Hongwu Emperor

Template:Template other Template:Hongwu Emperor The Hongwu Emperor (21 October 1328Template:Efn-lr– 24 June 1398), personal name Zhu Yuanzhang,Template:Efn-lr was the founding emperor of the Ming dynasty, reigning from 1368 to 1398.

In the mid-14th century, China suffered from epidemics, famines, and widespread uprisings under the Mongol Yuan dynasty. During this turmoil, the orphaned Zhu Yuanzhang briefly lived as a novice monk, begging for alms and gaining insight into common people's hardships, while developing a dislike for book-dependent scholars.Template:Sfnp In 1352, he joined a rebel force, soon proving his ability and rising to command his own army. He captured Nanjing in 1356 and made it his capital, creating a government of generals and Confucian scholars and rejecting Mongol rule. He adopted Yuan administrative practices and applied them to his territory as it expanded. After defeating rival rebels, most notably in his decisive victory over Chen Youliang at Lake Poyang in 1363, he declared himself King of WuTemplate:Efn-lr in 1364. Nevertheless, in 1367 he still formally recognized Han Lin'er, the Red Turban leader who claimed Song legitimacy.

In early 1368, after successfully dominating southern and central China, Zhu chose to rename his state. He decided on the name Da Ming, which translates to "Great Radiance", for his empire, and designated Hongwu, meaning "Vastly Martial", as the name of the era and the motto of his reign. In the following four-year war, he drove out the Mongol armies loyal to the Yuan dynasty and unified the country, but his attempt to conquer Mongolia ended in failure. During the Hongwu Emperor's thirty-year reign, Ming China experienced significant growth and recovered from the effects of prolonged wars. The Emperor had a strong understanding of the structure of society and believed in implementing reforms to improve institutions. This approach differed from the Confucian belief that the ruler's moral example was the most important factor.Template:Sfnp The Hongwu Emperor also prioritized the safety of his people and the loyalty of his subordinates, demonstrating pragmatism and caution in military affairs. He maintained a disciplined army and made efforts to minimize the impact of war on civilians.Template:Sfnp

Although the peak of his political system crumbled in a civil war shortly after his death, other results of the Hongwu Emperor's reforms, such as local and regional institutions for Ming state administration and self-government, as well as the financial and examination systems, proved to be resilient.Template:Sfnp The census, land registration and tax system, and the Weisuo military system all endured until the end of the dynasty.Template:Sfnp His descendants continued to rule over all of China until 1644, and the southern region for an additional seventeen years.

Youth

Zhu Yuanzhang, the future Hongwu Emperor, was born in 1328 in Zhongli (Template:Zhi) village, in Haozhou (present-day Fengyang, Anhui), then under the rule of the Mongol Yuan dynasty. He was the youngest of four sons in a poor peasant family.Template:SfnpTemplate:Sfnp He was given the name Zhu Chongba (Template:Zhi) at birth, but used the name Zhu Xingzong (Template:Zhi) in adulthood.Template:Sfnp Later, as a rebel fighter against the Yuan dynasty, he used the name Zhu Yuanzhang, with the courtesy name Guorui.Template:Sfnp Zhu's father, Zhu Wusi, lived in Nanjing but fled to the countryside to avoid tax collectors. His paternal grandfather was a gold miner, and his maternal grandfather was a fortune-teller and seer. In 1344, during a plague epidemic, Zhu Xingzong's parents and two of his brothers died.Template:Sfnp

Zhu then entered a local Buddhist monastery.Template:Sfnp For the next three years, he wandered as a mendicant monk, becoming familiar with the landscape and people of eastern Henan and northern Anhui.Template:Sfnp He returned to the monastery in 1348 and stayed for four years, during which he learned to read, write, and study the basics of Buddhism.Template:Sfnp

As rebel

The harsh taxation policies, famine, and catastrophic flooding in the Yellow River basin, caused by inadequate flood control measures, led to widespread opposition to the rule of the Yuan dynasty.Template:Sfnp This discontent was further fueled by the presence of Taoist and Buddhist secret societies and sects, with the most prominent being the White Lotus society.Template:Sfnp In 1351, the Red Turban Rebellion erupted and quickly spread throughout northern China.Template:Sfnp

The initially disorganized Mongol troops were able to launch a counteroffensive and advance along the Grand Canal.Template:Sfnp In October 1352, the Mongols captured Xuzhou, causing the rebel commanders Peng Da and Zhao Yunyong to flee south to Haozhou,Template:Sfnp where the Yuan dynasty's power was declining. In Haozhou, Guo Zixing, Sun Deya (Template:Zhi), and three other leaders, with the support of the local elite, organized the army and took control in order to establish order in the surrounding area.Template:Sfnp Guo submitted to Peng, while his four colleagues submitted to Zhao.Template:Sfnp

A formal, half-length portrait painting of Empress Ma. She wears a yellow imperial robe embroidered with golden dragon emblems over a red undergarment, topped by a phoenix crown (Fengguan) adorned with gold, blue, and white jewels and long pearl tassels.

Portrait of Empress Ma. National Palace Museum, Taipei.

In 1352, when the Yuan army burned down the monastery after suspecting the monks of links to the White Lotus society, Zhu joined the rebels.Template:Sfnp On 15 April of the same year, he arrived in Haozhou.Template:Sfnp While Zhu was considered physically unattractiveTemplate:Sfnp and he began as a rank-and-file fighter, his exceptional leadership, decisiveness, martial skill, and intelligence quickly earned him significant authority.Template:Sfnp He became the leader among 24 of his acquaintances who had already joined the rebels. These acquaintances would eventually become generals in the Ming army.Template:Sfnp By the spring of 1353, Zhu was leading a 700-man squad, and he became Guo's most trusted subordinate.Template:Sfnp Skilled in both military tactics and political maneuvering, he even married Guo's adopted daughter, surnamed Ma.Template:Sfnp Unlike other leaders of his time, Zhu had a small number of relatives who were appointed to important positions, at a time when family ties were crucial for ensuring loyalty and reliability.Template:Sfnp

The rivalry between Peng and Zhao escalated into a full-blown conflict. Guo was initially captured, but his sons and Zhu freed him. This increased Guo's reliance on Zhu.Template:Sfnp After Peng's death in 1353, Zhao emerged as the dominant leader in the region.Template:Sfnp He sent Guo to the east and Zhu with a small detachment to the south, hoping to divide them and destroy them. However, Zhu successfully occupied several counties and bolstered his army to 20,000 soldiers, and Guo moved with Zhao's ten thousand men to join him.Template:Sfnp

Regional ruler

Establishment in Nanjing (1355–1360)

A black-and-white woodblock illustration of a cannon angled upwards on a wooden stand, firing a spray of flames and small round projectiles, with Chinese text labels on the right and on the weapon.

A cannon from the Huolongjing, compiled by Jiao Yu and Liu Ji before 1375

In the beginning of 1355, Zhu, Guo, and the eastern rebel Zhang Shicheng decided to leave the devastated northern territories and cross the Yangtze River into the still-prosperous south.Template:Sfnp Guo and Zhu entered into a dispute over Hezhou, a city situated on the banks of the Yangtze, leading Zhu to ally with Guo's old enemy Sun Deya, but Guo died before the conflict escalated.Template:Sfnp Han Lin'er, the Red Turban leader who claimed the title of Song emperor, then appointed Guo's eldest son, Guo Tianxu,Template:Sfnp as his successor, with Zhang Tianyu, Guo's brother-in-law, as first deputy and Zhu as second deputy.Template:Sfnp In July 1355, the Hezhou rebels obtained a fleet from rebels arriving from Chao Lake, allowing them to cross the Yangtze that same month.Template:Sfnp Zhu defeated the local Yuan commander Chen Esen, who surrendered to him, but Chen betrayed Guo Tianxu during an attack on Jiqing (present-day Nanjing) in September 1355. Chen, Guo Tianxu, and Zhang Tianyu all died in the subsequent fighting.Template:Sfnp

In March 1356, Zhu once again marched on Jiqing. Chen Esen's nephew Chen Zhaoxian (Template:Zhi) had succeeded his uncle as the Mongol commander. He and 36,000 men surrendered to Zhu. In April 1356, Zhu successfully entered Jiqing,Template:Sfnp which he renamed Yingtian ("In response to Heaven").Template:Sfnp In May 1356, Han appointed Zhu as the head of Jiangnan Province, one of the five provinces of the Song state.Template:Sfnp Zhu soon had Guo's younger son executed, citing a breach of military discipline. This allowed Zhu to establish clear leadership and he immediately began to build his administration, but he faced instances of betrayal and defection to the enemy until the victory at Lake Poyang in 1363.Template:SfnpTemplate:Sfnp

Zhu was now in command of an army of 100,000 soldiers, which was divided into divisions or wings (Template:Zhi; yi). In Nanjing itself, there were eight divisions and one per prefecture.Template:Sfnp From 1355 to 1357, he launched attacks against Zhang Shicheng in the direction of Suzhou and successfully occupied southern Jiangxi;Template:Efn-lr after this, the border with Zhang's state was fortified on both sides and remained stable until 1366.Template:Sfnp In Zhejiang, from 1358 to 1359, Zhu controlled four impoverished inland prefectures,Template:Sfnp while Zhang held control over four prosperous northern coastal prefectures, and Fang Guozhen occupied the eastern coast of the province.Template:Sfnp

In the summer of 1359, the Mongol warlord Chaghan Temur drove Han Lin'er from Kaifeng. With only a few hundred soldiers left, Han survived in Anfeng, a prefectural city in the west of Anhui, while Chaghan Temur turned to Shandong.Template:Sfnp After this retreat, Song authority collapsed rapidly; aside from Zhu's effectively autonomous Jiangnan, no Song province remained after 1362.Template:Sfnp In 1361, Han appointed Zhu as Duke of Wu (Wu Guogong)Template:SfnpTemplate:Efn-lr and acknowledged his control over conquered territories.Template:Sfnp Fearing a Yuan advance toward Nanjing, Zhu initially sought cooperation with Chaghan Temur, but after the latter was assassinated in 1362, the Yuan threat disappeared, leading Zhu to reject the Mongols' offer to make him governor of Jiangxi.Template:Sfnp

Zhu did not embrace Red Turban ideology; instead of building a new elite based on White Lotus Manichean-Buddhist beliefs, he aligned himself with Confucian scholars.Template:Sfnp This shift transformed him from a sectarian rebel into a political leader seeking traditional legitimacy, though he still relied on officers devoted to White Lotus teachings.Template:Sfnp

Zhu's political base strengthened through his collaboration with Li Shanchang, a landowner from Dingyuan who managed civil administration as Zhu expanded.Template:Sfnp In 1360, after repeated requests, leading scholars such as Song Lian and Liu Ji joined him.Template:Sfnp Known as the Jinhua school,Template:Efn-lr they envisioned a unified state with a small but efficient bureaucracy, opposed the corruption of late Yuan rule,Template:Sfnp and believed that state institutions could improve public morals. Though their motives differed from Zhu's, they shared his commitment to reform through a strong state and active monarchy.Template:Sfnp

As an independent ruler, Zhu promoted moderate taxation, unlike other rebel leaders and generals who frequently seized peasants' grain for military needs.Template:Sfnp He emphasized orderly governance and peaceful life for the population, working with local elites and understanding villagers' needs due to his own peasant background.Template:Sfnp Zhu's principles strengthened the economy of his territories: he began minting coins in 1361, created monopolies on salt and tea, and resumed collecting customs duties in 1362. These policies increased tax revenues and helped finance his military campaigns.Template:Sfnp

Conquest of Han (1360–1365)

A map of China in 1360 showing the fragmented control of the region. The Yuan dynasty controls the north and west. Three major competing warlord states occupy the south: Song (red) along the eastern coast, Han (green) in the central south, and Longshu (brown) in the southwest.

China in 1360. Zhu Yuanzhang ruled the southern part of Han Lin'er's self-proclaimed Song empire (red).

In the beginning of 1360, Zhu controlled the southwestern part of Jiangsu, all of Anhui south of the Yangtze River, and the inland of Zhejiang. By 1393, these territories had a population of 7.8 million.Template:Sfnp Zhang Shicheng's Kingdom of WuTemplate:Efn-lr had comparable power with a larger population but worse organization. Chen Youlang's state of Han had a similar situation.Template:Sfnp The state of Han, located west of Zhu's territory, included the provinces of Jiangxi and Hubei. Zhang, based in Suzhou, controlled the lower reaches of the Yangtze, from the eastern borders of Zhu's dominions to the sea. While Zhu, Zhang, and Chen divided up the Yangtze River Basin, the rest of southern and central China was largely under the control of "one-province" regimes. Fang Guozhen controlled the eastern Chinese coast, Ming Yuzhen ruled in Sichuan, and a trio of Yuan loyalists (Chen Youding, He Zhen, and Basalawarmi) controlled Fujian, Guangdong, and Yunnan. These provincial regimes were unable to threaten the states of Song, Wu, and Han, but they were strong in defense.Template:Sfnp

The war between Song and Han from 1360 to 1363 had a devastating impact on the balance of power in the Yangtze River Basin. This conflict increazed Zhu's prestige and gave him a significant advantage over his rivals.Template:Sfnp The fighting began when the Han army attacked Nanjing in 1360, but Zhu quickly defeated them.Template:Sfnp In 1361, the war spread to the Han province of Jiangxi, which changed hands multiple times.Template:Sfnp By 1362, Zhu had gained control of Jiangxi.Template:Sfnp

In January 1363, Zhang Shicheng's army launched a surprise attack on Anfeng, the residence of Song emperor Han Lin'er, resulting in the death of Han Lin'er's minister Liu Futong. Zhu offered his army to assist Han, who was still highly respected among the troops.Template:Sfnp As a result, the powerless Han was relocated to Chuzhou, west of Nanjing on the opposite side of the Yangtze River.Template:Sfnp However, the army remained stationed in the north until August 1363.Template:Sfnp

The departure of Zhu's main forces to the north presented Chen Youliang with an opportunity to turn the tide of the war. He quickly raised an army of 300,000, outnumbering Zhu's remaining forces.Template:Sfnp Chen planned to capture Nanchang and rally the local leaders in Jiangxi to join his cause and attack Nanjing,Template:Sfnp but the Nanchang garrison, led by Deng Yu, held out until early June 1363. In mid-August, Zhu's army and fleet finally set out from Nanjing with approximately 100,000 soldiers.Template:Sfnp Zhu's fleet defeated Chen's fleet in the battle of Lake Poyang in September 1363, and Chen was killed during the fighting.Template:Sfnp

In 1364–1365, Zhu focused on conquering and absorbing the Han's territories. Numerous Han prefectural and county commanders surrendered without resistance. By early 1365, Generals Chang Yuchun and Deng Yu had gained control over central and southern Jiangxi, and General Xu Da had pacified Huguang.Template:Sfnp This annexation of territories provided Zhu with a significant population advantage over his adversaries. The main threats to Zhu at this time were the Mongol warlord Köke Temür in northern China and Zhang Shicheng, who was based in Suzhou.Template:Sfnp

Expansion of the army with former Han troops required a reorganization of the military.Template:Sfnp Therefore, in 1364, Zhu implemented the Weisuo system, which involved the formation of guards (wei) comprising 5,600 soldiers. These guards were further divided into 5 battalions (qianhusuo) of 1,120 soldiers each, with 10 companies (baihusuo) in each battalion.Template:Sfnp After 1364, the army was made up of 17 guards consisting of veterans who had previously served before 1363. The older veterans were demobilized, while the others were assigned to the garrison in Nanjing where they worked as peasants, using their production to provide food for the army.Template:Sfnp Additional soldiers with shorter periods of service were acquired during the conquest of southern Anhui and central Zhejiang. They were stationed in the former Han territory, with field armies concentrated in Nanchang and Wuchang and garrisons scattered across Jiangxi and Huguang.Template:Sfnp The remaining soldiers, mostly former Han soldiers, were joined by some veterans in the field armies sent to fight against Zhang's state of Wu under the leadership of Generals Xu and Chang.Template:Sfnp

Conquest of Zhang's Wu and proclamation of the Ming (1364–1368)

A traditional Chinese city gate and its surrounding wall viewed at night, brightly lit from below in warm, golden light. A curved stone bridge spans the dark water in the foreground, with the gate tower standing prominently atop the wall.

Changmen Gate in Suzhou. The ten-month conquest of Suzhou, the seat of Zhang Shicheng, was one of the most fierce battles fought by Zhu's troops.

After Chen Youliang's defeat, Zhu used the title of King of Wu (Wu wang) starting from the new year (4 February) of 1364. Zhang Shicheng had used the same title since October 1363.Template:SfnpTemplate:Efn-lr Zhu still acknowledged his subordinate status to Han Lin'er and used the Song era of Longfeng as long as Han was alive, but he ran his own administration, following the model of the Yuan dynasty.Template:Sfnp

In 1365–67, Zhu conquered Zhang's state of Wu. Zhang attempted to attack in late 1364, before Zhu could exploit the potential of the newly conquered territories, but Zhu repulsed Zhang's offensive in the spring of 1365.Template:Sfnp Before launching a final attack on Zhang's heartland, the Suzhou region, Zhu and his generals decided to first "cut off the wings" of Zhang's state by occupying the territory north of the Yangtze and the Zhang-controlled part of Zhejiang. Zhu appointed Xu Da as the supreme commander of the attacking troops, and the attacking army easily captured the area due to its superiority. The ten-month siege of Suzhou began in December 1366.Template:Sfnp

In January 1367, Han Lin'er drowned in the Yangtze River.Template:Sfnp Zhu's state of Wu declared its official independence and proclaimed the year 1367 as the "first year of the Wu era". A year later, in 1368, Zhu proclaimed himself emperor and changed the name of the state. He followed the Mongol tradition of elevating titlesTemplate:Sfnp and named the empire "Great Ming" (Da Ming; Template:Zhi). He also designated 1368 as the "first year of the Hongwu era" (Template:Zhi).Template:Sfnp

Unification of China

In the autumn of 1367, Zhu's troops launched an attack against Fang Guozhen. By December of that year, they had successfully taken control of the entire coast.Template:Sfnp In November 1367, Hu Mei's army, along with the fleets of Tang He and Liao Yongzhong, began their journey south. By February 1368, they had easily conquered Fujian, and by April 1368, they had taken control of Guangdong. In July 1368, with the reinforcement of Yang Jing's army from Huguang, Guangxi province was also occupied.Template:Sfnp

At the same time as the southern campaign, Zhu sent a 250,000-strong army, led by Xu Da and Chang Yuchun, to conquer the North China Plain.Template:Sfnp By March 1368, both land and naval forces had successfully captured Shandong.Template:Sfnp In May, Henan was also occupied.Template:Sfnp A pause was taken for agricultural work, during which the Hongwu Emperor met with his generals in the captured city of Kaifeng to confirm plans for the campaign.Template:Sfnp The Ming army resumed its march in mid-August and reached Dadu (present-day Beijing) in early September. They defeated the Mongol army outside Dadu and then occupied the city, while the Yuan emperor Toghon Temür fled north to Shangdu. The Chinese renamed Dadu to Beiping (Pacified North).Template:Sfnp The campaign then continued with an attack on Shanxi.Template:Sfnp

A map illustrating the territorial expansion of the Ming dynasty under the Hongwu Emperor from 1368 to 1387. The map shows the spread of Ming control (shaded in red) from the central eastern regions, with dates (such as 1368, 1370, and 1382) marking the conquest years of specific provinces like Beijing and Yunnan.

Unification of China after 1368:

  Extent of the Ming dynasty at the beginning of 1368

  Conquered in 1368–1370

  Conquered in 1371–1372

  Conquered in 1382

  Conquered in 1387

In January 1369, the main army, led by Xu Da, captured Taiyuan, while Köke Temür retreated to Gansu. In the spring of 1369, Ming troops also began to occupy Shaanxi.Template:Sfnp They had fully captured the province by September 1369, but border skirmishes with Köke Temür's troops persisted until 1370.Template:Sfnp

In 1370, the Ming government launched a two-pronged attack on Mongolia. Generals Li Wenzhong and Feng Sheng led an attack from Beijing to the north, while Xu Da attacked from Xi'an against Köke Temür.Template:SfnpTemplate:Sfnp In early May 1370, Köke Temür was defeated and fled to Karakorum. The Ming forces captured over 84,000 of his troops and continued to advance westward along the Yellow River.Template:Sfnp At the same time, Li's forces advanced to Shangdu, while the Yuan emperor Toghon Temür retreated further north to Yingchang and died in May 1370. His son Ayushiridara then assumed the imperial title. In June, Li conquered Yingchang. Ayushiridara escaped, but the Ming army captured his wife and son, Maidilibala, along with more than 50,000 soldiers.Template:Sfnp Ayushiridara continued to flee until reaching Karakorum, where the remnants of Köke Temür's army joined him.Template:Sfnp

After successfully defeating the Mongols, the Ming government shifted its focus to the Xia state in Sichuan,Template:Sfnp which maintained positive relations with the Ming but refused to submit. The Emperor ordered General Fu Youde to lead an attack from the north in 1371. Simultaneously, Tang He and Liao Yongzhong advanced with a fleet up the Yangtze River.Template:Sfnp Although they initially faced resistance, they were able to push forward with the help of artillery and the enemy's decision to send part of their defenders north against the Ming army's successful advance. By September 1371, Sichuan had been conquered.Template:Sfnp This victory ensured stability in the southwestern border for the next ten years, until the Ming conquered the pro-Mongol Yunnan in 1381–1382.Template:Sfnp

In 1372, the Emperor launched a massive attack on Mongolia, with Xu Da leading a 150,000-strong army from Shanxi through the Gobi to Karakorum. In the west, Feng Sheng was assigned to conquer the western part of the Gansu Corridor with 50,000 cavalrymen, while Li Wenzhong was tasked with attacking eastern Mongolia and Manchuria with another 50,000 soldiers.Template:Sfnp Although Feng's forces were able to successfully complete their mission, the Mongols defeated Xu and Li's armies.Template:Sfnp

These failures in 1372 shattered the Hongwu Emperor's dream of becoming the heir to the entire Yuan Empire, both in China and on the steppe.Template:Sfnp Furthermore, Japanese piracy increased and rebellions broke out in the provinces of Guangxi, Huguang, Sichuan, and Shaanxi.Template:Sfnp As a result, the Chinese forces in the north shifted their focus to defense, and two years later returned the captured prince Maidilibala to Mongolia.Template:Sfnp

1370s: State-building

Goals and law

A favorite passage of the Hongwu Emperor
from Daode jing (The Way and Its Power):Template:Sfnp Let the state be small and the people few:
So that the people...

fearing death, will be reluctant to move great distances

and, even if they have boats and carts, will not use them.

So that the people...

will find their food sweet and their clothes beautiful,

will be content with where they live and happy in their customs.

Though adjoining states be within sight of one another

and cocks crowing and dogs barking in one be heard in the next,

yet the people of one state will grow old and die

without having had any dealings with those of another.

The Hongwu Emperor's public statements were filled with sympathy for the peasants and a deep distrust of the wealthy landowners and scholars.Template:Sfnp He often referred to himself as a villager from the right bank of the Huai River.Template:Sfnp His difficult upbringing never left his mind, and even as emperor, he held onto the ideal of a self-sufficient village life in peace, a dream that was unattainable in his youth. He made every effort to make this dream a reality for his subjects.Template:Sfnp

The ultimate goal of the Hongwu Emperor's reforms was to achieve political stability for the state. All policies, institutions, and the social and economic structure of society were designed to serve this purpose. The chaos and foreign rule that led to the establishment of a new dynasty only reinforced his determination to maintain order.Template:Sfnp

The Emperor was meticulous in his efforts to establish a new society after the fall of the Yuan dynasty. He was a dynamic and innovative legislator, constantly issuing, revising, and modifying laws throughout his reign,Template:Sfnp but these frequent changes sometimes sparked protests from officials.Template:Sfnp

The Emperor's legislation focused on four main themes. The first was a broad desire to restore order and morality in society. The second was the regulation of the bureaucracy, including disciplining followers and managing the government. The third was the removal of corrupt and unreliable officials. Finally, the Emperor also sought to resist the natural decline that comes with time. As the patriarch of the family, he aimed to prevent the decay of society and the dynasty in the future, as well as any changes to his laws.Template:Sfnp

The compilation of the new code, known as the Great Ming Code, began in 1364. This code, which was heavily influenced by Confucian principles, was largely based on the old Tang Code of 653. The initial wording was agreed upon in 1367, and the final version was adopted in 1397. It remained unchanged until the fall of the empire, although additional provisions were later added.Template:Sfnp

Capital city

A wide, grey brick city wall featuring two large arched gateways for traffic. A colorful, multi-story pavilion (gate tower) with a red facade and dark tiled roof is mounted on top of the wall against a bright blue, cloudy sky.

Yifeng Gate in Nanjing

The capital of the empire was Nanjing (Southern Capital), which was known as Yingtian until 1368. In the 1360s and 1370s, the capital underwent extensive construction. A workforce of 200,000 individuals surrounded the city with walls that were almost 26 km long, making them the longest in the world at the time. Additionally, an imperial palace and government quarter were built.Template:Sfnp In 1368, the Emperor resided in Kaifeng during the months of June–August and October–November, leading to the city being known as Beijing (Northern Capital).Template:Sfnp

In 1369, the Hongwu Emperor proposed a debate on the relocation of the capital. In August, his suggestion to move the capital to Fengyang (then known as Linhuai), the Emperor's hometown in northern Anhui, on the south bank of the Huai River, approximately 100 km north of Nanjing, was approved.Template:Sfnp Construction of the future capital, named Zhongdu (Template:Zhi; 'Central Capital'), began with grand plans. The area had been largely abandoned since the famine of the 1340s, so landless families from the south were resettled in Fengyang.Template:Sfnp In 1375, the Emperor ultimately abandoned the idea of relocating the capital and the construction was halted.Template:Sfnp

Central government

A statistical map of the Ming provinces showing the estimated population in millions (e.g., 10.8 in Nanzhili) for each region around 1393. The map visually demonstrates a high density of people in the central and eastern provinces, contrasting with the lower populations in the western and southern frontier areas.

Ming China during the Hongwu Emperor's reign. According to the 1393 census, the population of the provinces was recorded in millions, with a total of 60.5 million inhabitants in China.Template:Sfnp

Upon ascending to the throne, the Hongwu Emperor appointed his wife, Lady Ma, as empress and his eldest son, Zhu Biao, as his heir.Template:Sfnp He surrounded himself with a group of military and civilian figures, but the civil officials never attained the same level of prestige and influence as the military.Template:Sfnp In 1367, he granted the title of duke (gong) to three of his closest collaborators—the generals Xu Da and Chang Yuchun, and the official Li Shanchang.Template:Sfnp After the establishment of the Ming dynasty, he also bestowed ranks and titles upon a wider circle of loyal generals.Template:Efn-lr These military leaders were chosen based on their abilities, but their positions were often inherited by their sons.Template:Sfnp As a result, the generals became the dominant ruling class, surpassing the bureaucracy in power and influence. The officials had little political autonomy and simply carried out the emperor's orders and requests.Template:Sfnp This system mirrored the one established during the Yuan dynasty, with the ruling class of Mongols and Semu being replaced by families of distinguished military commanders.Template:Sfnp These families were often connected through kinship ties with each other and with the imperial family.Template:Sfnp

The administrative structure of the Ming dynasty was modeled after the Yuan model. The civil administration was led by the Central Secretariat, headed by two Grand Councilors who were informally known as Prime Ministers. This Secretariat was responsible for six ministries: Personnel, Revenue, Rites, War, Justice, and (Public) Works. The Censorate oversaw the administration, while the Chief Military Commission was in charge of the army, but under later emperors, the civil administration, which was the core of the government, became primarily focused on supporting the army financially and logistically.Template:Sfnp Initially, the provinces were under the control of the general, with the civil authorities also reporting to them.Template:Sfnp In the 1370s, the military's influence decreased as ministers were appointed to leadership positions in the provinces.Template:Sfnp Regional military commanders were then responsible for managing the affairs of hereditary soldiers in the Weisuo system.Template:Sfnp

In the 1370s, the Weisuo system, which was introduced in 1364, became stabilized. Soldiers under this system were obligated hereditarily to serve, with each family required to provide one member for military service in each generation.Template:Sfnp The army was self-sufficient thanks to the production of these hereditary soldiers.Template:Sfnp By 1393, the empire's armed forces consisted of 326 guards and 65 battalions,Template:Sfnp but after 1368, the army may have been larger than necessary, as the government feared the consequences of widespread demobilization.Template:Sfnp

In order to limit the influence of eunuchs in the palace, the Emperor initially restricted their number to 100, but he later allowed their number to increase to 400, with the condition that they were not allowed to learn to read, write, or interfere in politics.Template:Sfnp

The state administration was reformed based on Confucian principles. In February 1371, the Emperor made the decision to hold provincial and county examinations every three years, with the provincial examinations already taking place in March,Template:Sfnp but in 1377, he had already cancelled the civil service examinations due to their lack of connection to the quality of the graduates.Template:SfnpTemplate:Sfnp Despite his support for Confucianism, the Emperor had a deep distrust for the official class and did not hesitate to severely punish them for any wrongdoing.Template:Sfnp After the resumption of examinations in 1384,Template:Sfnp he even went as far as executing the chief examiner when it was revealed that he had only awarded the jinshi degree to applicants from the south.Template:Sfnp

Every three years, provincial examinations were held, and those who passed were awarded the title of juren. This title was sufficient for starting an official career in the early Ming period, and also qualified individuals for teaching positions in local schools until the end of the dynasty.Template:Sfnp Following the provincial examinations, metropolitan examinations were held. Upon passing, candidates advanced to the palace examinations, where the Emperor himself read their work. Successful candidates were awarded the rank of jinshi, with a total of 871 individuals granted it during the Hongwu period.Template:SfnpTemplate:Efn-lr

There were fewer than 8,000 civil servants,Template:Sfnp with half of them in lower grades (eighth and ninth), not including the approximately 5,000 teachers in government schools.Template:Sfnp Unlike in later years, during the early Ming period, there were not enough candidates obtained through examinations, and positions were often filled based on recommendations and personal connections.Template:Sfnp The bureaucratic system was still in its early stages, and the introduction of examinations primarily had symbolic significance as a declaration of allegiance to Confucianism.Template:Sfnp

Local government and taxation

The villages were self-governing communities that resolved internal disputes without interference from officials, as the Hongwu Emperor did not recommend their presence in the countryside. These communities operated based on Confucian morality rather than laws.Template:Sfnp

A census was conducted to record the population listed in the Yellow Registers, while the land, its quality, taxation, and ownership were recorded in Fish-Scale Registers (named after their appearance). Regional tax captains (liangzhang; Template:Zhi), who were appointed by county authorities from wealthy families, were responsible for collecting taxes.Template:Sfnp In 1371, the lijia system of local self-government was introduced in the Yangtze River basin and gradually expanded throughout the empire.Template:SfnpTemplate:Efn-lr Regular state expenses, except for land tax, were covered through mandatory services and supplies from the population. In the lijia system, one jia always provided services, and after a year, it was replaced by another. This form of taxation was progressive, unlike the land tax. Large infrastructure projects, such as road and dam construction or canals, were funded through additional ad hoc requisitions.Template:Sfnp

Taxes were low, with a fixed amount for each region, intended for peasants to pay 3% of their harvest. These taxes were often collected in kind, with the population responsible for delivering goods to state warehouses,Template:Sfnp but the transportation of these goods, often over long distances of hundreds of kilometers, placed a heavy burden on taxpayers. The cost of transporting grain to Nanjing was three to four times higher than its price, and even six to seven times higher for supplies to the army on the northern border.Template:Sfnp The Ministry of Revenue was responsible for collecting taxes and benefits from peasants, while the Ministry of Works oversaw artisans. Artisans were required to work in state factories for three months every 2 to 5 years, depending on their profession.Template:Sfnp The Ministry of War kept records of hereditary soldiers and also collected taxes and benefits from them. As state income and expenditure were managed through orders for the population to deliver specific goods to designated locations, large warehouses were not necessary. However, officials were not always able to effectively direct supplies to the necessary places, leading to local supply crises.Template:Sfnp

Society

A close-up view of Chinese calligraphy written in bold black ink on aged, tan paper. The script is arranged in vertical columns, likely in the semi-cursive style, with an appended note of smaller characters on the left edge.

The Hongwu Emperor's calligraphy

The Hongwu Emperor promoted parsimony and simplicity, aiming to restore a basic agricultural economy with other industries in supporting roles.Template:Sfnp To preserve social cohesion and the state's economic foundations, he restricted the consumption of the wealthy, fearing that displays of luxury would damage society. Rooted in Confucian morality, the privileged were expected to practice self-restraint, and the Emperor set the example by living with simple food and furnishings.Template:Sfnp He regarded comfort, luxury, and property as signs of selfish corruption. His orders included replacing flower gardens in his sons’ palaces with vegetable gardens, banning exotic pets in favor of useful animals like cows, and prohibiting rice varieties used for making rice wine. The government also regulated consumption standards for food, clothing, housing, and transportation.Template:Sfnp These controls extended to everyday life, such as standards for greetings and writing style,Template:Sfnp restrictions on personal names,Template:Sfnp and bans on symbols connected to his monastic past.Template:Sfnp

The Emperor believed that providing every man with a field and every woman with a loom would alleviate the hardships faced by the people, but this ideal was not reflected in reality as the wealthy held a disproportionate amount of land and often found ways to avoid paying taxes.Template:Sfnp In fact, during the last years of the Yuan dynasty, the land tax yield dropped to zero.Template:Sfnp In response, the Hongwu Emperor confiscated land from the wealthy and redistributed it to the landless. Those who had abandoned their properties during the wars were not entitled to have them returned, but were instead given replacement plots of land on the condition that they personally worked on them.Template:Sfnp Those who occupied more land than they could cultivate were punished and had their land confiscated. While Emperor Taizu of Song encouraged large landowners and stated that the wealthy are the gateway to prosperity for the entire country, the Hongwu Emperor sought to eliminate the wealthy. As a result of his reforms, there were very few large landowners left.Template:Sfnp

After ascending to the throne, the Hongwu Emperor resettled 14,300 wealthy families from Zhejiang and the Yingtian area from their estates to Nanjing.Template:Sfnp He also confiscated the vast properties of Buddhist monasteries, which during the Yuan dynasty owned 3/5 of the land in Shandong province. As a result, 3,000 Buddhist and Taoist monasteries were abolished, and 214,000 Buddhist and 300,000 Taoist monks and nuns were returned to secular life. Additionally, monasteries were limited to one with a maximum of two monks in each county.Template:Sfnp To address the issue of landlessness, free land was allocated to peasants. In the north, peasants received 15 mu per field and 2 per garden, while in the south, they received 16 mu. Hereditary soldiers were given 50 mu.Template:Sfnp

In contrast to the attitude towards the wealthy, care for the poor was significantly increased (and by the 16th century, considered standard). The government ordered the establishment of shelters for beggars in each county, and rations of rice, wood, and cloth were guaranteed for other poor individuals. Additionally, octogenarians and older individuals were guaranteed meat and wine. These expenses were covered by the lijia system,Template:Sfnp which required wealthy families to contribute or face property confiscation.Template:Sfnp

Agriculture

A high-angle, panoramic view of a mountainous landscape completely covered by thousands of intricate, curving rice terraces. The fields are primarily filled with water, creating a complex, colorful pattern of silvery-blue reflections, green strips of vegetation, and reddish-brown soil.

Honghe Hani Rice Terraces in Yunnan. For the Hongwu Emperor, agriculture was the main source of the country's wealth.

There were no arable lands available, so farmers who fertilized uncultivated land were exempted from taxes for three years. The government also encouraged refugees and people from densely populated areas to resettle on vacant land in the north, providing various reliefs to resettlers.Template:Sfnp To increase the labor force, slavery was abolished (only members of the imperial family were allowed to own slaves), the number of monks was reduced, and the buying and selling of free people, including the acceptance of women, children, and concubines as collateral, was prohibited. The slave trade was also banned.Template:Sfnp

In addition to reclaiming abandoned land, measures were taken to restore irrigation systems. The Hongwu Emperor ordered local authorities to report any requests or comments from the population regarding the repair or construction of irrigation structures to the court. In 1394, the Emperor issued a special decree for the Ministry of Works to maintain canals and dams in case of drought or heavy rains. He also sent graduates from state schools and technical specialists to oversee flood protection structures throughout the country. By the winter of 1395, a total of 40,987 dams and drainage canals had been constructed across the country.Template:Sfnp

Currency

Inflation at the end of the Yuan era caused paper money to be abandoned in favor of grain as the primary medium of exchange. In 1361, the Hongwu Emperor began minting coins, but the small amount produced did not have a significant economic impact. Instead, it served as a symbol of political independence.Template:Sfnp In the 1360s, the government lacked the power to control the economy, so it allowed old coins to circulate and left price determination to the market.Template:Sfnp

After China was reunified, officials reported that a shortage of coins hindered circulation. The government proposed reducing the copper content by one-tenth to increase minting,Template:Sfnp but the Emperor rejected this, and because mining could not meet demand, paper currency (banknotes) was reintroduced in 1375 as the primary medium of exchange, with copper coins secondary. Like in the Yuan dynasty, the government tried to promote paper money by prohibiting precious metals, but unlike Yuan paper, it was not convertible into silver, causing rapid devaluation.Template:Sfnp Attempts to stabilize the currency by repeatedly stopping and restarting printing only led to overissuance.Template:Efn-lr In 1390, state income was 20 million guan in notes, while expenses reached 95 million.Template:Sfnp By 1394, the notes had lost 60% of their value, prompting merchants to use silver instead.Template:Efn-lr Although the government withdrew coins and again banned silver in 1397,Template:Sfnp merchants continued valuing goods in silver, using banknotes mainly for payments.Template:Sfnp

The anti-silver policy can be seen as an attempt to weaken the influence of the wealthy in Jiangnan, who were previously supporters of Zhang Shicheng (in addition to confiscation, high taxes,Template:Efn-lr and relocation). The possession of silver was viewed as granting excessive independence to its owners in the eyes of the Emperor. Therefore, he sought to prohibit the exchange of banknotes for silver.Template:Sfnp

Trade

The Emperor's distrust of the bureaucratic elite was accompanied by a disdainful attitude towards merchants. He viewed weakening the influence of the merchant class and large landowners as a top priority for his government. As part of this effort, he implemented high taxes in and around Suzhou, which was then the commercial and economic hub of China.Template:Sfnp Additionally, thousands of wealthy families were forcibly relocated to Nanjing and the southern bank of the Yangtze River.Template:SfnpTemplate:Sfnp To prevent unauthorized business, traveling merchants were required to report their names and cargo to local agents and undergo monthly inspections by the authorities.Template:Sfnp They were also obligated to store their goods in government warehouses.Template:Sfnp

A large, shallow porcelain dish resting on a dark wooden base, viewed from an angle. The dish has a light body decorated with intricate floral and scrollwork patterns rendered in a dense, monochromatic underglaze brown or sepia pigment.

A porcelain dish from the Hongwu era. Nanjing Museum

Merchants were greatly affected by restrictions on population mobility. Any journeys longer than 100 li (58 km) were strictly prohibited without official permission.Template:Sfnp In order to obtain this permission, merchants were required to carry a travel document that contained their personal information such as name, place of residence, name of village head (lizhang; Template:Zhi), age, height, occupation, and names of family members. Any discrepancies or irregularities in this document could result in the merchant being sent back home and facing punishment.Template:SfnpTemplate:Efn-lr

Merchants were subjected to inspections by soldiers along the route, at a ferry terminal, in the street and in their shops. Inns were required to report their guests to the authorities, providing details such as travel destinations and transported goods. Merchants were also required to store their goods in state warehouses and were not allowed to engage in trading without a license. Even when a license was obtained, authorities would inspect the goods, destination, and price. Intermediaries, or brokers, were strictly prohibited. The government also set fixed prices for most goods, and failure to comply with these prices resulted in punishment.Template:Sfnp In addition, merchants risked having their goods confiscated and being subjected to flogging for selling poor quality goods.Template:Sfnp

The Ming dynasty was one of the few dynasties that took the concept of four occupations (in descending order: officials, peasants, artisans, merchants) seriously and consistently. Unlike peasants, merchants were excluded from civil service examinations.Template:Efn-lrTemplate:Sfnp This exclusion also extended to rank-and-file employees of the authorities who dealt with financial matters, as they were seen as potential sources of corruption. As a result, they were not allowed to take examinations that could elevate them to the official class.Template:Sfnp Despite the government's efforts, the population's interest in trade remained strong. Contemporary authors believed that this was due to the fact that a successful trade trip could yield more profit than a year's worth of work in the fields.Template:Sfnp

Foreign relations

The Emperor's strict control over the economy and society created major difficulties in foreign relations.Template:Sfnp Viewing trade as corrupting, the government banned private foreign tradeTemplate:Sfnp and enforced a strict sea ban during the Hongwu era. Chinese citizens were forbidden to leave the empire, and harsh punishments such as death or exile were applied to foreigners and anyone trading with them.Template:Sfnp Shipbuilding with two or more masts was banned, ships and ports were destroyed or blocked, and the coast was heavily guarded. The goal was to stop all foreign trade, summarized in the phrase "not even a piece of wood should sail across the sea".Template:Sfnp The ban offered no alternatives and caused more smuggling, and government crackdowns were ineffective. The Yongle Emperor later encouraged trade through the tribute system.Template:Sfnp

Foreign relations played a crucial role in establishing the legitimacy of Ming rule. The surrounding states expressed their recognition of Ming authority and superiority by paying tribute. As part of this tribute system, foreign delegations were given Chinese goods of equivalent value. This was a way for the Ming government to regulate and restrict foreign trade.Template:Sfnp

In 1368, the Emperor announced his accession to Korea, Đại Việt (present-day northern Vietnam), Champa, and Japan.Template:Sfnp The following year, tribute missions were sent by Korea, Đại Việt, and Champa, and in 1370, by the Javanese Majapahit. In 1371, Japan, Siam, Cambodia, and the Sumatran Kingdom of Melayu also sent tribute missions, followed by Ryukyu in 1372.Template:Sfnp From 1369 to 1397, the most frequent missions came from Korea, Ryukyu, Champa, Siam, and Đại Việt (20 times, 19 times, 18 times, and 14 times, respectively).Template:Sfnp Specialized offices were established to receive these missions, located in Ningbo, Quanzhou (in Fujian), and Guangzhou starting in 1370.Template:Sfnp However, four years later, these offices were abolished,Template:Sfnp resulting in a significant decrease in tributary trade. Nonetheless, it remained substantial, with the Siamese mission bringing 38 tons of aromatic substances in 1392 and the Javanese mission bringing almost 17 tons of pepper in 1382.Template:Sfnp

Before embarking on any conquests abroad, the Hongwu Emperor made it a priority to stabilize the government in China. As a result, he refused to assist Champa in their war against Đại Việt and instead reprimanded the Viets for their aggression.Template:Sfnp In 1372, after facing defeats in Mongolia, he cautioned future emperors against the pursuit of conquering glory and advised them to focus on defending China against "northern barbarians".Template:Sfnp The Ming government recognized the Southern Court in Japan as legitimate, while viewing the Kyoto government as usurpers,Template:SfnpTemplate:Sfnp but they only resorted to harsh correspondence and never resorted to using force. This was likely due to the memory of the failed Mongol invasion, which the Japanese were quick to remind them of.Template:Sfnp

Changes in the 1380s

An oval, light-colored plaque (possibly made of bone or ivory) featuring Chinese characters carved in two vertical columns: "Embroidered Uniform Guard Commander Ma Shun". The inscription is framed by stylized carvings of clouds or dragons at the top and sides.

An officer's badge of the Jinyiwei (Embroidered Uniform Guard), an elite guard regiment of the Forbidden City, serving as the secret police. The Capital Museum, Beijing.

The decade of 1371–1380 was a period of consolidation and stability,Template:Sfnp but in 1380, the Emperor initiated a new wave of reforms, taking direct and personal control, while also intensifying the terror against the elite.Template:Sfnp

The Emperor's sons

According to the Emperor's decision, his sons, who were given the titles of princes (wang), were assigned military command on the border to protect the empire.Template:Sfnp Along with receiving Confucian education, which emphasized moral values, the Emperor's sons also learned about warfare. The Emperor placed great importance on the education of his sons and entrusted it to scholars led by Song Lian and Kong Keren (Template:Zhi).Template:Sfnp

The decision to place the princes in charge of the army was made in order to diminish the influence of the military nobility on the state. The Emperor was highly concerned about potential conspiracies among the generals, a number of whom he executed, as seen in the cases of Hu Weiyong and Lan Yu.Template:Sfnp The Emperor's fears were not unfounded, as the threat of conspiracies among the generals was always present. He himself came to power through the betrayal of the heirs of Guo Zixing and later faced conspiracies from his subordinates.Template:Efn-lrTemplate:Sfnp

The most capable military leaders among the princes were Zhu Di and Zhu Gang, later joined by Zhu Fu, Zhu Zhen, Zhu Zhi, and Zhu Bai. Among the literary-minded imperial princes, Zhu Su stood out for his works on Yuan court poetry and medicinal plants, while Zhu Quan was known for his lyrical dramas and encyclopedias on alchemy and pharmacy. Other princes, such as Zhu Zi, Zhu Tan, Zhu Chun, and Zhu Bai, were also comfortable in the company of scholars and skilled in the art of war.Template:Sfnp However, not all princes behaved properly, and the Emperor often reprimanded six of his sons–Zhu Shuang, Zhu Su, Zhu Fu, Zhu Zi, Zhu Tan, and Zhu Gui–and his great-nephew Zhu Shouqian.Template:Sfnp

In 1370, the Emperor appointed nine of his oldest sons (after the heir to the throne) as princes.Template:Efn-lr Five more were appointed in 1378, and the remaining ten in 1391. Once they reached around twenty years of age, they were sent to their designated regions, with the first being sent in 1378. As they settled into their regions, their importance grew.Template:Sfnp The most influential of these princes were the second, third, and fourth sons—Zhu Shuang, Zhu Gang, and Zhu Di—who were based in Xi'an, Taiyuan, and Beijing respectively. They were responsible for commanding the armies on the northern frontier.Template:Sfnp Apart from the princes, other members of the imperial family were excluded from the administration of the country.Template:Sfnp

Reforms of the central government

The structure of the civil administration, organized according to the Yuan model, partially distanced the Emperor from direct exercise of power and did not satisfy him. In the early 1380s, he proceeded with a radical reorganization of the administrative apparatus, with the primary goal of centralization and increasing the ruler's personal power.Template:Sfnp

In 1380, Grand Chancellor Hu Weiyong was imprisoned and executed on suspicion of participating in a conspiracy against the Emperor. As a result, his position and entire office (Central Secretariat) were abolished.Template:SfnpTemplate:Sfnp Furthermore, the Emperor forbade its restoration permanently.Template:Sfnp Six ministries were then placed directly under the Emperor's control.Template:Sfnp The Censorate was also temporarily abolished, and the unitary Chief Military Commission governing the armed forces was divided into five Chief Military Commissions, each controlling a portion of the troops in the capital and a fifth of the regions.Template:SfnpTemplate:SfnpTemplate:Sfnp Additionally, twelve guards of the Imperial Guard in the capital were directly subordinate to the Emperor. One of these guards, known as the Embroidered Uniform Guard, acted as the secret police. This resulted in the fragmentation of state authority and the government, which immediately eliminated the possibility of a coup d'état but weakened the government's long-term ability to act.Template:Sfnp

After the major purge of 1380, smaller processes followed, targeting several ministers and deputy ministers, as well as the Emperor's nephew Li Wenzhong and hundreds of less prominent individuals.Template:Sfnp The executions sparked a wave of protests from officials, who pointed to the demoralization of the state apparatus and the waste of human resources. The Emperor did not punish the critics, but he also did not change his policies.Template:Sfnp

Domestic and foreign policy

In 1381, the lijia system was implemented throughout the country, and the Yellow Registers were introduced to revise the population records.Template:Sfnp Additionally, a census was conducted.Template:Efn-lr As part of this system, tax collection was transferred to the li, resulting in the abolishment of regional tax captains in 1382, but they were reinstated three years later. Regional tax captains collected taxes from the heads of the liTemplate:Sfnp and delivered to state granaries. The li were responsible for covering expenses related to transportation, accounting, and supervision.Template:Sfnp

The campaign against large landowners also targeted the new Ming officials. In 1380, land ownership of ministers and officials was reviewed, followed by a similar review in 1381 for holders of noble titles,Template:Sfnp including members of the imperial family. These individuals were required to return their acquired lands to the state and were compensated with rice and silk.Template:Sfnp This resulted in a long-lasting fragmentation of land ownership. Even two centuries later, He Liangjun (Template:Zhi; 1506–1573) observed that there were no large landowners in Suzhou, and no one owned more than ten times the amount of land as a small peasant.Template:Sfnp

In 1382, the Emperor suffered a significant loss when Empress Ma died. That same year, the newly appointed head of the Court of Judicature and Revision criticized the Emperor's support of Buddhist monks, their privileges at court, and their position in the government. As a result, the Emperor limited their influence. At the same time, there was a growing support for Confucianism, leading to the opening of Confucian temples throughout the empire. These temples had previously been closed in 1369, with the exception of one in Confucius' birthplace.Template:Sfnp This shift towards Confucianism also resulted in the renewal of civil service examinations in 1384,Template:Sfnp with only required knowledge of the Four Books and Five Classics. The promotion of Confucianism strengthened the emphasis on moral considerations in the management of the state, rather than solely focusing on economic factors.Template:Sfnp

The 1380s saw a significant increase in foreign policy activity.Template:Sfnp In 1380 and 1381, the northern border troops launched large-scale expeditions beyond the Great Wall.Template:SfnpTemplate:Sfnp In 1381, the Ming army, led by Fu Youde, quickly conquered Yunnan, but suppressing local uprisings kept Fu's soldiers occupied for several more years. Additionally, a significant number of troops were needed to guard the coast against smugglers and pirates, delaying the offensive in the north until 1387.Template:Sfnp The campaign into Manchuria in 1387 was ultimately successful, but the commanding general, Feng Sheng, was replaced by Lan Yu. In the 1388 campaign, Lan Yu's army of 200,000 decisively defeated the Mongols at the Songhua River and Buir Lake.Template:Sfnp The Chinese captured 73,000 Mongol warriors, including the Mongol heir apparent and his younger brother. Mongol khan Tögüs Temür fled, but was assassinated the following year, leading his people to dispute the succession. As a reward, Lan was granted the title of duke, and six of his generals were made marquises.Template:Sfnp The campaign also resulted in the annexation of the Liaodong Peninsula.Template:Sfnp

1390s: Succession crisis and death

The Hongwu Emperor has a white beard and wears a yellow robe and a black cap.

The Hongwu Emperor in his old age, c. Template:TrimTemplate:Sfnp

From 1390 onwards, the armies sent north of the Great Wall were commanded by the Emperor's sons, especially Zhu Di, but also Zhu Shuang, Zhu Gang, and Zhu Fu.Template:Sfnp During this time, there was also a new wave of arrests that began in the early 1390s. In the autumn of 1391, Zhu Biao went on an inspection trip to Shaanxi, where he was supposed to assess the possibility of moving the capital to Xi'an,Template:Sfnp but upon his return, he fell ill and died in 1392. The sudden death of the heir to the throne caused instability in the power system.Template:Sfnp In response, the Emperor appointed Zhu Biao's son, Zhu Yunwen, as the new heir. In order to ensure a smooth transition of power to the young heir, the Emperor initiated a massive new wave of purges in 1393, starting with the accusation and execution of General Lan Yu. These purges were aimed at dismantling the military nobility.Template:Sfnp

During the thirty years of the Hongwu Emperor's rule, approximately 100,000 people were killed in political purges.Template:SfnpTemplate:Sfnp The most notable of these purges occurred in 1390, when arrests and executions extended to the entire ruling class.Template:Sfnp It seems that the Emperor realized that the military hereditary elite was not a reliable source of support for the throne and made the decision to eliminate them.Template:Sfnp In an attempt to address the issue of extreme wealth disparities, many landowners and merchants were unjustly executed under the false accusation of being associated with treacherous politicians.Template:Sfnp

However, the power vacuum that resulted was not filled by civil officials, but primarily by the Emperor's sons.Template:Sfnp Similar to the generals before them, they alternated between serving on the border with the army and holding audiences in the capital.Template:Sfnp This helped to stabilize the empire during the Hongwu Emperor's lifetime,Template:Sfnp but after his death, a crisis arose due to the loyalty of the generals and officials being directed towards the emperor as an individual rather than the office.Template:Sfnp

The Hongwu Emperor fell seriously ill in December 1397 and again from 24 May 1398. On 22 June, his condition worsened, and he died on 24 June 1398.Template:Sfnp He was buried in the Xiao Mausoleum, located on the southern side of Purple Mountain, east of Nanjing.Template:Sfnp

Assessment

A wide stone path leads towards a tall grey brick wall with a central arched entrance, surmounted by a red building with a double-tiered yellow roof, framed by trees on both sides.

The Xiao Mausoleum is the final resting place of the Hongwu Emperor and his empress.

In traditional Chinese historiography, the Hongwu Emperor was revered as a typical founder of a dynasty. He is credited with bringing China out of the chaos of civil war and freeing it from foreign rule. His unification of the country and restoration of order in society laid the groundwork for a prosperous and thriving era under the new dynasty. In recognition of his achievements, he was given the temple name Taizu, meaning "Grand Progenitor". This perspective was reflected in the official history of the Ming dynasty, known as the History of Ming, which was written during the Qing dynasty.Template:Sfnp

Modern historians, influenced by a strong aversion towards the dictators of the 20th century, an anti-monarchist mindset, and a tendency to psychoanalyze personalities, often place a heavy emphasis on the despotic nature of the Hongwu Emperor's regimeTemplate:Sfnp and attribute it to paranoia,Template:Sfnp or more generally, to some form of mental illness.Template:Sfnp They primarily view him as a dictator whose irrational actions and paranoia resulted in the loss of countless lives.Template:Sfnp Other approaches examine him within the context of his time and personal experiences. This perspective highlights the impact of his life experiences on his goals and the methods he employed to achieve them. His impoverished and unstable upbringing is considered a crucial period in which he developed his personal philosophy.Template:Sfnp

The Hongwu Emperor is widely regarded as one of the most influential and remarkable rulers in Chinese history, regardless of which aspect of his life is emphasized. His reforms had a lasting impact on the Chinese state and society for centuries to come.Template:SfnpTemplate:Sfnp In order to establish a well-ordered and virtuous society, he adopted Zhu Xi's version of Neo-Confucianism as the state ideology, which greatly contributed to its widespread adoption.Template:Sfnp

The abolition of the Grand Secretariat and the reform of central administrative bodies resulted in the loss of a strong representative for officials. This led to a significant increase in the ruler's power and marked a departure from the Song and Yuan empires, where the emperor's authority was limited. Instead, it established a more despotic rule that continued through the Qing dynasty.Template:Sfnp Alternatively, some argue that the unification of the country under a centralized state with an all-powerful emperor during the Ming dynasty was the culmination of a long process that began with the Qin and Han dynasties.Template:Sfnp

Chancellors during reign

Left and Right Grand Councilors during the Hongwu Emperor's reignTemplate:Sfnp

In office	Left Grand Councilor	Right Grand Councilor
1368–1371	Li Shanchang	Xu Da
1371	Xu Da	Wang Guangyang
1371–1373	–	Wang Guangyang
1373–1377	–	Hu Weiyong
1377–1380	Hu Weiyong	Wang Guangyang

Family

The Hongwu Emperor had many Korean and Mongolian women among his concubines along with Empress Ma and had 16 daughters and 26 sons by them.Template:Sfnp His consorts and children were:

• Empress Xiaocigao of the Ma clanTemplate:Sfnp
  • Zhu Biao, Crown Prince Yiwen (1355–1392), first sonTemplate:Sfnp
  • Zhu Shuang, Prince Min of Qin (1356–1395), second sonTemplate:Sfnp
  • Zhu Gang, Prince Gong of Jin (1358–1398), third sonTemplate:Sfnp
  • Zhu Di, Prince of Yan, later the Yongle Emperor (1360–1424), fourth sonTemplate:Sfnp
  • Zhu Su, Prince Ding of Zhou (1361–1425), fifth sonTemplate:Sfnp
  • Princess Ningguo (Template:Zhi; 1364–1434), second daughterTemplate:Sfnp
    • Married Mei Yin (d. 1405), nephew of Mei Sizu, Marquis of Runan, in 1378, and had issue (two sons)
  • Princess Anqing (Template:Zhi), fourth daughterTemplate:Sfnp
    • Married Ouyang Lun (Template:Zhi; d. 1397) in 1381
• Noble Consort Chengmu of the Sun clan (1342–1374)Template:Sfnp
  • Princess Lin'an (Template:Zhi; d. 1421), personal name Jingjing (Template:Zhi), first daughterTemplate:Sfnp
    • Married Li Qi (Template:Zhi; d. 1403), the eldest son of Li Shanchang, Duke of Han, in 1376, and had issue (two sons)
  • Princess Huaiqing (Template:Zhi), sixth daughterTemplate:Sfnp
    • Married Wang Ning (Template:Zhi), Marquis of Yongchun (Template:Zhi) in 1382, and had issue (two sons)
  • Tenth daughterTemplate:Sfnp
  • Thirteenth daughterTemplate:Sfnp
• Noble Consort (Template:Zhi) of the Yong clan (Template:Zhi)Template:Sfnp
• Noble Consort (Template:Zhi) of the Wang clan (Template:Zhi)Template:Sfnp
• Noble Consort (Template:Zhi) of the Zhao clan (Template:Zhi)Template:Sfnp
  • Zhu Mo, Prince Jian of Shen (1380–1431), 21st sonTemplate:Sfnp
• Consort Shu (Template:Zhi) of the Li clan (Template:Zhi)Template:Sfnp
• Consort Ning (Template:Zhi) of the Guo clan (Template:Zhi)Template:Sfnp
  • Princess Runing (Template:Zhi), fifth daughterTemplate:Sfnp
    • Married Lu Xian (Template:Zhi), son of Lu Zhongheng, Marquis of Ji'an, in 1382
  • Princess Daming (Template:Zhi; d. 1426), seventh daughterTemplate:Sfnp
    • Married Li Jian (Template:Zhi; d. 1401) in 1382, and had issue (one son)
  • Zhu Tan (Template:Zhi), Prince Huang of Lu (Template:Zhi; 1370–1390), tenth sonTemplate:Sfnp
• Consort Zhaojingchong (Template:Zhi) of the Hu clan (Template:Zhi)Template:Sfnp
  • Zhu Zhen, Prince Zhao of Chu (1364–1424), sixth sonTemplate:Sfnp
• Consort Ding (Template:Zhi) of the Da clan (Template:Zhi; d. 1390)Template:Sfnp
  • Zhu Fu (Template:Zhi), Prince Gong of Qi (Template:Zhi; 1364–1428), seventh sonTemplate:Sfnp
  • Zhu Zi (Template:Zhi), Prince of Tan (Template:Zhi; 1369–1390), eighth sonTemplate:Sfnp
• Consort An (Template:Zhi) of the Zheng clan (Template:Zhi)Template:Sfnp
  • Princess Fuqing (Template:Zhi; d. 1417), eighth daughterTemplate:Sfnp
    • Married Zhang Lin (Template:Zhi), son of Zhang Long, Marquis of Fengxiang, in 1385, and had issue (one son)
• Consort Hui (Template:Zhi) of the Guo clan (Template:Zhi)Template:Sfnp
  • Zhu Chun (Template:Zhi), Prince Xian of Shu (Template:Zhi); 1371–1423), 11th sonTemplate:Sfnp
  • Zhu Gui, Prince Jian of Dai (1374–1446), 13th sonTemplate:Sfnp
  • Princess Zhenyi of Yongjia (Template:Zhi; 1376–1455), 12th daughterTemplate:SfnpTemplate:Sfnp
    • Married Guo Zhen (Template:Zhi), son of Guo Ying, Marquis of Wuding, in 1389, and had issue (one son)
  • Zhu Hui (Template:Zhi), Prince of Gu (Template:Zhi; 1379–1428), 19th sonTemplate:Sfnp
  • Princess Ruyang (Template:Zhi), 15th daughterTemplate:Sfnp
    • Married Xie Da (Template:Zhi) in 1394
• Consort Shun (Template:Zhi) of the Hu clan (Template:Zhi)Template:Sfnp
  • Zhu Bai (Template:Zhi), Prince Xian of Xiang (Template:Zhi; 1371–1399), 12th sonTemplate:Sfnp
• Consort Xian (Template:Zhi) of the Li clan (Template:Zhi)Template:Sfnp
  • Zhu Jing, Prince Ding of Tang (Template:Zhi; 1386–1415), 23rd sonTemplate:Sfnp
• Consort Hui, of the Liu clan (Template:Zhi)Template:Sfnp
  • Zhu Dong (Template:Zhi), Prince Jing of Ying (Template:Zhi; 1388–1414), 24th sonTemplate:Sfnp
• Consort Li (Template:Zhi) of the Ge clan (Template:Zhi)Template:Sfnp
  • Zhu Yi (Template:Zhi), Prince Li of Yi (Template:Zhi; 1388–1414), 25th sonTemplate:Sfnp
  • Prince Zhu Nan (Template:Zhi; 1394–1394), 26th sonTemplate:Sfnp
• Consort Zhuangjinganronghui (Template:Zhi) of the Cui clan (Template:Zhi)Template:Sfnp
• Consort (Template:Zhi) of the Han clan (Template:Zhi)Template:Sfnp
  • Zhu Zhi, Prince Jian of Liao (1377–1424), 15th sonTemplate:Sfnp
  • Princess Hanshan (Template:Zhi; 1381–1462), 14th daughterTemplate:Sfnp
    • Married Yin Qing (Template:Zhi) in 1394, and had issue (two sons)
• Consort (Template:Zhi) of the Yu clan (Template:Zhi)Template:Sfnp
  • Zhu Zhan (Template:Zhi), Prince Jing of Qing (Template:Zhi; 1378–1438), 16th sonTemplate:Sfnp
• Consort (Template:Zhi) of the Yang clan (Template:Zhi)Template:Sfnp
  • Zhu Quan, Prince Xian of Ning (1378–1448), 17th sonTemplate:Sfnp
• Consort (Template:Zhi) of the Zhou clan (Template:Zhi)Template:Sfnp
  • Zhu Pian (Template:Zhi), Prince Zhuang of Min (Template:Zhi; 1379–1450), 18th sonTemplate:Sfnp
  • Zhu Song (Template:Zhi), Prince Xian of Han (Template:Zhi; 1380–1407), 20th sonTemplate:Sfnp
• Consort (Template:Zhi; d. 1398) of the Weng clan (Template:Zhi)Template:Sfnp
• Beauty (Template:Zhi) of the Zhang clan (Template:Zhi), personal name Xuanmiao (Template:Zhi)Template:Sfnp
  • Princess Baoqing (Template:Zhi; 1395–1433), 16th daughterTemplate:Sfnp
    • Married Zhao Hui (Template:Zhi) in 1413
• Beauty (Template:Zhi) of the Qu clan (Template:Zhi)Template:Sfnp
• Lady Gao (Template:Zhi)Template:Sfnp
  • Zhu Ying (Template:Zhi), Prince Zhuang of Su (Template:Zhi; 1376–1420), 14th sonTemplate:Sfnp
• Unknown
  • Princess Chongning (Template:Zhi), third daughterTemplate:Sfnp
    • Married Niu Cheng (Template:Zhi) in 1384
  • Zhu Qi (Template:Zhi), Prince of Zhao (Template:Zhi; 1369–1371), ninth sonTemplate:Sfnp
  • Princess Shouchun (Template:Zhi; d. 1388), ninth daughterTemplate:Sfnp
    • Married Fu Zhong (Template:Zhi), son of Fu Youde, Duke of Ying, in 1386, and had issue (one son)
  • Princess Nankang (Template:Zhi; d. 1438), personal name Yuhua (Template:Zhi), 11th daughterTemplate:Sfnp
    • Married Hu Guan (Template:Zhi), Hu Hai, Marquis of Dongchuan, in 1388, and had issue (one son)
  • Zhu Ying (Template:Zhi), Prince Hui of An (Template:Zhi; 1383–1417), 22nd sonTemplate:Sfnp

See also

• Chinese emperors family tree (late)
• Huang-Ming Zuxun, the "Ancestral Instructions" written by the Hongwu Emperor to guide his descendants
• Ming Xiaoling Mausoleum
• Ming–Tibet relations
• Ming dynasty in Inner Asia
• Hongwu Tongbao

References

Works cited

• • Template:Harvc
• Template:Cite thesis
• Template:Cite thesis

External links

• Template:Sister-inline
• Template:Sister-inline