Anubis: Difference between revisions

Latest revision as of 16:39, 10 November 2025

Template:Short description Script error: No such module "about". Template:Protection padlock Template:Use dmy dates Script error: No such module "Infobox".Template:Template otherScript error: No such module "Check for unknown parameters".Template:Wikidata image Template:Compare image with Wikidata Template:Ancient Egyptian religion Anubis (Template:IPAc-en;^[1] Template:Langx), also known as Inpu, Inpw, Jnpw, or Anpu in Ancient Egyptian (Template:Langx), is the god of funerary rites, protector of graves, and guide to the underworld in ancient Egyptian religion, usually depicted as a canine or a man with a canine head.^[2]

Like many ancient Egyptian deities, Anubis assumed different roles in various contexts. Depicted as a protector of graves as early as the First Dynasty (Template:Circa), Anubis was also an embalmer. By the Middle Kingdom (c. 2055–1650 BC) he was replaced by Osiris in his role as lord of the underworld. One of his prominent roles was as a god who ushered souls into the afterlife. He attended the weighing scale during the "Weighing of the Heart", in which it was determined whether a soul would be allowed to enter the realm of the dead. Anubis is one of the most frequently depicted and mentioned gods in the Egyptian pantheon; however, few major myths involved him.Template:Sfn

Anubis was depicted in black, a color that symbolized regeneration, life, the soil of the Nile River, and the discoloration of the corpse after embalming. Anubis is associated with Wepwawet, another Egyptian god portrayed with a dog's head or in canine form, but with grey or white fur. Historians assume that the two figures were eventually combined.Template:Sfn Anubis's female counterpart is Anput. His daughter is the serpent goddess Kebechet.

Name

File:Anubis jackal.svg

Anubis as a jackal perched atop a tomb, symbolizing his protection of the necropolis

"Anubis" is a Greek rendering of this god's Egyptian name.Template:Sfn^[3] Before the Greeks arrived in Egypt, around the 7th century BC, the god was known as Anpu or Inpu. The root of the name in ancient Egyptian language means "a royal child." Inpu has a root to "inp", which means "to decay." The god was also known as "First of the Westerners," "Lord of the Sacred Land," "He Who is Upon his Sacred Mountain," "Ruler of the Nine Bows," "The Dog who Swallows Millions," "Master of Secrets," "He Who is in the Place of Embalming," and "Foremost of the Divine Booth."^[4] The positions that he had were also reflected in the titles he held such as "He Who Is upon His Mountain," "Lord of the Sacred Land," "Foremost of the Westerners," and "He Who Is in the Place of Embalming."^[5] In the Old Kingdom (Template:Circa), the standard way of writing his name in hieroglyphs was composed of the sound signs inpw followed by a jackalTemplate:Efn over a ḥtp sign:Template:Sfn <hiero>i-n:p-w-C6</hiero> A new form with the jackal on a tall stand appeared in the late Old Kingdom and became common thereafter:Template:Sfn <hiero>i-n:p-w-E16</hiero>

Anubis's name jnpw was possibly pronounced Script error: No such module "IPA"., based on Coptic Anoup and the Akkadian transcription Template:Transliteration (Script error: No such module "Lang".) in the name <ri-a-na-pa> "Reanapa" that appears in Amarna letter EA 315.Template:Sfn^[6] However, this transcription may also be interpreted as rˁ-nfr, a name similar to that of Prince Ranefer of the Fourth Dynasty.

History

In Egypt's Early Dynastic period (Template:Circa), Anubis was portrayed in full animal form, with a "jackal" head and body.Template:Sfn A jackal god, probably Anubis, is depicted in stone inscriptions from the reigns of Hor-Aha, Djer, and other pharaohs of the First Dynasty.Template:Sfn Since Predynastic Egypt, when the dead were buried in shallow graves, jackals had been strongly associated with cemeteries because they were scavengers which uncovered human bodies and ate their flesh.Template:Sfnm In the spirit of "fighting like with like," a jackal was chosen to protect the dead, because "a common problem (and cause of concern) must have been the digging up of bodies, shortly after burial, by jackals and other wild dogs which lived on the margins of the cultivation."Template:Sfn

In the Old Kingdom, Anubis was the most important god of the dead. He was replaced in that role by Osiris during the Middle Kingdom (2000–1700 BC).Template:Sfn In the Roman era, which started in 30 BC, tomb paintings depict him holding the hand of deceased persons to guide them to Osiris.Template:Sfn

The parentage of Anubis varied between myths, times and sources. In early mythology, he was portrayed as a son of Ra.Template:Sfn In the Coffin Texts, which were written in the First Intermediate Period (c. 2181–2055 BC), Anubis is the son of either the cow goddess Hesat or the cat-headed Bastet.Template:Sfn Another tradition depicted him as the son of Ra and Nephthys.Template:Sfn More commonly, however, he is recognized as the offspring of Osiris and Isis. In later periods, particularly during the Ptolemaic era, Anubis was sometimes described as the son of Isis and Serapis, a Hellenized form of Osiris designed to appeal to Egypt's growing Greek population.^[7] The Greek Plutarch (c. 40–120 AD) reported a tradition that Anubis was the illegitimate son of Nephthys and Osiris, but that he was adopted by Osiris's wife Isis:Template:Sfn

For when Isis found out that Osiris loved her sister and had relations with her in mistaking her sister for herself, and when she saw a proof of it in the form of a garland of clover that he had left to Nephthys – she was looking for a baby, because Nephthys abandoned it at once after it had been born for fear of Set; and when Isis found the baby helped by the dogs which with great difficulties lead her there, she raised him and he became her guard and ally by the name of Anubis.

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George Hart sees this story as an "attempt to incorporate the independent deity Anubis into the Osirian pantheon."Template:Sfn An Egyptian papyrus from the Roman period (30–380 AD) simply called Anubis the "son of Isis."Template:Sfn In Nubia, Anubis was seen as the husband of his mother Nephthys.^[8]

In the Ptolemaic period (350–30 BC), when Egypt became a Hellenistic kingdom ruled by Greek pharaohs, Anubis was merged with the Greek god Hermes, becoming Hermanubis.Template:Sfn^[9] The two gods were considered similar because they both guided souls to the afterlife.Template:Sfn The center of this cult was in uten-ha/Sa-ka/ Cynopolis, a place whose Greek name means "city of dogs." In Book XI of The Golden Ass by Apuleius, there is evidence that the worship of this god was continued in Rome through at least the 2nd century. Indeed, Hermanubis also appears in the alchemical and hermetical literature of the Middle Ages and the Renaissance.

Although the Greeks and Romans typically scorned Egyptian animal-headed gods as bizarre and primitive (Anubis was mockingly called "Barker" by the Greeks), Anubis was sometimes associated with Sirius in the heavens and Cerberus and Hades in the underworld.Template:Sfn In his dialogues, Plato often has Socrates utter oaths "by the dog" (Greek: kai me ton kuna), "by the dog of Egypt", and "by the dog, the god of the Egyptians", both for emphasis and to appeal to Anubis as an arbiter of truth in the underworld.^[10]

Roles

Embalmer

File:Anubis attending the mummy of Sennedjem.jpg

Anubis attending the mummy of the deceased.

As jmy-wt (Imiut or the Imiut fetish) "He who is in the place of embalming", Anubis was associated with mummification. He was also called ḫnty zḥ-nṯr "He who presides over the god's booth", in which "booth" could refer either to the place where embalming was carried out or the pharaoh's burial chamber.Template:Sfnm^[11]

In the Osiris myth, Anubis helped Isis to embalm Osiris.Template:Sfn Indeed, when the Osiris myth emerged, it was said that after Osiris had been killed by Set, Osiris's organs were given to Anubis as a gift. With this connection, Anubis became the patron god of embalmers; during the rites of mummification, illustrations from the Book of the Dead often show a wolf-mask-wearing priest supporting the upright mummy.

Protector of tombs

File:Opening of the mouth ceremony (cropped).jpg

The Opening of the Mouth ceremony being performed on a mummy before the tomb. Anubis attending the mummy of the deceased. Extract from the Papyrus of Hunefer, a 19th-Dynasty Book of the Dead (c. 1300 BC)

Anubis was a protector of graves and cemeteries. Several epithets attached to his name in Egyptian texts and inscriptions referred to that role. Khenty-Amentiu, which means "foremost of the westerners" and was also the name of a different canine funerary god, alluded to his protecting function because the dead were usually buried on the west bank of the Nile.Template:Sfn He took other names in connection with his funerary role, such as tpy-ḏw.f (Tepy-djuef) "He who is upon his mountain" (i.e. keeping guard over tombs from above) and nb-t3-ḏsr (Neb-ta-djeser) "Lord of the sacred land", which designates him as a god of the desert necropolis.Template:Sfnm^[11]

The Jumilhac papyrus recounts another tale where Anubis protected the body of Osiris from Set. Set attempted to attack the body of Osiris by transforming himself into a leopard. Anubis stopped and subdued Set, however, and he branded Set's skin with a hot iron rod. Anubis then flayed Set and wore his skin as a warning against evil-doers who would desecrate the tombs of the dead.Template:Sfn Priests who attended to the dead wore leopard skin in order to commemorate Anubis's victory over Set. The legend of Anubis branding the hide of Set in leopard form was used to explain how the leopard got its spots.Template:Sfn

Most ancient tombs had prayers to Anubis carved on them.^[12]

Guide of souls

File:BD Hunefer cropped 1.jpg

The "weighing of the heart," from the book of the dead of Hunefer. Anubis is portrayed as guiding the deceased forward and manipulating the scales, under the scrutiny of the ibis-headed Thoth.

By the late pharaonic era (664–332 BC), Anubis was often depicted as guiding individuals across the threshold from the world of the living to the afterlife.Template:Sfnm Though a similar role was sometimes performed by the cow-headed Hathor, Anubis was more commonly chosen to fulfill that function.Template:Sfn Greek writers from the Roman period of Egyptian history designated that role as that of "psychopomp", a Greek term meaning "guide of souls" that they used to refer to their own god Hermes, who also played that role in Greek religion.Template:Sfn Funerary art from that period represents Anubis guiding either men or women dressed in Greek clothes into the presence of Osiris, who by then had long replaced Anubis as ruler of the underworld.Template:Sfn

Weigher of hearts

One of the roles of Anubis was as the "Guardian of the Scales."Template:Sfn The critical scene depicting the weighing of the heart, in the Book of the Dead, shows Anubis performing a measurement that determined whether the person was worthy of entering the realm of the dead (the underworld, known as Duat). By weighing the heart of a deceased person against ma'at, who was often represented as an ostrich feather, Anubis dictated the fate of souls. Souls heavier than a feather would be devoured by Ammit, and souls lighter than a feather would ascend to a heavenly existence.^[13]^[14]

Portrayal in art

Anubis was one of the most frequently represented deities in ancient Egyptian art.Template:Sfn He is depicted in royal tombs as early as the First Dynasty.^[4] The god is typically treating a king's corpse, providing sovereign to mummification rituals and funerals, or standing with fellow gods at the Weighing of the Heart of the Soul in the Hall of Two Truths.^[5] One of his most popular representations is of him, with the body of a man and the head of a jackal with pointed ears, standing or kneeling, holding a gold scale while a heart of the soul is being weighed against Ma'at's white truth feather.^[4]

File:Abydos Tempelrelief Ramses II Anubis.JPG

Anubis in a fully humanoid form, Ramesses II temple, Abydos, Egypt.

In the early dynastic period, he was depicted in animal form, as a black canine.Template:Sfn Anubis's distinctive black color did not represent the animal, rather it had several symbolic meanings.Template:Sfn It represented "the discolouration of the corpse after its treatment with natron and the smearing of the wrappings with a resinous substance during mummification."Template:Sfn Being the color of the fertile silt of the River Nile, to Egyptians, black also symbolized fertility and the possibility of rebirth in the afterlife.Template:Sfnm In the Middle Kingdom, Anubis was often portrayed as a man with the head of a jackal.^[15] The African jackal was the species depicted and the template of numerous Ancient Egyptian deities, including Anubis.^[16] An extremely rare depiction of him in fully human form was found in a chapel of Ramesses II in Abydos.Template:Sfn^[3]

Anubis is often depicted wearing a ribbon and holding a nḫ3ḫ3 "flail" in the crook of his arm.^[15] Another of Anubis's attributes was the jmy-wt or imiut fetish, named for his role in embalming.Template:Sfn In funerary contexts, Anubis is shown either attending to a deceased person's mummy or sitting atop a tomb protecting it. New Kingdom tomb-seals also depict Anubis sitting atop the nine bows that symbolize his domination over the enemies of Egypt.Template:Sfn

Statue of Anubis

Statue of Anubis
Wall relief of Anubis in (KV17) the tomb of Seti I, 19th Dynasty, Valley of the Kings

Wall relief of Anubis in (KV17) the tomb of Seti I, 19th Dynasty, Valley of the Kings
Fresco of a mummy lying on a bier. Women stand at the head and foot of the bier, while a winged woman kneels in the register above

Isis, left, and Nephthys stand by as Anubis embalms the deceased, 13th century BC
Anubis receiving offerings, hieroglyph name in third column from left, 14th century BC; painted limestone; from Saqqara (Egypt)

Anubis receiving offerings, hieroglyph name in third column from left, 14th century BC; painted limestone; from Saqqara (Egypt)
Jackal head of Anubis in (KV35) the tomb of Amenophis II, Valley of the Kings

Jackal head of Anubis in (KV35) the tomb of Amenophis II, Valley of the Kings
The Anubis Shrine; 1336–1327 BC; painted wood and gold; 1.1 × 2.7 × 0.52 m; from the Valley of the Kings; Egyptian Museum (Cairo)

The Anubis Shrine; 1336–1327 BC; painted wood and gold; 1.1 × 2.7 × 0.52 m; from the Valley of the Kings; Egyptian Museum (Cairo)
Statue of Hermanubis, c. 100–138 AD, from Rome[17]

Statue of Hermanubis, c. 100–138 AD, from Rome^[17]
Anubis, Harpocrates, Isis and Serapis, antique fresco in Pompeii, Italy

Anubis, Harpocrates, Isis and Serapis, antique fresco in Pompeii, Italy
Stela of Siamun and Taruy worshipping Anubis

Stela of Siamun and Taruy worshipping Anubis
The king with Anubis, from the tomb of Horemheb; 1323-1295 BC; tempera on paper; Metropolitan Museum of Art

The king with Anubis, from the tomb of Horemheb; 1323-1295 BC; tempera on paper; Metropolitan Museum of Art
Anubis amulet; 664–30 BC; faience; height: 4.7 cm; Metropolitan Museum of Art

Anubis amulet; 664–30 BC; faience; height: 4.7 cm; Metropolitan Museum of Art
Recumbent Anubis; 664–30 BC; limestone, originally painted black; height: 38.1 cm, length: 64 cm, width: 16.5 cm; Metropolitan Museum of Art

Recumbent Anubis; 664–30 BC; limestone, originally painted black; height: 38.1 cm, length: 64 cm, width: 16.5 cm; Metropolitan Museum of Art
Statuette of Anubis; 332–30 BC; plastered and painted wood; 42.3 cm; Metropolitan Museum of Art

Statuette of Anubis; 332–30 BC; plastered and painted wood; 42.3 cm; Metropolitan Museum of Art
Hermanubis in the November panel of a Roman mosaic calendar from Sousse, Tunisia

Hermanubis in the November panel of a Roman mosaic calendar from Sousse, Tunisia

Worship

Although he does not appear in many myths, he was extremely popular with Egyptians and those of other cultures.^[4] The Greeks linked him to their god Hermes, the god who guided the dead to the afterlife. The pairing was later known as Hermanubis. Anubis was heavily worshipped because, despite modern beliefs, he gave the people hope. People marveled in the guarantee that their body would be respected at death, their soul would be protected and justly judged.^[4]

Anubis had male priests who sported wood masks with the god's likeness when performing rituals.^[4]^[5] His cult center was at Cynopolis in Upper Egypt but memorials were built everywhere and he was universally revered in every part of the nation.^[4]

References

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Template:Refend

External links

Template:Ancient Egyptian religion footer Template:Authority control

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↑ Merriam-Webster's Collegiate Dictionary, Eleventh Edition. Merriam-Webster, 2007. p. 56
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↑ Wilfong,Terry G.(2015), Death Dogs: The Jackal Gods of Ancient Egypt. Kelsey Museum Publication 11. Ann Arbor: Kelsey Museum of Archaeology. pp.50-51.
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[1] Merriam-Webster's Collegiate Dictionary, Eleventh Edition. Merriam-Webster, 2007. p. 56

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[7] Wilfong,Terry G.(2015), Death Dogs: The Jackal Gods of Ancient Egypt. Kelsey Museum Publication 11. Ann Arbor: Kelsey Museum of Archaeology. pp.50-51.

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@@ Line 19: / Line 19: @@
 }}
 {{Ancient Egyptian religion}}
-'''Anubis''' ({{IPAc-en|ə|ˈ|nj|uː|b|ᵻ|s|audio=LL-Q1860 (eng)-Naomi Persephone Amethyst (NaomiAmethyst)-Anubis.wav}};<ref>''Merriam-Webster's Collegiate Dictionary, Eleventh Edition''. Merriam-Webster, 2007. p. 56</ref> {{langx|grc|Ἄνουβις}}), also known as '''Inpu''', '''Inpw''', '''Jnpw''', or '''Anpu''' in [[Egyptian language|Ancient Egyptian]] ({{Langx|cop|ⲁⲛⲟⲩⲡ|translit=Anoup}}), is the god of funerary rites, protector of graves, and guide to the [[Duat|underworld]], in [[ancient Egyptian religion]], usually depicted as a [[Canis|canine]] or a man with a [[cynocephaly|canine head]].<ref name=":02">{{Cite book |last=Turner |first=Alice K. |title=The History of Hell |publisher=[[Harcourt Brace]] |year=1993 |isbn=978-0-15-140934-1 |edition=1st |location=United States |pages=13 |language=en-US}}</ref>
+'''Anubis''' ({{IPAc-en|ə|ˈ|nj|uː|b|ᵻ|s|audio=LL-Q1860 (eng)-Naomi Persephone Amethyst (NaomiAmethyst)-Anubis.wav}};<ref>''Merriam-Webster's Collegiate Dictionary, Eleventh Edition''. Merriam-Webster, 2007. p. 56</ref> {{langx|grc|Ἄνουβις}}), also known as '''Inpu''', '''Inpw''', '''Jnpw''', or '''Anpu''' in [[Egyptian language|Ancient Egyptian]] ({{Langx|cop|ⲁⲛⲟⲩⲡ|translit=Anoup}}), is the god of funerary rites, protector of graves, and guide to the [[Duat|underworld]] in [[ancient Egyptian religion]], usually depicted as a [[Canis|canine]] or a man with a [[cynocephaly|canine head]].<ref name=":02">{{Cite book |last=Turner |first=Alice K. |title=The History of Hell |publisher=[[Harcourt Brace]] |year=1993 |isbn=978-0-15-140934-1 |edition=1st |location=United States |pages=13 |language=en-US}}</ref>
 Like many [[ancient Egyptian deities]], Anubis assumed different roles in various contexts. Depicted as a protector of graves as early as the [[First Dynasty of Egypt|First Dynasty]] ({{Circa|3100|2890 BC}}), Anubis was also an [[Embalming|embalmer]]. By the [[Middle Kingdom of Egypt|Middle Kingdom]] (c. 2055–1650 BC) he was replaced by [[Osiris]] in his role as lord of the [[underworld]]. One of his prominent roles was as a [[psychopomp|god who ushered souls into the afterlife]]. He attended the [[weighing scale]] during the "Weighing of the Heart", in which it was determined whether a soul would be allowed to enter the realm of the dead. Anubis is one of the most frequently depicted and mentioned gods in the [[List of Egyptian gods|Egyptian pantheon]]; however, few major myths involved him.{{sfn|Johnston|2004|p=579}}
-Anubis was depicted in black, a color that symbolized regeneration, life, the soil of the [[Nile|Nile River]], and the discoloration of the corpse after embalming. Anubis is associated with [[Wepwawet]], another Egyptian god portrayed with a dog's head or in canine form, but with grey or white fur. Historians assume that the two figures were eventually combined.{{sfn|Gryglewski|2002|p=145}} Anubis' female counterpart is [[Anput]]. His daughter is the serpent goddess [[Kebechet]].
+Anubis was depicted in black, a color that symbolized regeneration, life, the soil of the [[Nile|Nile River]], and the discoloration of the corpse after embalming. Anubis is associated with [[Wepwawet]], another Egyptian god portrayed with a dog's head or in canine form, but with grey or white fur. Historians assume that the two figures were eventually combined.{{sfn|Gryglewski|2002|p=145}} Anubis's female counterpart is [[Anput]]. His daughter is the serpent goddess [[Kebechet]].
 ==Name==
 [[File:Anubis jackal.svg|thumb|Anubis as a jackal perched atop a tomb, symbolizing his protection of the necropolis]]
 "Anubis" is a Greek rendering of this god's [[Egyptian language|Egyptian]] name.{{sfn|Coulter|Turner|2000|p=58}}<ref name="AE.net" /> Before the [[Greeks in Egypt|Greeks arrived in Egypt]], around the 7th century BC, the god was known as ''Anpu'' or ''Inpu.'' The root of the name in ancient Egyptian language means "a royal child." ''Inpu'' has a root to "inp", which means "to decay." The god was also known as "First of the Westerners," "Lord of the Sacred Land," "He Who is Upon his Sacred Mountain," "Ruler of the Nine Bows," "The Dog who Swallows Millions," "Master of Secrets," "He Who is in the Place of Embalming," and "Foremost of the Divine Booth."<ref name=":1">{{Cite encyclopedia|url=https://www.worldhistory.org/Anubis/|title=Anubis|encyclopedia=[[World History Encyclopedia]]|access-date=2018-11-18|archive-date=20 May 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230520045846/https://www.worldhistory.org/Anubis/|url-status=live}}</ref> The positions that he had were also reflected in the titles he held such as "He Who Is upon His Mountain," "Lord of the Sacred Land," "Foremost of the Westerners," and "He Who Is in the Place of Embalming."<ref name=":2">{{Cite web|url=https://academic.eb.com/levels/collegiate/article/Anubis/7931|title=Anubis|date=2018|website=Encyclopaedia Britannica|access-date=2018-12-03|archive-date=27 March 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190327135951/https://academic.eb.com/levels/collegiate/article/Anubis/7931|url-status=live}}</ref>
-In the [[Old Kingdom of Egypt|Old Kingdom]] ({{Circa|2686 BC|2181 BC}}), the standard way of writing his name in [[Egyptian hieroglyphs|hieroglyphs]] was composed of the sound signs '''''inpw''''' followed by a jackal{{efn|The [[Canidae|canid]] which Anubis was modeled upon has frequently been stated to have been the [[golden jackal]], though the African variant of this animal present in Egypt was reclassified in 2015 as a separate species now known as the [[African wolf]], which was found to be more closely related to [[Wolf|wolves]] and [[coyote]]s than to the jackal.<ref name=Koepfli-2015>{{cite journal|doi=10.1016/j.cub.2015.06.060|pmid=26234211|title=Genome-wide Evidence Reveals that African and Eurasian Golden Jackals Are Distinct Species|journal=Current Biology|volume=25 |issue=#16 |pages=2158–65 |year=2015 |last1=Koepfli |first1=Klaus-Peter |last2=Pollinger |first2=John |last3=Godinho |first3=Raquel |last4=Robinson |first4=Jacqueline |last5=Lea|first5=Amanda |last6=Hendricks|first6=Sarah|last7=Schweizer|first7=Rena M.|last8=Thalmann|first8=Olaf|last9=Silva|first9=Pedro|last10=Fan|first10=Zhenxin|last11=Yurchenko|first11=Andrey A.|last12=Dobrynin|first12=Pavel|last13=Makunin|first13=Alexey|last14=Cahill|first14=James A.|last15=Shapiro|first15=Beth|last16=Álvares|first16=Francisco|last17=Brito|first17=José C.|last18=Geffen|first18=Eli|last19=Leonard|first19=Jennifer A.|last20=Helgen|first20=Kristofer M.|last21=Johnson|first21=Warren E.|last22=o'Brien|first22=Stephen J.|last23=Van Valkenburgh|first23=Blaire|last24=Wayne|first24=Robert K.|doi-access=free|bibcode=2015CBio...25.2158K }}</ref> Some authors have opined that Anubis is more probably modeled after a [[fox]]<ref>{{cite book |last1=Osborn |first1=D. |last2=Helmy |first2=I. |url=https://archive.org/details/contemporaryland05osbo/page/366/mode/2up?q=anubis |title=The contemporary land mammals of Egypt (including Sinai) |year=1980|publisher=Field Museum of Natural History |location=Chicago |chapter=Canis aureus lupaster (Hemprich and Ehrenberg, 1833)|quote=We are inclined to believe that Anubis was a fox rather than a jackal, because all of the statuary and heiroglyphs of Anubis are of an animal with the tail of a fox.|page=367}}</ref> or [[Ethiopian wolf]].<ref>{{cite book |last1=Clutton-Brock |first1=J. |url=https://www.google.it/books/edition/Carnivore_Behavior_Ecology_and_Evolution/ptKaDwAAQBAJ?hl=it&gbpv=1&dq=anubis+simien&pg=PA384&printsec=frontcover |title=Carnivore Behavior, Ecology, and Evolution |year=1996|publisher=Cornell University Press |location=Ithaca |chapter=Competitors, Companions, Status Symbols, or Pests: A Review of Human Associations with Other Carnivores|quote=To me, the head of the typical Anubis looks very like the head of a Simien jackal, with its long, thin snout and large ears. It does not seem improbable that this canid was known to the Egyptians, and because it was doglike but exotic it became especially revered.|page=348}}</ref> Nevertheless, ancient Greek texts about Anubis consistently refer to the deity as having the head of a dog rather than that of any wild canid, and there is still uncertainty as to what species represents Anubis. Therefore the Name and History section uses the names the original sources used but in quotation marks.}} over a ''[[Hotep|ḥtp]]'' sign:{{sfn|Leprohon|1990|p=164, citing {{harvnb|Fischer|1968|p=84}} and {{harvnb|Lapp|1986|pp=8–9}}}} <hiero>i-n:p-w-C6</hiero> A new form with the jackal on a tall stand appeared in the late Old Kingdom and became common thereafter:{{sfn|Leprohon|1990|p=164, citing {{harvnb|Fischer|1968|p=84}} and {{harvnb|Lapp|1986|pp=8–9}}}} <hiero>i-n:p-w-E16</hiero>
+In the [[Old Kingdom of Egypt|Old Kingdom]] ({{Circa|2686 BC|2181 BC}}), the standard way of writing his name in [[Egyptian hieroglyphs|hieroglyphs]] was composed of the sound signs '''''inpw''''' followed by a jackal{{efn|The [[Canidae|canid]] which Anubis was modeled upon has frequently been stated to have been the [[golden jackal]], though the African variant of this animal present in Egypt was reclassified in 2015 as a separate species now known as the [[African wolf]], which was found to be more closely related to [[Wolf|wolves]] and [[coyote]]s than to the jackal.<ref name=Koepfli-2015>{{cite journal|doi=10.1016/j.cub.2015.06.060|pmid=26234211|title=Genome-wide Evidence Reveals that African and Eurasian Golden Jackals Are Distinct Species|journal=Current Biology|volume=25 |issue=#16 |pages=2158–65 |year=2015 |last1=Koepfli |first1=Klaus-Peter |last2=Pollinger |first2=John |last3=Godinho |first3=Raquel |last4=Robinson |first4=Jacqueline |last5=Lea|first5=Amanda |last6=Hendricks|first6=Sarah|last7=Schweizer|first7=Rena M.|last8=Thalmann|first8=Olaf|last9=Silva|first9=Pedro|last10=Fan|first10=Zhenxin|last11=Yurchenko|first11=Andrey A.|last12=Dobrynin|first12=Pavel|last13=Makunin|first13=Alexey|last14=Cahill|first14=James A.|last15=Shapiro|first15=Beth|last16=Álvares|first16=Francisco|last17=Brito|first17=José C.|last18=Geffen|first18=Eli|last19=Leonard|first19=Jennifer A.|last20=Helgen|first20=Kristofer M.|last21=Johnson|first21=Warren E.|last22=o'Brien|first22=Stephen J.|last23=Van Valkenburgh|first23=Blaire|last24=Wayne|first24=Robert K.|doi-access=free|bibcode=2015CBio...25.2158K }}</ref> Some authors have opined that Anubis is more probably modeled after a [[fox]]<ref>{{cite book |last1=Osborn |first1=D. |last2=Helmy |first2=I. |chapter-url=https://archive.org/details/contemporaryland05osbo/page/366/mode/2up?q=anubis |title=The contemporary land mammals of Egypt (including Sinai) |year=1980|publisher=Field Museum of Natural History |location=Chicago |chapter=Canis aureus lupaster (Hemprich and Ehrenberg, 1833)|quote=We are inclined to believe that Anubis was a fox rather than a jackal, because all of the statuary and heiroglyphs of Anubis are of an animal with the tail of a fox.|page=367}}</ref> or [[Ethiopian wolf]].<ref>{{cite book |last1=Clutton-Brock |first1=J. |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ptKaDwAAQBAJ&dq=anubis+simien&pg=PA384 |title=Carnivore Behavior, Ecology, and Evolution |year=1996|publisher=Cornell University Press |location=Ithaca |chapter=Competitors, Companions, Status Symbols, or Pests: A Review of Human Associations with Other Carnivores|quote=To me, the head of the typical Anubis looks very like the head of a Simien jackal, with its long, thin snout and large ears. It does not seem improbable that this canid was known to the Egyptians, and because it was doglike but exotic it became especially revered.|page=348|isbn=978-1-5017-4582-9 }}</ref> Nevertheless, ancient Greek texts about Anubis consistently refer to the deity as having the head of a dog rather than that of any wild canid, and there is still uncertainty as to what species represents Anubis. Therefore the Name and History section uses the names the original sources used but in quotation marks.}} over a ''[[Hotep|ḥtp]]'' sign:{{sfn|Leprohon|1990|p=164, citing {{harvnb|Fischer|1968|p=84}} and {{harvnb|Lapp|1986|pp=8–9}}}} <hiero>i-n:p-w-C6</hiero> A new form with the jackal on a tall stand appeared in the late Old Kingdom and became common thereafter:{{sfn|Leprohon|1990|p=164, citing {{harvnb|Fischer|1968|p=84}} and {{harvnb|Lapp|1986|pp=8–9}}}} <hiero>i-n:p-w-E16</hiero>
-Anubis' name ''jnpw'' was possibly pronounced {{IPA|[aˈna.pʰa(w)]}}, based on Coptic ''Anoup'' and the [[Akkadian language|Akkadian]] transcription {{Transliteration|akk-x-midbabyl|{{angbr|a-na-pa}}}} ({{lang|akk-x-midbabyl|{{cuneiform|10|𒀀𒈾𒉺}}}}) in the name <ri-a-na-pa> "[[Reanap]]a" that appears in [[Amarna letters|Amarna letter]] EA 315.{{sfn|Conder|1894|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=OzIB5P77q8UC&pg=PA85 85]}}<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://cdli.ucla.edu/search/archival_view.php?ObjectID=P270941|title=CDLI-Archival View|website=cdli.ucla.edu|access-date=2017-09-20|archive-date=21 September 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170921002124/http://cdli.ucla.edu/search/archival_view.php?ObjectID=P270941|url-status=live}}</ref> However, this transcription may also be interpreted as ''rˁ-nfr'', a name similar to that of Prince [[Ranefer]] of the [[Fourth Dynasty of Egypt|Fourth Dynasty]].
+Anubis's name ''jnpw'' was possibly pronounced {{IPA|[aˈna.pʰa(w)]}}, based on Coptic ''Anoup'' and the [[Akkadian language|Akkadian]] transcription {{Transliteration|akk-x-midbabyl|{{angbr|a-na-pa}}}} ({{lang|akk-x-midbabyl|{{cuneiform|10|𒀀𒈾𒉺}}}}) in the name <ri-a-na-pa> "[[Reanap]]a" that appears in [[Amarna letters|Amarna letter]] EA 315.{{sfn|Conder|1894|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=OzIB5P77q8UC&pg=PA85 85]}}<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://cdli.ucla.edu/search/archival_view.php?ObjectID=P270941|title=CDLI-Archival View|website=cdli.ucla.edu|access-date=2017-09-20|archive-date=21 September 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170921002124/http://cdli.ucla.edu/search/archival_view.php?ObjectID=P270941|url-status=live}}</ref> However, this transcription may also be interpreted as ''rˁ-nfr'', a name similar to that of Prince [[Ranefer]] of the [[Fourth Dynasty of Egypt|Fourth Dynasty]].
 ==History==
@@ Line 37: / Line 37: @@
 In the [[Old Kingdom]], Anubis was the most important god of the dead. He was replaced in that role by Osiris during the [[Middle Kingdom of Egypt|Middle Kingdom]] (2000–1700 BC).{{sfn|Freeman|1997|p=91}} In the [[History of Roman Egypt|Roman era]], which started in 30 BC, tomb paintings depict him holding the hand of deceased persons to guide them to Osiris.{{sfn|Riggs|2005|pp=166–67}}
-The parentage of Anubis varied between myths, times and sources. In early mythology, he was portrayed as a son of [[Ra]].{{sfn|Hart|1986|p=25}} In the [[Coffin Texts]], which were written in the [[First Intermediate Period]] (c. 2181–2055 BC), Anubis is the son of either the cow goddess [[Hesat]] or the cat-headed [[Bastet]].{{sfn|Hart|1986|p=26}} Another tradition depicted him as the son of Ra and [[Nephthys]].{{Sfn|Hart|1986|p=25}} More commonly, however, he is recognized as the offspring of Osiris and Isis.In later periods, particularly during the Ptolemaic era, Anubis was sometimes described as the son of Isis and Serapis, a Hellenized form of Osiris designed to appeal to Egypt's growing Greek population.<ref>Wilfong,Terry G.(2015), ''Death Dogs: The Jackal Gods of Ancient Egypt''. Kelsey Museum Publication 11. Ann Arbor: Kelsey Museum of Archaeology. pp.50-51.</ref> The Greek [[Plutarch]] (c. 40–120 AD) reported a tradition that Anubis was the illegitimate son of Nephthys and Osiris, but that he was adopted by Osiris's wife [[Isis]]:{{sfn|Gryglewski|2002|p=146}}
+The parentage of Anubis varied between myths, times and sources. In early mythology, he was portrayed as a son of [[Ra]].{{sfn|Hart|1986|p=25}} In the [[Coffin Texts]], which were written in the [[First Intermediate Period]] (c. 2181–2055 BC), Anubis is the son of either the cow goddess [[Hesat]] or the cat-headed [[Bastet]].{{sfn|Hart|1986|p=26}} Another tradition depicted him as the son of Ra and [[Nephthys]].{{Sfn|Hart|1986|p=25}} More commonly, however, he is recognized as the offspring of Osiris and Isis. In later periods, particularly during the Ptolemaic era, Anubis was sometimes described as the son of Isis and Serapis, a Hellenized form of Osiris designed to appeal to Egypt's growing Greek population.<ref>Wilfong,Terry G.(2015), ''Death Dogs: The Jackal Gods of Ancient Egypt''. Kelsey Museum Publication 11. Ann Arbor: Kelsey Museum of Archaeology. pp.50-51.</ref> The Greek [[Plutarch]] (c. 40–120 AD) reported a tradition that Anubis was the illegitimate son of Nephthys and Osiris, but that he was adopted by Osiris's wife [[Isis]]:{{sfn|Gryglewski|2002|p=146}}
 {{blockquote|source=|For when Isis found out that Osiris loved her sister and had relations with her in mistaking her sister for herself, and when she saw a proof of it in the form of a garland of clover that he had left to Nephthys – she was looking for a baby, because Nephthys abandoned it at once after it had been born for fear of [[Set (deity)|Set]]; and when Isis found the baby helped by the dogs which with great difficulties lead her there, she raised him and he became her guard and ally by the name of Anubis.|author=}}
 [[George Hart (Egyptologist)|George Hart]] sees this story as an "attempt to incorporate the independent deity Anubis into the [[Osiris myth|Osirian pantheon]]."{{sfn|Hart|1986|p=26}} An Egyptian papyrus from the [[Egypt (Roman province)|Roman period]] (30–380 AD) simply called Anubis the "son of Isis."{{sfn|Hart|1986|p=26}} In [[Nubia]], Anubis was seen as the husband of his mother Nephthys.<ref name="Lévai 2007"/>
-[[File:Sousse_mosaic_calendar_November.JPG|thumb|[[Hermanubis]] in the November panel of a Roman mosaic calendar from Sousse, Tunisia.]]
 In the [[Ptolemaic Egypt|Ptolemaic]] period (350–30 BC), when Egypt became a [[Hellenistic civilization|Hellenistic]] kingdom ruled by Greek pharaohs, Anubis was merged with the [[Greek mythology|Greek]] god [[Hermes]], becoming [[Hermanubis]].{{sfn|Peacock|2000|pp=437–38 (Hellenistic kingdom)}}<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.babylon.com/definition/Hermanubis/English |title=Hermanubis {{pipe}} English {{pipe}} Dictionary & Translation by Babylon |publisher=Babylon.com |access-date=15 June 2012 |archive-date=4 March 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304194619/http://www.babylon.com/definition/Hermanubis/English |url-status=dead }}</ref> The two gods were considered similar because they both [[psychopomp|guided souls]] to the afterlife.{{sfn|Riggs|2005|p=166}} The center of this [[Cult (religious practice)|cult]] was in ''uten-ha''/''Sa-ka''/ [[Cynopolis]], a place whose Greek name means "city of dogs." In Book XI of ''[[The Golden Ass]]'' by [[Apuleius]], there is evidence that the worship of this god was continued in [[Ancient Rome|Rome]] through at least the 2nd century. Indeed, Hermanubis also appears in the [[alchemy|alchemical]] and [[Hermeticism|hermetical]] literature of the [[Middle Ages]] and the [[Renaissance]].
@@ Line 60: / Line 59: @@
 Anubis was a protector of [[grave]]s and [[cemeteries]]. Several epithets attached to his name in [[Ancient Egyptian literature|Egyptian texts and inscriptions]] referred to that role. ''[[Khenti-Amentiu|Khenty-Amentiu]]'', which means "foremost of the westerners" and was also the name of a different [[Khenti-Amentiu|canine funerary god]], alluded to his protecting function because the dead were usually buried on the west bank of the Nile.{{sfn|Hart|1986|p=23}} He took other names in connection with his funerary role, such as ''tpy-ḏw.f'' (Tepy-djuef) "He who is upon his mountain" (i.e. keeping guard over tombs from above) and ''nb-t3-ḏsr'' (Neb-ta-djeser) "Lord of the sacred land", which designates him as a god of the desert [[necropolis]].{{sfnm|Hart|1986|1pp=23–24|Wilkinson|2003|2pp=188–90}}<ref name=":0">{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=_bqZBAAAQBAJ&q=tpy%20Dw%20f&pg=PA262|title=Community and Identity in Ancient Egypt: The Old Kingdom Cemetery at Qubbet el-Hawa|last=Vischak|first=Deborah|date=2014-10-27|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=9781107027602|language=en}}</ref>
-The [[Jumilhac papyrus]] recounts another tale where Anubis protected the body of Osiris from Set. Set attempted to attack the body of Osiris by transforming himself into a [[leopard]]. Anubis stopped and subdued Set, however, and he [[human branding|branded]] Set's skin with a hot iron rod. Anubis then [[flaying|flayed]] Set and wore his skin as a warning against evil-doers who would desecrate the [[necropolis|tombs of the dead]].{{sfn|Armour|2001}} Priests who attended to the dead wore leopard skin in order to commemorate Anubis' victory over Set. The legend of Anubis branding the hide of Set in leopard form was used to explain how the leopard got its spots.{{sfn|Zandee|1960|p=255}}
+The [[Jumilhac papyrus]] recounts another tale where Anubis protected the body of Osiris from Set. Set attempted to attack the body of Osiris by transforming himself into a [[leopard]]. Anubis stopped and subdued Set, however, and he [[human branding|branded]] Set's skin with a hot iron rod. Anubis then [[flaying|flayed]] Set and wore his skin as a warning against evil-doers who would desecrate the [[necropolis|tombs of the dead]].{{sfn|Armour|2001}} Priests who attended to the dead wore leopard skin in order to commemorate Anubis's victory over Set. The legend of Anubis branding the hide of Set in leopard form was used to explain how the leopard got its spots.{{sfn|Zandee|1960|p=255}}
 Most ancient tombs had prayers to Anubis carved on them.<ref>{{cite web|title=The Gods of Ancient Egypt – Anubis|url=http://www.touregypt.net/godsofegypt/anubis.htm|publisher=touregypt.net|access-date=29 June 2014|archive-date=7 September 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180907052820/http://www.touregypt.net/godsofegypt/anubis.htm|url-status=live}}</ref>
@@ Line 75: / Line 74: @@
 Anubis was one of the most frequently represented deities in [[Art of ancient Egypt|ancient Egyptian art]].{{sfn|Johnston|2004|p=579}} He is depicted in royal tombs as early as the [[First Dynasty of Egypt|First Dynasty]].<ref name=":1" /> The god is typically treating a king's corpse, providing sovereign to mummification rituals and funerals, or standing with fellow gods at the [[Weighing of the Heart|Weighing of the Heart of the Soul]] in the Hall of Two Truths.<ref name=":2" /> One of his most popular representations is of him, with the body of a man and the head of a jackal with pointed ears, standing or kneeling, holding a gold scale while a heart of the soul is being weighed against Ma'at's white truth feather.<ref name=":1" />
-[[File:Valle de los Reyes 1999 04.jpg|thumb|Jackal head of Anubis in ([[KV35]]) the tomb of Amenophis II, Valley of the Kings.]]
+[[File:Abydos Tempelrelief Ramses II Anubis.JPG|thumb|Anubis in a fully humanoid form, Ramesses II temple, [[Abydos, Egypt]].]]
 In the [[Early Dynastic Period of Egypt|early dynastic period]], he was depicted in animal form, as a black canine.{{sfn|Wilkinson|1999|p=263}} Anubis's distinctive black color did not represent the animal, rather it had several symbolic meanings.{{sfn|Hart|1986|p=22}} It represented "the discolouration of the corpse after its treatment with [[natron]] and the smearing of the wrappings with a resinous substance during mummification."{{sfn|Hart|1986|p=22}} Being the color of the fertile [[silt]] of the [[Nile|River Nile]], to Egyptians, black also symbolized fertility and the possibility of rebirth in the afterlife.{{sfnm|Hart|1986|1p=22|Freeman|1997|2p=91}} In the [[Middle Kingdom of Egypt|Middle Kingdom]], Anubis was often portrayed as a man with the head of a jackal.<ref name="Egyptianmyths.net">{{cite web |url=http://www.egyptianmyths.net/anubis.htm |title=Ancient Egypt: the Mythology&nbsp;– Anubis |publisher=Egyptianmyths.net |access-date=15 June 2012 |archive-date=17 December 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181217043136/http://www.egyptianmyths.net/anubis.htm |url-status=live }}</ref> The [[African wolf|African jackal]] was the species depicted and the template of numerous Ancient Egyptian deities, including Anubis.<ref>{{cite book |author=Remler, P. |title=Egyptian Mythology, A to Z |publisher=Infobase Publishing |year=2010 |isbn=978-1438131801 |location= |page=99 |chapter= |chapter-url=}}</ref> An extremely rare depiction of him in [[anthropomorphism|fully human form]] was found in a chapel of [[Ramesses II]] in [[Abydos, Egypt|Abydos]].{{sfn|Hart|1986|p=22}}<ref name="AE.net">{{cite web|title=Gods and Religion in Ancient Egypt&nbsp;– Anubis |url=http://www.ancient-egypt.org/religion/gods/anubis.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20021227200957/http://www.ancient-egypt.org/religion/gods/anubis.html |url-status=dead |archive-date=27 December 2002 |access-date=23 June 2012 }}</ref>
@@ Line 86: / Line 85: @@
 File:ThebanTomb335.png|alt=Fresco of a mummy lying on a bier. Women stand at the head and foot of the bier, while a winged woman kneels in the register above|[[Isis]], left, and [[Nephthys]] stand by as Anubis embalms the deceased, 13th century BC
 File:Hermitage hall 100 - Egyptian hall 46.jpg|Anubis receiving offerings, [[hieroglyph]] name in third column from left, 14th century BC; painted limestone; from [[Saqqara]] (Egypt)
+File:Valle de los Reyes 1999 04.jpg|Jackal head of Anubis in ([[KV35]]) the tomb of Amenophis II, Valley of the Kings
 File:Tutankhamun jackal.jpg|The ''[[Anubis Shrine]]''; 1336–1327&nbsp;BC; painted wood and gold; 1.1 × 2.7 × 0.52&nbsp;m; from the [[Valley of the Kings]]; Egyptian Museum (Cairo)
 File:Anubis, Anzio, Villa Pamphili, 1st-2nd century AD, Pario marble - Museo Gregoriano Egizio - Vatican Museums - DSC00818.jpg|Statue of Hermanubis, c. 100–138 AD, from [[Rome]]<ref>{{cite book |last1=Campbell |first1=Price |title=Ancient Egypt - Pocket Museum |date=2018 |publisher=Thames & Hudson |isbn=978-0-500-51984-4 |page=266 |language=en}}</ref>
@@ Line 94: / Line 94: @@
 File:Recumbent Anubis MET DP228716.jpg|Recumbent Anubis; 664–30 BC; limestone, originally painted black; height: 38.1&nbsp;cm, length: 64&nbsp;cm, width: 16.5&nbsp;cm; Metropolitan Museum of Art
 File:Statuette of Anubis MET 38.5 EGDP022863.jpg|Statuette of Anubis; 332–30&nbsp;BC; plastered and painted wood; 42.3&nbsp;cm; Metropolitan Museum of Art
+File:Sousse_mosaic_calendar_November.JPG|[[Hermanubis]] in the November panel of a Roman mosaic calendar from Sousse, Tunisia
 </gallery>
@@ Line 110: / Line 111: @@
 ==References==
-[[File:Golden wolf 2.jpg|thumb|The [[African wolf]] was depicted as Anubis]]
 ===Informational notes===
 {{notelist}}

Anubis: Difference between revisions

Latest revision as of 16:39, 10 November 2025

Contents

Name

History

Roles

Embalmer

Protector of tombs

Guide of souls

Weigher of hearts

Portrayal in art

Worship

See also

References

Informational notes

Citations

Bibliography

Further reading

External links

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Anubis: Difference between revisions

Latest revision as of 16:39, 10 November 2025

Name

History

Roles

Embalmer

Protector of tombs

Guide of souls

Weigher of hearts

Portrayal in art

Worship

See also

References

Informational notes

Citations

Bibliography

Further reading

External links

Navigation menu

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