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Mahfuz began to dominate politics in the 1480s, being awarded multiple titles. He preferred to continue the conflicts with the Ethiopian Empire, as he desired to sway influence over the Muslim border provinces of [[Ifat (historical region)|Ifat]], [[Fatagar]], [[Dawaro]], and [[Bale (historical region)|Bale]], which was in stark contrast to the policy of coexistence favored by Sultan [[Muhammad ibn Azhar ad-Din]] and his moderate faction.<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Fage |first1=J. D. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=GWjxR61xAe0C&q=mahfuz&pg=PA166 |title=The Cambridge History of Africa |last2=Oliver |first2=Roland |date=1975 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-0-521-20981-6 |pages=166 |language=en}}</ref> Mahfuz had successfully led expeditions into Abyssinia's heartland, including [[Shewa]], something the Adal sultans had failed to accomplish in the previous years.<ref>{{cite book |title=Journal of the Historical Society of Nigeria Volume 2 |publisher=Historical Society of Nigeria |page=571 |url=https://www.google.ca/books/edition/Journal_of_the_Historical_Society_of_Nig/oDPjAAAAMAAJ?hl=en&gbpv=1&bsq=mahfuz+bali&dq=mahfuz+bali&printsec=frontcover}}</ref>
Mahfuz began to dominate politics in the 1480s, being awarded multiple titles. He preferred to continue the conflicts with the Ethiopian Empire, as he desired to sway influence over the Muslim border provinces of [[Ifat (historical region)|Ifat]], [[Fatagar]], [[Dawaro]], and [[Bale (historical region)|Bale]], which was in stark contrast to the policy of coexistence favored by Sultan [[Muhammad ibn Azhar ad-Din]] and his moderate faction.<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Fage |first1=J. D. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=GWjxR61xAe0C&q=mahfuz&pg=PA166 |title=The Cambridge History of Africa |last2=Oliver |first2=Roland |date=1975 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-0-521-20981-6 |pages=166 |language=en}}</ref> Mahfuz had successfully led expeditions into Abyssinia's heartland, including [[Shewa]], something the Adal sultans had failed to accomplish in the previous years.<ref>{{cite book |title=Journal of the Historical Society of Nigeria Volume 2 |publisher=Historical Society of Nigeria |page=571 |url=https://www.google.ca/books/edition/Journal_of_the_Historical_Society_of_Nig/oDPjAAAAMAAJ?hl=en&gbpv=1&bsq=mahfuz+bali&dq=mahfuz+bali&printsec=frontcover}}</ref>


By the 1490s, political leadership shifted from [[Muhammad ibn Azhar ad-Din]] to Mahfuz. Although the [[Walashma dynasty|Walasma dynasty]] retained nominal control of the sultanate, Adal's power dynamics shifted significantly, impacting Ethiopia. Mahfuz, unhappy with Muhammad's policy of compromise with the Christian neighbor, called for jihad. This gained support in [[Adal Sultanate|Adal]], Ethiopia's Muslim borderlands, and across the [[Red Sea]], where traders welcomed the rise in war captives for the [[Red Sea slave trade|Arab slave markets]].<ref>{{Cite book |last=Salvadore |first=Matteo |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=bgxqDAAAQBAJ |title=The African Prester John and the Birth of Ethiopian-European Relations, 1402-1555 |date=2016-06-17 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-1-317-04545-8 |pages=108 |language=en}}</ref> He made strong connections with the [[Yemen Eyalet|Arabia]] and sent slaves to the [[Sharif of Mecca|Sherif of Mecca]]. The Sherif rewarded him with a green silk standard and a tent of black velvet embroidered with gold. He was also made the Sheikh of [[Zeila]] by the Sherif, which made Mahfuz responsible for bringing the Key of Abyssinia to him.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Bruce |first=James |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=fzpCAAAAcAAJ&dq=raheeta&pg=PA367 |title=Travels to Discover the Source of the Nile, in the Years 1768, 1769, 1770, 1771, 1772, & 1773 |date=1813 |publisher=Constable |pages=169 |language=en}}</ref>
Medieval [[Portuguese people|Portuguese]] missionary [[Francisco Álvares]] described the aftermath following the invasion of [[Fatagar]] by Mahfuz:<ref>{{cite book |last1=Alvares |first1=Francisco |title=The Prester John of the Indies, Volume 2 |publisher=Hakluyt Society at the University Press |page=412 |url=https://books.google.ca/books/about/The_Prester_John_of_the_Indies.html?id=wXbkxQEACAAJ&redir_esc=y}}</ref>  


Sources differ over the number of years Mahfuz invaded Abyssinia. Francisco Álvares states that his invasions began during the reign of [[Eskender]], and lasted 25 years.<ref>Alvarez, Francisco (1961) ''The Prester John of the Indies'', translated by C.F. Beckingham and G.W.B. Huntingford. Cambridge: [[Hakluyt Society]], p. 412.</ref> However, Beckingham and Huntingford note that the Ethiopian ''Paris Chronicle'', which draws on contemporary Ethiopian records, dates the beginning of these invasions to the ascension of [[Dawit II]] (Lebna Dengel) in 1508.<ref>Their discussion of Mahfuz is taken from their Introduction to Alvarez, ''Prester John'', pp. 16f.</ref> Mahfuz is reported to have caused the deaths of Ethiopian Emperors [[Na'od]] and [[Eskender]].<ref>{{cite book |last1=Burton |first1=Richard |title=First Footsteps in East Africa |page=179}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Huntingford |first1=G.W.B |title=The historical geography of Ethiopia from the first century AD to 1704 |publisher=Oxford University Press |page=105}}</ref> According to the emperor [[Sarsa Dengel]] chronicles, Mahfuz was linked to the [[Malassay]] army unit.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Kropp |first1=Manfred |year=1990 |title=MÄLÄSAY: SELBSTBEZEICHNUNG EINES HARARINER OFFIZIERSKORPS UND IHR GEBRAUCH IN ÄTHIOPISCHEN UND ARABISCHEN CHRONIKEN |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/40732663 |journal=Paideuma |publisher=Paideuma: Mitteilungen zur Kulturkunde |volume=36 |page=108 |jstor=40732663}}</ref> He would occupy villages of Abyssinia and take all women, children and men as slaves for [[India]] and [[Arabian Peninsula|Arabia]].<ref>{{Cite book |last=Bruce |first=James |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=fzpCAAAAcAAJ&pg=PA367 |title=Travels to Discover the Source of the Nile, in the Years 1768, 1769, 1770, 1771, 1772, & 1773 |date=1813 |publisher=Constable |pages=143 |language=en}}</ref>
{{Blockquote
|text=Mafude took them all prisoners, and he ordered the peasants to be separated from the men-at-arms, and he ordered the cultivators to go in peace, and to sow for next year much wheat and barley for when he should come, so that he and his people might find enough to eat for themselves and their horses. And he said to the men-at-arms: ‘Scoundrels who eat the King’s bread, and guard his lands so badly, all of you to the sword;’ and he ordered fifteen men-at-arms to be killed, and returned with great booty, and without any opposition what ever.}}


In his later life Mahfuz would also periodically continue to lead raids into the frontier provinces of [[Ethiopian Empire|Abyssinia]] for a number of years. He selected the season of [[Lent]] for his attacks, when the defenders were weakened by their [[fasting|fasts]]. He raided the [[Amhara province|Amhara]], [[Shewa]], and [[Fatagar]] provinces south of the [[Awash River]]. According to [[Portuguese people|Portuguese]] explorer [[Francisco Álvares]], during his raids Mahfuz exclusively targeted Abyssinian soldiers capturing them however left civilians unharmed.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Aregay |first1=Merid |title=Southern Ethiopia and the Christian kingdom 1508 - 1708, with special reference to the Galla migrations and their consequences |publisher=University of London |page=199 |url=https://ethos.bl.uk/OrderDetails.do?uin=uk.bl.ethos.308149}}</ref> He and [[Muhammad ibn Azhar ad-Din]] would descend upon the regions of Ifat, Dawaro and Fatagar which resulted in the slaying of 19,000 Christians within a year.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Bruce |first=James |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=fzpCAAAAcAAJ&dq=maffudi+fanatic&pg=PA165 |title=Travels to Discover the Source of the Nile, in the Years 1768, 1769, 1770, 1771, 1772, & 1773 |date=1813 |publisher=Constable |pages=163 |language=en}}</ref>
By the 1490s, political leadership shifted from [[Muhammad ibn Azhar ad-Din]] to Mahfuz. Although the [[Walashma dynasty|Walasma dynasty]] retained nominal control of the sultanate, Adal's power dynamics shifted significantly, impacting Ethiopia. Mahfuz, unhappy with Muhammad's policy of compromise with the Christian neighbor, called for jihad. This gained support in [[Adal Sultanate|Adal]], Ethiopia's Muslim borderlands, and across the [[Red Sea]], where traders welcomed the rise in war captives for the [[Red Sea slave trade|Arab slave markets]].<ref>{{Cite book |last=Salvadore |first=Matteo |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=bgxqDAAAQBAJ |title=The African Prester John and the Birth of Ethiopian-European Relations, 1402-1555 |date=2016-06-17 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-1-317-04545-8 |pages=108 |language=en}}</ref> He made strong connections with the [[Yemen Eyalet|Arabia]] and sent slaves to the [[Sharif of Mecca|Sherif of Mecca]]. The Sherif rewarded him with a [[Green in Islam|green]] silk standard and a tent of black velvet embroidered with gold. He was also made the Sheikh of [[Zeila]] by the Sherif, which made Mahfuz responsible for bringing the Key of Abyssinia to him.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Bruce |first=James |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=fzpCAAAAcAAJ&dq=raheeta&pg=PA367 |title=Travels to Discover the Source of the Nile, in the Years 1768, 1769, 1770, 1771, 1772, & 1773 |date=1813 |publisher=Constable |pages=169 |language=en}}</ref>
 
Francisco Álvares states that his invasions began during the reign of [[Eskender]], and lasted 25 years.<ref>Alvarez, Francisco (1961) ''The Prester John of the Indies'', translated by C.F. Beckingham and G.W.B. Huntingford. Cambridge: [[Hakluyt Society]], p. 412.</ref> Mahfuz is reported to have caused the deaths of Ethiopian Emperors [[Na'od]] and [[Eskender]].<ref>{{cite book |last1=Burton |first1=Richard |title=First Footsteps in East Africa |page=179}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Huntingford |first1=G.W.B |title=The historical geography of Ethiopia from the first century AD to 1704 |publisher=Oxford University Press |page=105}}</ref> The [[British people|British]] explorer, [[Richard Francis Burton|Richard Burton]] asserted that Mahfuz had offered a bribe to one of Emperor Eskender's escorts in order to orchestrate the emperor's murder.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Burton |first1=Richard |title=First Footsteps in East Africa, Or, An Exploration of Harar Volume 2 |publisher=Tylston and Edwards |page=4 |url=https://www.google.ca/books/edition/First_Footsteps_in_East_Africa_Or_An_Exp/Mu0MAAAAIAAJ?hl=en&gbpv=1&dq=He+bought+over+Za+Salasah,+commander+in+chief+of+the+Emperor%E2%80%99s+body+guard,+and+caused+the+assassination+of+Alexander+(A.D.+1478-&pg=RA1-PA4&printsec=frontcover}}</ref> According to the emperor [[Sarsa Dengel]] chronicles, Mahfuz was linked to the [[Malassay]] army unit.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Kropp |first1=Manfred |year=1990 |title=MÄLÄSAY: SELBSTBEZEICHNUNG EINES HARARINER OFFIZIERSKORPS UND IHR GEBRAUCH IN ÄTHIOPISCHEN UND ARABISCHEN CHRONIKEN |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/40732663 |journal=Paideuma |publisher=Paideuma: Mitteilungen zur Kulturkunde |volume=36 |page=108 |jstor=40732663}}</ref> He would occupy villages of Abyssinia and take all women, children and men as slaves for [[India]] and [[Arabian Peninsula|Arabia]].<ref>{{Cite book |last=Bruce |first=James |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=fzpCAAAAcAAJ&pg=PA367 |title=Travels to Discover the Source of the Nile, in the Years 1768, 1769, 1770, 1771, 1772, & 1773 |date=1813 |publisher=Constable |pages=143 |language=en}}</ref>
 
In his later life Mahfuz would also periodically continue to lead raids into the frontier provinces of [[Ethiopian Empire|Abyssinia]] for a number of years. He selected the season of [[Lent]] for his attacks, when the defenders were weakened by their [[fasting|fasts]]. He raided the [[Amhara province|Amhara]], [[Shewa]], and [[Fatagar]] provinces south of the [[Awash River]]. During his raids Mahfuz exclusively targeted Abyssinian soldiers capturing them however left civilians unharmed.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Aregay |first1=Merid |title=Southern Ethiopia and the Christian kingdom 1508 - 1708, with special reference to the Galla migrations and their consequences |publisher=University of London |page=199 |url=https://ethos.bl.uk/OrderDetails.do?uin=uk.bl.ethos.308149}}</ref> He and [[Muhammad ibn Azhar ad-Din]] would descend upon the regions of Ifat, Dawaro and Fatagar which resulted in the slaying of 19,000 Christians within a year.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Bruce |first=James |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=fzpCAAAAcAAJ&dq=maffudi+fanatic&pg=PA165 |title=Travels to Discover the Source of the Nile, in the Years 1768, 1769, 1770, 1771, 1772, & 1773 |date=1813 |publisher=Constable |pages=163 |language=en}}</ref>


According to Alvarez, upon reaching the age of majority, Emperor Lebna Dengel decided to forgo his observance of Lent and oppose the Imam in battle, despite the advice and wishes of his councilors and people. He sent spies out to determine Imam Mahfuz's plans for that year, and learning the Imam was in Fatagar led his army there. He found Imam Mahfuz with the sultan of [[Adal (historical region)|Adal]] encamped on a plain that was surrounded by mountains. After first sending soldiers out to secure the passes, the Abyssinian Emperor closed upon Imam Mahfuz.<ref>Alvarez, p. 413.</ref> Although Imam Mahfuz managed to enable Sultan Muhammed to escape with but four horsemen, Imam Mafhuz knew he was trapped and sought to die with honor. He called to the Abyssinians a challenge to fight in single combat, and Gabra Endreyas, who had been a follower of Emperor Lebna Dengel's father, accepted and split the Imam's body into two from the lower-part of his neck to his shoulder with a two-handed sword. Mahfuz's head was cut from his body and displayed publicly in the Emperor's court where Gabra exclaimed "There is the [[Goliath]] of the Infidels".<ref>{{Cite book |last=Bruce |first=James |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=fzpCAAAAcAAJ&dq=raheeta&pg=PA367 |title=Travels to Discover the Source of the Nile, in the Years 1768, 1769, 1770, 1771, 1772, & 1773 |date=1813 |publisher=Constable |pages=166–167 |language=en}}</ref> After defeating Mahfuz, [[Dawit II]] used appellation ''Wanag Segad'', which is a combination of [[Ge'ez language|Ge'ez]] and [[Harari language|Harari]] terms.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Gate|first1=Henry|title=Dictionary of African Biography|date=2 February 2012|publisher=OUP USA|page=482|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=39JMAgAAQBAJ&pg=RA2-PA482|isbn=978-0195382075}}</ref>
According to Alvarez, upon reaching the age of majority, Emperor Lebna Dengel decided to forgo his observance of Lent and oppose the Imam in battle, despite the advice and wishes of his councilors and people. He sent spies out to determine Imam Mahfuz's plans for that year, and learning the Imam was in Fatagar led his army there. He found Imam Mahfuz with the sultan of [[Adal (historical region)|Adal]] encamped on a plain that was surrounded by mountains. After first sending soldiers out to secure the passes, the Abyssinian Emperor closed upon Imam Mahfuz.<ref>Alvarez, p. 413.</ref> Although Imam Mahfuz managed to enable Sultan Muhammed to escape with but four horsemen, Imam Mafhuz knew he was trapped and sought to die with honor. He called to the Abyssinians a challenge to fight in single combat, and Gabra Endreyas, who had been a follower of Emperor Lebna Dengel's father, accepted and split the Imam's body into two from the lower-part of his neck to his shoulder with a two-handed sword. Mahfuz's head was cut from his body and displayed publicly in the Emperor's court where Gabra exclaimed "There is the [[Goliath]] of the Infidels".<ref>{{Cite book |last=Bruce |first=James |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=fzpCAAAAcAAJ&dq=raheeta&pg=PA367 |title=Travels to Discover the Source of the Nile, in the Years 1768, 1769, 1770, 1771, 1772, & 1773 |date=1813 |publisher=Constable |pages=166–167 |language=en}}</ref> After defeating Mahfuz, [[Dawit II]] used appellation ''Wanag Segad'', which is a combination of [[Ge'ez language|Ge'ez]] and [[Harari language|Harari]] terms.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Gate|first1=Henry|title=Dictionary of African Biography|date=2 February 2012|publisher=OUP USA|page=482|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=39JMAgAAQBAJ&pg=RA2-PA482|isbn=978-0195382075}}</ref>

Latest revision as of 01:23, 30 June 2025

Template:Short description Script error: No such module "other uses". Template:Infobox royalty

Mahfuz (or Mohammed) (Harari: መሕፉዝ, Template:Langx, Portuguese: Mafudi, Somali: Maxfuud; died July 1517) was a Garad, Emir of Harar and Governor of Zeila in the Adal Sultanate.[1] Although he was originally only emir of a small region he would rise to become leader of Adal due to his popularity, wielding more power than the sultan of Adal.[2] He is often known as the "Captain of Zeila" in medieval texts.[3]

Background

According to Ethiopian historian Mohammed Hassen, he was either of Harla or Harari origin.[4] However Marco Demichelis claims he was of Somali origin.[5] While Daryll Forde regards him as an ethnic Afar.[6]

Life and reign

Mahfuz began to dominate politics in the 1480s, being awarded multiple titles. He preferred to continue the conflicts with the Ethiopian Empire, as he desired to sway influence over the Muslim border provinces of Ifat, Fatagar, Dawaro, and Bale, which was in stark contrast to the policy of coexistence favored by Sultan Muhammad ibn Azhar ad-Din and his moderate faction.[7] Mahfuz had successfully led expeditions into Abyssinia's heartland, including Shewa, something the Adal sultans had failed to accomplish in the previous years.[8]

Medieval Portuguese missionary Francisco Álvares described the aftermath following the invasion of Fatagar by Mahfuz:[9]

<templatestyles src="Template:Blockquote/styles.css" />

Mafude took them all prisoners, and he ordered the peasants to be separated from the men-at-arms, and he ordered the cultivators to go in peace, and to sow for next year much wheat and barley for when he should come, so that he and his people might find enough to eat for themselves and their horses. And he said to the men-at-arms: ‘Scoundrels who eat the King’s bread, and guard his lands so badly, all of you to the sword;’ and he ordered fifteen men-at-arms to be killed, and returned with great booty, and without any opposition what ever.

Script error: No such module "Check for unknown parameters".

By the 1490s, political leadership shifted from Muhammad ibn Azhar ad-Din to Mahfuz. Although the Walasma dynasty retained nominal control of the sultanate, Adal's power dynamics shifted significantly, impacting Ethiopia. Mahfuz, unhappy with Muhammad's policy of compromise with the Christian neighbor, called for jihad. This gained support in Adal, Ethiopia's Muslim borderlands, and across the Red Sea, where traders welcomed the rise in war captives for the Arab slave markets.[10] He made strong connections with the Arabia and sent slaves to the Sherif of Mecca. The Sherif rewarded him with a green silk standard and a tent of black velvet embroidered with gold. He was also made the Sheikh of Zeila by the Sherif, which made Mahfuz responsible for bringing the Key of Abyssinia to him.[11]

Francisco Álvares states that his invasions began during the reign of Eskender, and lasted 25 years.[12] Mahfuz is reported to have caused the deaths of Ethiopian Emperors Na'od and Eskender.[13][14] The British explorer, Richard Burton asserted that Mahfuz had offered a bribe to one of Emperor Eskender's escorts in order to orchestrate the emperor's murder.[15] According to the emperor Sarsa Dengel chronicles, Mahfuz was linked to the Malassay army unit.[16] He would occupy villages of Abyssinia and take all women, children and men as slaves for India and Arabia.[17]

In his later life Mahfuz would also periodically continue to lead raids into the frontier provinces of Abyssinia for a number of years. He selected the season of Lent for his attacks, when the defenders were weakened by their fasts. He raided the Amhara, Shewa, and Fatagar provinces south of the Awash River. During his raids Mahfuz exclusively targeted Abyssinian soldiers capturing them however left civilians unharmed.[18] He and Muhammad ibn Azhar ad-Din would descend upon the regions of Ifat, Dawaro and Fatagar which resulted in the slaying of 19,000 Christians within a year.[19]

According to Alvarez, upon reaching the age of majority, Emperor Lebna Dengel decided to forgo his observance of Lent and oppose the Imam in battle, despite the advice and wishes of his councilors and people. He sent spies out to determine Imam Mahfuz's plans for that year, and learning the Imam was in Fatagar led his army there. He found Imam Mahfuz with the sultan of Adal encamped on a plain that was surrounded by mountains. After first sending soldiers out to secure the passes, the Abyssinian Emperor closed upon Imam Mahfuz.[20] Although Imam Mahfuz managed to enable Sultan Muhammed to escape with but four horsemen, Imam Mafhuz knew he was trapped and sought to die with honor. He called to the Abyssinians a challenge to fight in single combat, and Gabra Endreyas, who had been a follower of Emperor Lebna Dengel's father, accepted and split the Imam's body into two from the lower-part of his neck to his shoulder with a two-handed sword. Mahfuz's head was cut from his body and displayed publicly in the Emperor's court where Gabra exclaimed "There is the Goliath of the Infidels".[21] After defeating Mahfuz, Dawit II used appellation Wanag Segad, which is a combination of Ge'ez and Harari terms.[22]

Legacy

His death led to a power struggle between the radical and moderate factions in Adal with the followers of Mahfuz essentially prevailing.[23] Garad Abun arranged Imam Ahmad ibn Ibrahim's marriage with Mahfuz's daughter, Bati del Wambara as it would help establish a formal alliance and continue Mahfuz's tradition of jihad.[24] Ten years after Mahfuz's death, Imam Ahmad embarked on a Conquest of Abyssinia (Futuh al-Habash).[25] Ahmed ibn Ibrahim al-Ghazi later in his invasion of Abyssinia would kill an old Gabra as revenge for his victory against Mahfuz.[26] His son Garad Ahmadus bin Mahfuz participated in the conquest.[27] Garad Ahmadus was later responsible for slaying patrician Limu, the lord of Sharkha and Nagada Iyasus, the governor of Jinah.[28][29]

See also

Notes and references

Template:Reflist

  1. ↑ Bruce, James, Travels to Discover the Source of the Nile (1805 edition), vol. 3, p. 143
  2. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  3. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  4. ↑ Script error: No such module "Citation/CS1".
  5. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  6. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  7. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  8. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  9. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  10. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  11. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  12. ↑ Alvarez, Francisco (1961) The Prester John of the Indies, translated by C.F. Beckingham and G.W.B. Huntingford. Cambridge: Hakluyt Society, p. 412.
  13. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  14. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  15. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  16. ↑ Script error: No such module "Citation/CS1".
  17. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  18. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  19. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  20. ↑ Alvarez, p. 413.
  21. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  22. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  23. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  24. ↑ Script error: No such module "Citation/CS1".
  25. ↑ Sihab ad-Din Ahmad, in his Futuh al-Habasa (translated by Paul Lester Stenhouse with annotations by Richard Pankhurst [Hollywood: Tsehai, 2003]) consistently uses the word "Jihad" to refer to Ahmad Gragn's conquest of Ethiopia.
  26. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  27. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  28. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  29. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
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