadikov |first5=Arthur Yurievich |date=June 2014 |title=Influence of sustained fertilization on the amount of humus and effective fertility of leached chernozem |journal=American-Eurasian Journal of Sustainable Agriculture |volume=8 |issue=9 |pages=35–40 |url=https://www.aensiweb.net/AENSIWEB/aejsa/aejsa/June%202014/35-40.pdf |access-date=28 November 2025 }}</ref> Chernozems are a Reference Soil Group of the [[World Reference Base for Soil Resources]] (WRB).
 
==Etymology==
The name comes from the [[Russian language|Russian]] terms for black (чёрный ''čjornyj'') and soil, earth or land (земля ''zemlja'').<ref name="Etymon"/><ref name="Webster"/><ref>{{cite book |last=Allaby |first=Michael |title=A dictionary of plant sciences |date=21 March 2019 |publisher=[[Oxford University Press]] |location=Oxford, United Kingdom |isbn=978-0-19-883333-8 |url=https://www.oxfordreference.com/display/10.1093/acref/9780198833338.001.0001/acref-9780198833338-e-1358 |language=en |chapter=chernozem (black earth) |quote=A freely draining soil profile whose name is the Russian word for ‘black earth’ |access-date=1 December 2025 }}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Speake |first1=Jennifer |last2=LaFlaur |first2=Mark |title=The Oxford essential dictionary of foreign terms in English |year=1999 |publisher=[[Oxford University Press]] |location=Oxford, United Kingdom |url=https://www.oxfordreference.com/display/10.1093/acref/9780199891573.001.0001/acref-9780199891573-e-1241 |language=en |chapter=chernozem (also chernosem) |access-date=1 December 2025 }}</ref>


== Distribution ==
== Distribution ==
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{{legend|#fec44f|Codominant (25–50%)}}
{{legend|#fec44f|Codominant (25–50%)}}
{{legend|#fff7bc|Associated (5–25%)}}]]
{{legend|#fff7bc|Associated (5–25%)}}]]
The name comes from the [[Russian language|Russian]] terms for black (чёрный ''čjornyj'') and soil, earth or land (земля ''zemlja'').<ref name=Etymonline/><ref name=Merriam-Webster/> The soil, rich in organic matter presenting a black color, was first identified by the [[Russians|Russian]] geologist [[Vasily Dokuchaev]] in 1883 in the tallgrass [[steppe]] or prairie of [[Eastern Ukraine]] and [[European Russia]]. It is distinct from the similar [[terra preta]] of the [[Amazon rainforest]].


Chernozem covers about 230 million [[hectare]]s of land. There are two "chernozem belts" in the world. One is the [[Eurasian Steppe]] that extends from eastern [[Croatia]] ([[Slavonia]]), along the [[Danube]] (northern [[Serbia]], northern [[Bulgaria]] ([[Danubian Plain (Bulgaria)|Danubian Plain]]), southern and eastern [[Romania]] ([[Wallachian Plain]] and [[Moldavian Plain]]), and [[Moldova]], to northeast [[Ukraine]] across the [[Central Black Earth Region]] of [[Central Russia|Central]] and [[Southern Russia]] into [[Siberia]]. The other stretches from the [[Canadian Prairies]] in [[Manitoba]] through the [[Great Plains]] of the United States as far south as Kansas.<ref>[https://books.google.com/books?id=GTHrCAAAQBAJ&dq=kansas+Chernozem+soil&pg=PA58 Ecology of Arable Land – Perspectives and Challenges] by M. Clarholm and L. Bergström {{ISBN|978-94-010-6950-2}}</ref>  
Studies of the [[steppe]] soils of the [[Poltava Oblast|Poltava region]] in the [[Russian Empire]] in 1883, conducted by geologist [[Vasily Dokuchaev]], showed that the peasants called all soils by color, so the scientist began to use such names.<ref>Бережняк М.Ф. [https://knushop.com.ua/image/catalog/lira20230617/pdf/12511.pdf?srsltid=AfmBOopUI6DvjmPLYiV0pnAYEo2ZhqkRShGmZllZ8iRFosM3P89Jkjjk/ Ґрунтознавство]: Навч. посіб. /М.Ф. Бережняк, Б.Є. Якубенко, А.М. Чурілов, Р.В. Сендзюк. // За заг. ред. Якубенка Б.Є. – К.:
Видавництво Ліра-К, 2017. – 612 с. ISBN 978-617-7507-96-2</ref> Chernozem was black in color due to its large amount of [[soil organic matter]]. Dokuchaev was the first to describe the chernozem of the European part of the [[Russian Empire]], and discovered its fertility.<ref name="Dokuchaev1883"<ref>{{cite book |last=Dokuchaev |first=Vasily Vasilyevich |url=https://fr.scribd.com/doc/206859253/Russian-Chernozem |title=Russian chernozem (1883). Selected works of V.V. Dokuchaev, translated in English by the Israel Program for Scientific Translations |year=1967 |publisher=Israel Program for Scientific Translations |location=Jerusalem, Israel |access-date=28 November 2025 }}</ref> Although distinctly classified due to its high content of [[iron oxide|iron]] and [[aluminium oxide]]s chernozem shares many chemical and physical properties with the [[terra preta]] of the [[Amazon rainforest]], also called Amazonian dark earths.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Asare |first=Michael O. |journal=European Journal of Soil Science |volume=73 |issue=5 |article-number=e13308 |title=Anthropogenic dark earth: evolution, distribution, physical, and chemical properties |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/363772131 |date=September–October 2022 |doi=10.1111/ejss.13308 |access-date=28 November 2025 }}</ref>
 
Chernozem covers about 230 million [[hectare]]s of land. There are two "chernozem belts" in the world. One is the [[Eurasian Steppe]] that extends from eastern [[Croatia]] ([[Slavonia]]), along the [[Danubian Plain (Bulgaria)|Danubian Plain]] (northern [[Serbia]], northern [[Bulgaria]]), southern and eastern [[Romania]] ([[Wallachian Plain]] and [[Moldavian Plain]]), and [[Moldova]], to northeast [[Ukraine]] across the [[Central Black Earth Region]] of [[Central Russia|Central]] and [[Southern Russia]] into [[Siberia]].<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Khitrov |first1=Nikolay |last2=Smirnova |first2=Maria |last3=Lozbenev |first3=Nikolai |last4=Levchenko |first4=Ekaterina |last5=Gribov |first5=Vasiliy |last6=Kozlov |first6=Daniil |last7=Rukhovich |first7=Dimitriy |last8=Kalinina |first8=Natalia |last9=Koroleva |first9=Polina |date=September 2019 |title=Soil cover patterns in the forest-steppe and steppe zones of the East European Plain |journal=[[Soil Science Annual]] |language=en |volume=70 |issue=3 |pages=198–210 |doi=10.2478/ssa-2019-0018 |issn=2300-4975 |doi-access=free }}</ref> The other stretches from the [[Canadian Prairies]] in [[Manitoba]] through the [[Great Plains]] of the United States as far south as [[Kansas]].<ref>{{cite book |last=Hartemink |first=Alfred E. |title=Pedology in the USA: life and Works of C. C. Nikiforoff (1886–1979) |year=2025 |publisher=[[Springer Nature]] |isbn=978-3-032-00332-4 |editor-last=Hartemink |editor-first=Alfred E. |edition=1st |location=Cham, Switzerland |pages=185–208 |chapter=Chernozems, carbon, climate |doi=10.1017/9781108937795 |chapter-url=https://archive.org/details/hartemink-2025 |access-date=8 November 2025 }}</ref>


Chernozem layer thickness may vary widely, from several centimetres up to 1.5 metres (60 inches) in Ukraine,<ref>[http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/612921/Ukraine/30095/Soils Ukraine: Soils] in [[Encyclopædia Britannica]]</ref> as well as the [[Red River Valley]] region in the northern United States and Canada (location of the prehistoric [[Lake Agassiz]]).
Chernozem layer thickness may vary widely, from several centimetres up to 1.5 metres (60 inches) in Ukraine,<ref>{{cite web |last=Yerofeyev |first=Ivan Alekseyevich |title=Ukraine |url=https://www.britannica.com/place/Ukraine |access-date=1 December 2025 |work=Britannica |date=30 November 2025 |language=en }}</ref> as well as the [[Red River Valley]] region in the northern United States and Canada (location of the prehistoric [[Lake Agassiz]]).<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Michalyna |first1=W. |last2=Rust |first2=R. H. |date=November 1984 |title=Influence of drainage regime on the chemistry and morphology of some Manitoba soils: clayey chernozemic and gleysolic soils of the Red River Plain |journal=[[Canadian Journal of Soil Science]] |language=en |volume=64 |issue=4 |pages=605–20 |doi=10.4141/cjss84-061 |issn=1918-1841 |doi-access=free }}</ref>


The terrain can also be found in small quantities elsewhere (for example, in 1% of Poland, Hungary, and Texas). It also exists in [[Northeast China]], near [[Harbin#Economy|Harbin]]. The only true chernozem in Australia is located around [[Nimmitabel]], some of the richest soils on the continent.<ref>KG McQueen. "[http://regolith.org.au/docs/cars/carspub2.pdf The Tertiary Geology And Geomorphology Of The Monaro: The Perspective In 1994]" Centre For Australian Regolith Studies, Canberra 1994</ref>
The [[terrain]] can also be found in small quantities elsewhere (for example, in 1% of Poland, Hungary, and Texas). It also exists in [[Northeast China]], near [[Harbin#Economy|Harbin]].<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Ba |first1=Zhidan |last2=Wang |first2=Jingfa |last3=Song |first3=Chunwei |last4=Du |first4=Huishi |date=July–August 2022 |title=Spatial heterogeneity of soil nutrients in black soil areas of Northeast China |journal=[[Agronomy Journal]] |language=en |volume=114 |issue=4 |pages=2021–6 |doi=10.1002/agj2.20985 |issn=1435-0645 |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/357141352 |access-date=1 December 2025 }}</ref> The only true chernozem in Australia is located around [[Nimmitabel]], some of the richest soils on the continent.<ref>{{cite book |last1=McQueen |first1=K. G. |title=The Tertiary geology and geomorphology of the Monaro: the perspective in 1994 |date=October 1994 |publisher=Centre for Australian Regolith Studies |location=Canberra, Australia |isbn=9780858894365 |url=https://regolith.org.au/docs/cars/carspub2.pdf |language=en |access-date=1 December 2025 }}</ref>


Previously, there was a [[black market]] for the soil in Ukraine. The sale of agricultural land was illegal in Ukraine from 1992 to 2020,<ref>{{cite web |title=Ukraine lifts ban on sale of farmland in bid to receive international funds |url=https://www.euronews.com/2020/03/31/ukraine-lifts-ban-on-sale-of-farmland-in-bid-to-receive-international-funds |website=Euronews |date=31 March 2020 }}</ref> but the soil, transported by truck, could be traded legally. According to the [[Kharkiv]]-based Green Front NGO, the black market for illegally acquired chernozem in Ukraine was projected to reach approximately US$900 million per year in 2011.<ref>[https://www.kyivpost.com/article/opinion/op-ed/black-market-for-rich-black-earth-116610.html Black market for rich black earth], [[Kyiv Post]] (9 November 2011)</ref>
Previously, there was a [[black market]] for the soil in [[Ukraine]]. The sale of [[agricultural land]] was illegal in Ukraine from 1992 to 2020,<ref>{{cite web |title=Ukraine lifts ban on sale of farmland in bid to receive international funds |url=https://www.euronews.com/2020/03/31/ukraine-lifts-ban-on-sale-of-farmland-in-bid-to-receive-international-funds |website=[[Euronews]] |date=31 March 2020 |access-date=1 December 2025 }}</ref> but the soil, transported by truck, could be traded legally. According to the [[Kharkiv]]-based Green Front [[NGO]], the black market for illegally acquired chernozem in Ukraine was projected to reach approximately US$900 million per year in 2011.<ref>{{cite web |title=Black market for rich black earth |last=Kraznozhon |first=Leo |url=https://www.kyivpost.com/article/opinion/op-ed/black-market-for-rich-black-earth-116610.html |website=[[Kyiv Post]] |date=9 November 2011 |access-date=1 December 2025 }}</ref>


== Canadian and United States soil classification ==
== Canadian and United States soil classification ==
'''Chernozemic soils''' are a [[soil type]] in the [[Canadian system of soil classification]] and the [[World Reference Base for Soil Resources]] (WRB).
'''Chernozemic soils''' are a [[soil type]] in the [[Canadian system of soil classification]] and the [[World Reference Base for Soil Resources]] (WRB).


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| Boralfic Mollisol subgroups, Albolls
| Boralfic Mollisol subgroups, Albolls
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|Source: [http://www.pedosphere.com/resources/cssc3rd/chapter16.html Pedosphere.com] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160314065655/http://pedosphere.com/resources/cssc3rd/chapter16.html |date=14 March 2016 }}.
|Source: [[Canadian system of soil classification]] (third edition)<ref>{{cite web |title=Correlation of Canadian Soil Taxonomy with other systems |url=https://sis.agr.gc.ca/cansis/taxa/cssc3/chpt16.html |website=[[Agriculture and Agri-Food Canada]] |date=17 July 2013 |access-date=1 December 2025 }}</ref>
|}
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== Theories of Chernozem origin ==
== Theories of chernozem origin ==
* 1761: [[Johan Gottschalk Wallerius]] (plant decomposition)<ref>Wallerius J. G. ''Agriculturae fundamenta chemica, åkerbrukets chemiska grunder''. Upsaliae, 1761. 8, 4, 322 p.; The natural and chemical elements of agriculture. London, York: Bell, Etherington, 1770. 198 p.</ref>
 
* 1763: [[Mikhail Lomonosov]] (plant and animal decomposition)<ref>'Lomonosov M. V. § 125. // ''On the strata of the Earth: a translation of "O sloiakh zemnykh"'' (1763) / translated by S. M. Rowland, S. Korolev. Boulder: Geological Soc. of America, 2012. 41 p. (Special paper; 485) "And so, there is no doubt that black soil is not primordial matter, but that it has been produced by the decomposition of animal and plant bodies over time"</ref>
* 1763: [[Mikhail Lomonosov]] (plant and animal decomposition)<ref>{{cite book |last1=Lomonosov |first1=Mikhail Vasil’evich |title=On the strata of the Earth (1763). A translation of О Слояхъ Земныхъ by Stephen M. Rowland and Slava Korolev |date=1 July 2012 |publisher=[[Geological Society of America]] |location=Boulder, Colorado |url=https://books.google.fr/books/content?id=o5x3jgEACAAJ&hl=fr&pg=PA24&img=1&zoom=3&sig=ACfU3U1YoTbBKf6cg0F86odh5SxH-s-7pQ&w=1280 |doi=10.1130/SPE485 |page=24 |access-date=2 December 2025 |quote="And so, there is no doubt that black soil is not primordial matter, but that it has been produced by the decomposition of animal and plant bodies over time" }}</ref>
* 1799: [[Peter Simon Pallas]] (reeds marsh){{cn|date=July 2023}}
* 1840: [[Sir Roderick Murchison]] (weathered from Jurassic marine shales)<ref>{{cite book |last=Geikie |first=Archibald |title=Life of Sir Roderick I. Murchison, based on his journals and letters |volume=1 |year=1875 |publisher=[[John Murray (publishing house)|John Murray]] |location=London, United Kingdom |url=https://dn720700.ca.archive.org/0/items/bwb_S0-DRB-138/bwb_S0-DRB-138.pdf |access-date=3 December 2025 |quote="I end, therefore, in believing that this black earth is the last covering of mud and slime which was left by the retirement of the Liassic sea, and was to a great extent derived from the wearing away of the shales of the Jurassic strata" }}</ref>   
* 1835: [[Charles Lyell]] (loess)<ref name=Geik75>{{citation|title=Life of Sir Roderick I, Murchison|volume=1|first1=A. |last1=Geikie | year=1875 |asin=B0095632AU}}</ref>
* 1850: [[Karl Eichwald]] (lake sediments)<ref>{{cite journal |last=Fedotova |first=Anastasia A. |date=August 2010 |title=The origins of the Russian chernozem soil (black earth): Franz Joseph Ruprecht's 'Geo-Botanical Researches into the Chernozem' of 1866 |journal=Environment and History |volume=16 |issue=3 |pages=271–293 |jstor=20723789 |doi=10.3197/096734010x519762 |url=https://www.environmentandsociety.org/sites/default/files/key_docs/eh163_fedotova.pdf |access-date=3 December 2025 |quote="The geologist Karl Eduard von. Eichwald, who worked at Dorpat University in Russian Livonia, connected the origins of chernozem with lake sediments" }}</ref>
* 1840: [[Sir Roderick Murchison]] (weathered from Jurassic marine shales)<ref name=Geik75/>   
* 1851: Аlexander Petzgold (marine sediments)<ref>{{cite web |last1=Krasilnikov |first1=Pavel |last2=Sorokin |first2=Aleksey |title=Classification of black soils, chernozems and chernozem-like soils |work=International scientific conference  "Eastern European chernozems 140 years after V. Dokuchaev", 2–3 October 2019, Chisinau, Moldova |url=https://ibn.idsi.md/sites/default/files/imag_file/131-136_6.pdf |access-date=3 December 2025 |quote="Before this publication black soils of South-Eastern Europe were regarded either as marine sediments (e.g. the theories of R. Murchinson and A. Petzgold) or dried peat lands (e.g. E.I. Eichwald, F.F. Wangenheim and some others)" }}</ref>
* 1850: [[Karl Eichwald]] (peat){{cn|date=July 2023}}  
* 1866: [[Franz Josef Ruprecht]] (decomposed steppe grasses)<ref>{{cite journal |last=Fedotova |first=Anastasia A. |date=August 2010 |title=The origins of the Russian chernozem soil (black earth): Franz Joseph Ruprecht's 'Geo-Botanical Researches into the Chernozem' of 1866 |journal=Environment and History |volume=16 |issue=3 |pages=271–293 |jstor=20723789 |doi=10.3197/096734010x519762 |url=https://www.environmentandsociety.org/sites/default/files/key_docs/eh163_fedotova.pdf |access-date=3 December 2025 |quote="Thus, the chernozem was of steppe origins, not forest or peat as had been assumed by most scientists prior to his researches" }}</ref>
* 1851: А. Petzgold (swamps)
* 1879: First chernozem papers translated from Russian<ref>{{cite book |last=Dokuchaev |first=Vasily Vasilyevich |title=Tchernozéme (terre noire) de la Russie d'Europe |year=1879 |language=fr |publisher=Société Impériale Libre Économique |location=Saint Petersburg, Russia |url=https://archive.org/details/CAT10731824/page/n5/mode/2up |access-date=4 December 2025 }}</ref>  
* 1852: Nikifor Borisyak (peat){{cn|date=July 2023}}
* 1883: [[Vasily Dokuchaev]] published his book ''Russian Chernozem'' with a complete study of this soil in European Russia.<ref name="Dokuchaev1883"/>  
* 1853: Vangengeim von Qualen (silt from northern swamps)  
* 1929: [[Otto Schlüter]] (man-made)<ref name="Eckmeier2007">{{cite journal |first1=Eileen |last1=Eckmeier |first2=Renate |last2=Gerlach |first3=Ernst |last3=Gehrt |first4=Michael W.I. |last4=Schmidt |title=Pedogenesis of chernozems in Central Europe: a review |journal=Geoderma |volume=139 |issue=3–4 |date=15 May 2007 |pages=288–99 |doi=10.1016/j.geoderma.2007.01.009 |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/222673118 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160308210844/http://www.geo.unizh.ch/~mschmidt/downloads/Eckmeier_Geoderma_2007.pdf |archive-date=8 March 2016 |bibcode=2007Geode.139..288E |access-date=4 December 2025 }}</ref>
* 1862: Rudolf Ludwig (bog on place of forests){{cn|date=July 2023}}
* 1999: Michael W. I. Schmidt (neolithic biomass burning)<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Schmidt |first1=Michael W. I. |last2=Skjemstad |first2=Jan O. |last3=Jäger |first3=Cornelia |date=December 2002 |title=Carbon isotope geochemistry and nanomorphology of soil black carbon: black chernozemic soils in central Europe originate from ancient biomass burning |journal=Global Biogeochemical Cycles |volume=16 |issue=4 |doi=10.1029/2002GB001939 |quote="These data challenge the common paradigm that chernozems are zonal soils with climate, parent material and bioturbation dominating soil formation, and introduce fire as a novel, important factor in the formation of these soils" |bibcode=2002GBioC..16.1123S |pages=70-1–70-8 |s2cid=56045817 |doi-access=free }}</ref><ref>{{cite dissertation |last1=Eckmeier|first1=Eileen |title=Detecting prehistoric fire-based farming using biogeochemical markers |year=2007 |publisher=University of Zurich, Faculty of Science |location=Zurich, Switzerland |doi=10.5167/uzh-3752 |quote="It is now an open question as to whether Neolithic settlers did indeed prefer to grow crops where chernozems occurred or if Neolithic burning formed the chernozemic soils" |doi-access=free }}</ref>
* 1866: [[Franz Josef Ruprecht]] (decomposed steppe grasses) <ref>{{citation|title=The Origins of the Russian Chernozem Soil (Black Earth): Franz Joseph Ruprecht's 'Geo-Botanical Researches into the Chernozem' of 1866 |first1=Anastasia A. |last1=Fedotova |journal=Environment and History |volume=16|issue=3 |date=August 2010 |pages=271–293|jstor=20723789 |doi=10.3197/096734010x519762|url=http://www.environmentandsociety.org/node/7607 |url-access=subscription }}</ref>
* 1879: First chernozem papers translated from Russian<ref>''Dokoutchaief B.'' Tchernozème (terre noire) de la Russie d'Europe. St.-Ptb.: Soc. Imp. libre économ., 1879. 66 p. (Comptes-rendus Soc. Imp. libre économ. T. 4).</ref>  
* 1883: [[Vasily Dokuchaev]] published his book ''Russian Chernozem'' with a complete study of this soil in European Russia.<ref>''Dokuchaev V. V.'' Russian Chernozem (1883) // Israel Program for Scientific Translations Ltd. (for USDA-NSF), S. Monson, Jerusalem, 1967. (Translated from Russian into English by N. Kaner)</ref>
* 1929: [[Otto Schlüter]] (man-made)<ref name=eckm07>{{citation |first1=Eileen |last1=Eckmeier |first2=Renate |last2=Gerlach |first3=Ernst |last3=Gehrt |first4=Michael W.I. |last4=Schmidt |title=Pedogenesis of Chernozems in Central Europe—A review |journal=Geoderma |volume=139 |issue=3–4 |year=2007 |pages=288–299 |doi=10.1016/j.geoderma.2007.01.009 |url=http://www.geo.unizh.ch/~mschmidt/downloads/Eckmeier_Geoderma_2007.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160308210844/http://www.geo.unizh.ch/~mschmidt/downloads/Eckmeier_Geoderma_2007.pdf |archive-date=8 March 2016 |bibcode=2007Geode.139..288E }}</ref>
* 1999: Michael W. I. Schmidt (neolithic biomass burning)<ref>{{citation|last1=Schmidt |first1=M.W.I. |last2=Skjemstad |first2=J.O. |last3=Jäger |first3=C. |year=2002 |title=Carbon isotope geochemistry and nanomorphology of soil black carbon: Black chernozemic soils in central Europe originate from ancient biomass burning |journal=Global Biogeochemical Cycles |volume=16 |issue=4 |doi=10.1029/2002GB001939 |quote=These data challenge the common paradigm that chernozems are zonal soils with climate, parent material and bioturbation dominating soil formation, and introduce fire as a novel, important factor in the formation of these soils |bibcode=2002GBioC..16.1123S |pages=70–1–70–8|s2cid=56045817 |doi-access=free }}</ref><ref>{{citation|last1=Eckmeier|first1=E.|title=Detecting prehistoric fire-based farming using biogeochemical markers|year=2007|publisher=University of Zurich, Faculty of Science.|doi=10.5167/uzh-3752|quote=It is now an open question as to whether Neolithic settlers did indeed prefer to grow crops where Chernozems occurred or if Neolithic burning formed the chernozemic soils. |url=http://www.zora.uzh.ch/3752|type=Dissertation}}</ref>


As seen in the list above, the 19th and 20th-century discussions on the [[pedogenesis]] of Chernozem originally stemmed from climatic conditions from the early [[Holocene]] to roughly 5500 BC. However, no single paleo-climate reconstruction could accurately explain geochemical variations found in Chernozems throughout central Europe. Evidence of anthropomorphic origins of stable [[black carbon#Presence in soils|pyrogenic carbon]] in Chernozem led to improved formation theories.<ref name=eckm07/> Vegetation burning could explain Chernozem's high [[magnetic susceptibility]],<ref>{{citation |first1=Eileen |last1=Eckmeier |first2=Renate |last2=Gerlach |first3=Ernst |last3=Gehrt |first4=Michael W.I. |last4=Schmidt |title=Pedogenesis of Chernozems in Central Europe—A review |journal=Geoderma |volume=139 |issue=3–4 |year=2007 |pages=288–299 |doi=10.1016/j.geoderma.2007.01.009 |url=http://www.geo.unizh.ch/~mschmidt/downloads/Eckmeier_Geoderma_2007.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160308210844/http://www.geo.unizh.ch/~mschmidt/downloads/Eckmeier_Geoderma_2007.pdf |archive-date=8 March 2016 |bibcode=2007Geode.139..288E |quote=magnetic susceptibility of soil material may reflect past fires}}</ref> the highest of the major soil types.<ref name="Jordanova">{{cite book|title=Soil Magnetism|editor-first=Neli|editor-last=Jordanova|year=2017|chapter=Chapter 8 - The discriminating power of soil magnetism for the characterization of different soil types
As seen in the list above, the 19th and 20th-century discussions on the [[pedogenesis]] of chernozem originally stemmed from climatic conditions from the early [[Holocene]] to roughly 5500 BC. However, no single [[paleoclimate]] reconstruction could accurately explain [[geochemical]] variations found in chernozems throughout central Europe. Evidence of anthropic origins of stable [[black carbon#Presence in soils|pyrogenic carbon]] in chernozem led to improved formation theories.<ref name="Eckmeier2007"/> Vegetation burning could explain chernozem's high [[magnetic susceptibility]],<ref>{{cite journal |first1=Eileen |last1=Eckmeier |first2=Renate |last2=Gerlach |first3=Ernst |last3=Gehrt |first4=Michael W.I. |last4=Schmidt |title=Pedogenesis of chernozems in Central Europe: a review |journal=Geoderma |volume=139 |issue=3–4 |date=15 May 2007 |pages=288–99 |doi=10.1016/j.geoderma.2007.01.009 |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/222673118 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160308210844/http://www.geo.unizh.ch/~mschmidt/downloads/Eckmeier_Geoderma_2007.pdf |archive-date=8 March 2016 |bibcode=2007Geode.139..288E |access-date=4 December 2025 |quote="magnetic susceptibility of soil material may reflect past fires" }}</ref> the highest of the major soil types.<ref name="Jordanova2017">{{cite book |title=Soil magnetism: applications in pedology, environmental science and agriculture |editor-first=Neli |editor-last=Jordanova |year=2017 |chapter=The discriminating power of soil magnetism for the characterization of different soil types |chapter-url=https://z-library.ec/book/96816542/54c195 |pages=349–65 |doi=10.1016/B978-0-12-809239-2.00008-5 |isbn=978-0-12-809239-2 |publisher=Academic Press |location=Amsterdam, The Netherlands |access-date=4 December 2025 |quote="Chernozem soils exhibit similar features worldwide and are generally characterized by significant magnetic enhancement in the upper soil horizons" }}</ref> Soil [[magnetism]] increases when soil minerals [[goethite]] and [[ferrihydrite]] convert to [[maghemite]] on exposure to heat.<ref>{{cite journal |url=https://www.academia.edu/27894063 |doi=10.1180/0009855043910122 |title=Mineralogy of a burned soil compared with four anomalously red Quaternary deposits in Denmark |date=March 2004 |last1=Nørnberg |first1=Per |last2=Schwertmann |first2=Udo |last3=Stanjek |first3=Helge |last4=Andersen |first4=Tom |last5=Gunnlaugsson |first5=Haraldur Páll |journal=Clay Minerals |volume=39 |issue=1 |pages=85–98 |bibcode=2004ClMin..39...85N |s2cid=129974901 |access-date=4 December 2025 }}</ref> Temperatures sufficient to elevate maghemite on a landscape scale indicate the influence of fire. Given the rarity of such natural phenomena in the modern day, magnetic susceptibility in chernozem likely relates to [[control of fire by early humans]].<ref name="Jordanova2017"/>
|chapter-url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/B9780128092392000085
|pages=349–365|doi=10.1016/B978-0-12-809239-2.00008-5|isbn=978-0-12-809239-2|publisher=Academic Press|quote=Chernozem soils exhibit similar features worldwide and are generally characterized by significant magnetic enhancement in the upper soil horizons.}}</ref> Soil magnetism increases when soil minerals [[goethite]] and [[ferrihydrite]] convert to [[maghemite]] on exposure to heat.<ref>{{Cite journal|url=https://pubs.geoscienceworld.org/claymin/article-abstract/39/1/85/56468/Mineralogy-of-a-burned-soil-compared-with-four?redirectedFrom=fulltext|doi = 10.1180/0009855043910122|title = Mineralogy of a burned soil compared with four anomalously red Quaternary deposits in Denmark|year = 2004|last1 = Nørnberg|first1 = P.|last2 = Schwertmann|first2 = U.|last3 = Stanjek|first3 = H.|last4 = Andersen|first4 = T.|last5 = Gunnlaugsson|first5 = H.P.|journal = Clay Minerals|volume = 39|issue = 1|pages = 85–98|bibcode = 2004ClMin..39...85N|s2cid = 129974901|url-access = subscription}}</ref> Temperatures sufficient to elevate maghemite on a landscape scale indicate the influence of fire. Given the rarity of such natural phenomena in the modern day, magnetic susceptibility in Chernozem likely relates to [[control of fire by early humans]].<ref name="Jordanova"/>


[[Humification]] can darken soils ([[melanization]]) absent a pyrogenic carbon component. Given the symphony of [[Pedogenesis|pedogenic]] processes that contribute to the formation of dark earth, Chernozem summarizes different types of black soils with the same appearance but different formation histories.
[[Humification]] can darken soils ([[melanization]]) even in the absence of a pyrogenic carbon component.<ref>{{cite journal |url=https://z-library.ec/book/41171424/60f656 |doi=10.1111/j.1365-2389.1991.tb00426.x |title=Factors affecting the formation of dark, thick epipedons beneath forest vegetation, Michigan, USA |date=September 1991 |last=Schaetzel |first=Randall J. |journal=European Journal of Soil Science |volume=42 |issue=3 |pages=501–12 |access-date=4 December 2025 }}</ref> However, [[charcoal]], also called [[black carbon]] when in the form of fine carbon particles, has been shown to be a prominent component of grassland soils in the [[Russian Steppe]], the U.S. [[Great Plains]], the Argentinian [[Pampas|Pampa]], the [[Manchurian plains|Manchurian Plains]] in China, and the Chernozem region in [[Central Germany (geography)|central Germany]].<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Rodionov |first1=Andrej |last2=Amelung |first2=Wulf |last3=Peinemann |first3=Norman |last4=Haumaier |first4=Ludwig |last5=Zhang |first5=Xudong |last6=Kleber |first6=Markus |last7=Glaser |first7=Bruno |last8=Urusevskaya |first8=Inga |last9=Zech |first9=Wolfgang |date=September 2010 |title=Black carbon in grassland ecosystems of the world |journal=Global Biogeochemical Cycles |language=en |volume=24 |issue=3 |article-number=GB3013 |doi=10.1029/2009GB003669 |issn=0886-6236 |doi-access=free }}</ref> Given the symphony of [[Pedogenesis|pedogenic]] processes that contribute to the formation of [[Dark earth|dark earths]], chernozem summarizes different types of black soils with the same appearance but different formation histories.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Vysloužilová |first1=Barbora |last2=Ertlen |first2=Damien |last3=Schwartz |first3=Dominique |last4=Šefrna |first4=Luděk |date=22 June 2016 |title=Chernozem. From concept to classification: a review |journal=Acta Universitatis Carolinae, Geographica |language=en |volume=51 |issue=1 |pages=85–95 |doi=10.14712/23361980.2016.8 |issn=0300-5402 |doi-access=free }}</ref>


== See also ==
== See also ==
Line 102: Line 101:


== References ==
== References ==
* IUSS Working Group WRB: World Reference Base for Soil Resources, fourth edition. International Union of Soil Sciences, Vienna 2022. {{ISBN|979-8-9862451-1-9}} ([https://wrb.isric.org/files/WRB_fourth_edition_2022-12-18.pdf]).
* IUSS Working Group WRB: World Reference Base for Soil Resources, fourth edition. International Union of Soil Sciences, Vienna 2022. {{ISBN|979-8-9862451-1-9}} ([https://files.isric.org/public/documents/WRB_fourth_edition_2022-12-18.pdf]).


{{Reflist}}
{{Reflist}}

Latest revision as of 18:31, 27 December 2025

Template:Short description Template:Use dmy dates Template:Infobox soil

Chernozem (Template:IPAc-en Script error: No such module "Respell".),Template:Efn also called black soil, black earth, dark earth, regur soil or black cotton soil, is a black-colored soil containing a high percentage of humus[1] (4% to 16%) and high percentages of phosphorus and ammonia compounds.[2] Chernozem is very fertile and can produce high agricultural yields with its high moisture-storage capacity. However, prolonged agricultural use of chernozems still require replenishment with fertilizers because they easily can get depleted of nutrients through continuous decrease in humus content.[3] Chernozems are a Reference Soil Group of the World Reference Base for Soil Resources (WRB).

Etymology

The name comes from the Russian terms for black (чёрный čjornyj) and soil, earth or land (земля zemlja).[4][1][5][6]

Distribution

File:Chernozem map.svg
Distribution of chernozem soils according to the World Reference Base for Soil Resources classification: <templatestyles src="Legend/styles.css" />
  Dominant (more than 50% of soil cover)
<templatestyles src="Legend/styles.css" />
  Codominant (25–50%)
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  Associated (5–25%)

Studies of the steppe soils of the Poltava region in the Russian Empire in 1883, conducted by geologist Vasily Dokuchaev, showed that the peasants called all soils by color, so the scientist began to use such names.[7] Chernozem was black in color due to its large amount of soil organic matter. Dokuchaev was the first to describe the chernozem of the European part of the Russian Empire, and discovered its fertility.[8] Although distinctly classified due to its high content of iron and aluminium oxides chernozem shares many chemical and physical properties with the terra preta of the Amazon rainforest, also called Amazonian dark earths.[9]

Chernozem covers about 230 million hectares of land. There are two "chernozem belts" in the world. One is the Eurasian Steppe that extends from eastern Croatia (Slavonia), along the Danubian Plain (northern Serbia, northern Bulgaria), southern and eastern Romania (Wallachian Plain and Moldavian Plain), and Moldova, to northeast Ukraine across the Central Black Earth Region of Central and Southern Russia into Siberia.[10] The other stretches from the Canadian Prairies in Manitoba through the Great Plains of the United States as far south as Kansas.[11]

Chernozem layer thickness may vary widely, from several centimetres up to 1.5 metres (60 inches) in Ukraine,[12] as well as the Red River Valley region in the northern United States and Canada (location of the prehistoric Lake Agassiz).[13]

The terrain can also be found in small quantities elsewhere (for example, in 1% of Poland, Hungary, and Texas). It also exists in Northeast China, near Harbin.[14] The only true chernozem in Australia is located around Nimmitabel, some of the richest soils on the continent.[15]

Previously, there was a black market for the soil in Ukraine. The sale of agricultural land was illegal in Ukraine from 1992 to 2020,[16] but the soil, transported by truck, could be traded legally. According to the Kharkiv-based Green Front NGO, the black market for illegally acquired chernozem in Ukraine was projected to reach approximately US$900 million per year in 2011.[17]

Canadian and United States soil classification

Chernozemic soils are a soil type in the Canadian system of soil classification and the World Reference Base for Soil Resources (WRB).

Chernozemic soil type "equivalents", in the Canadian system, WRB, and U.S. Department of Agriculture soil taxonomy:

Canadian WRB United States
Chernozemic Kastanozem, Chernozem, Phaeozem Mollisol
Brown Chernozem Kastanozem (Aridic) Aridic Mollisol subgroups (Xerolls and Ustolls)
Dark Brown Chernozem Haplic Kastanozem Typic Mollisol subgroups
Black Chernozem Chernozem Udic Mollisol subgroups
Dark Grey Chernozem Greyzemic Phaeozem Boralfic Mollisol subgroups, Albolls
Source: Canadian system of soil classification (third edition)[18]

Theories of chernozem origin

As seen in the list above, the 19th and 20th-century discussions on the pedogenesis of chernozem originally stemmed from climatic conditions from the early Holocene to roughly 5500 BC. However, no single paleoclimate reconstruction could accurately explain geochemical variations found in chernozems throughout central Europe. Evidence of anthropic origins of stable pyrogenic carbon in chernozem led to improved formation theories.[25] Vegetation burning could explain chernozem's high magnetic susceptibility,[28] the highest of the major soil types.[29] Soil magnetism increases when soil minerals goethite and ferrihydrite convert to maghemite on exposure to heat.[30] Temperatures sufficient to elevate maghemite on a landscape scale indicate the influence of fire. Given the rarity of such natural phenomena in the modern day, magnetic susceptibility in chernozem likely relates to control of fire by early humans.[29]

Humification can darken soils (melanization) even in the absence of a pyrogenic carbon component.[31] However, charcoal, also called black carbon when in the form of fine carbon particles, has been shown to be a prominent component of grassland soils in the Russian Steppe, the U.S. Great Plains, the Argentinian Pampa, the Manchurian Plains in China, and the Chernozem region in central Germany.[32] Given the symphony of pedogenic processes that contribute to the formation of dark earths, chernozem summarizes different types of black soils with the same appearance but different formation histories.[33]

See also

Notes

Template:Notelist

References

  • IUSS Working Group WRB: World Reference Base for Soil Resources, fourth edition. International Union of Soil Sciences, Vienna 2022. Template:ISBN ([1]).

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  1. ↑ a b Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
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  7. ↑ Бережняк М.Ф. Ґрунтознавство: Навч. посіб. /М.Ф. Бережняк, Б.Є. Якубенко, А.М. Чурілов, Р.В. Сендзюк. // За заг. ред. Якубенка Б.Є. – К.: Видавництво Ліра-К, 2017. – 612 с. ISBN 978-617-7507-96-2
  8. ↑ a b Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
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  28. ↑ Script error: No such module "Citation/CS1".
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  30. ↑ Script error: No such module "Citation/CS1".
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  32. ↑ Script error: No such module "Citation/CS1".
  33. ↑ Script error: No such module "Citation/CS1".

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Further reading

  • W. Zech, P. Schad, G. Hintermaier-Erhard: Soils of the World. Springer, Berlin 2022, Chapter 5.3.2. Template:ISBN

External links

Template:Sister project Template:Sister project

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