Sugar substitute: Difference between revisions

Latest revision as of 16:18, 4 November 2025

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Three artificial sweeteners in paper packets, coded by color: Equal (aspartame; blue), Sweet'N Low (saccharin, pink)Template:Refn and Splenda (sucralose, yellow). Other colors used are green for stevia.^[1]

A sugar substitute or artificial sweetener^[2] is a food additive that provides a sweetness like that of sugar while containing significantly less food energy than sugar-based sweeteners, making it a zero-calorie (non-nutritive)^[3] or low-calorie sweetener. Artificial sweeteners may be derived from plant extracts or processed by chemical synthesis. Sugar substitute products are commercially available in various forms, such as small pills, powders and packets.

Common sugar substitutes include aspartame, monk fruit extract, saccharin, sucralose, stevia, acesulfame potassium (ace-K) and cyclamate. These sweeteners are a fundamental ingredient in diet drinks to sweeten them without adding calories. Additionally, sugar alcohols such as erythritol, xylitol and sorbitol are derived from sugars.

No links have been found between approved artificial sweeteners and cancer in humans.^[4] Reviews and dietetic professionals have concluded that moderate use of non-nutritive sweeteners as a relatively safe replacement for sugars that can help limit energy intake and assist with managing blood glucose and weight.

Types

Template:More citations needed Artificial sweeteners may be derived through manufacturing of plant extracts or processed by chemical synthesis.

High-intensity sweeteners—one type of sugar substitute—are compounds with many times the sweetness of sucrose (common table sugar). As a result, much less sweetener is required and energy contribution is often negligible. The sensation of sweetness caused by these compounds is sometimes notably different from sucrose, so they are often used in complex mixtures that achieve the most intense sweet sensation.

In North America, common sugar substitutes include aspartame, monk fruit extract, saccharin, sucralose and stevia. Cyclamate is prohibited from being used as a sweetener within the United States, but is allowed in other parts of the world.^[5]

Sorbitol, xylitol and lactitol are examples of sugar alcohols (also known as polyols). These are, in general, less sweet than sucrose but have similar bulk properties and can be used in a wide range of food products. Sometimes the sweetness profile is fine-tuned by mixing with high-intensity sweeteners.

Allulose

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Allulose is a sweetener in the sugar family, with a chemical structure similar to fructose. It is naturally found in figs, maple syrup and some fruit. While it comes from the same family as other sugars, it does not substantially metabolize as sugar in the body.^[6] The FDA recognizes that allulose does not act like sugar, and as of 2019, no longer requires it to be listed with sugars on U.S. nutrition labels.^[7] Allulose is about 70% as sweet as sugar, which is why it is sometimes combined with high-intensity sweeteners to make sugar substitutes.^[8]

Acesulfame potassium

Script error: No such module "Labelled list hatnote". Acesulfame potassium (Ace-K) is 200 times sweeter than sucrose (common sugar), as sweet as aspartame, about two-thirds as sweet as saccharin, and one-third as sweet as sucralose. Like saccharin, it has a slightly bitter aftertaste, especially at high concentrations. Kraft Foods has patented the use of sodium ferulate to mask acesulfame's aftertaste. Acesulfame potassium is often blended with other sweeteners (usually aspartame or sucralose), which give a more sucrose-like taste, whereby each sweetener masks the other's aftertaste and also exhibits a synergistic effect in which the blend is sweeter than its components.

Unlike aspartame, acesulfame potassium is stable under heat, even under moderately acidic or basic conditions, allowing it to be used as a food additive in baking or in products that require a long shelf life. In carbonated drinks, it is almost always used in conjunction with another sweetener, such as aspartame or sucralose. It is also used as a sweetener in protein shakes and pharmaceutical products, especially chewable and liquid medications, where it can make the active ingredients more palatable.

Aspartame

Script error: No such module "Labelled list hatnote". Aspartame was discovered in 1965 by James M. Schlatter at the G.D. Searle company. He was working on an anti-ulcer drug and accidentally spilled some aspartame on his hand. When he licked his finger, he noticed that it had a sweet taste. Torunn Atteraas Garin oversaw the development of aspartame as an artificial sweetener. It is an odorless, white crystalline powder that is derived from the two amino acids aspartic acid and phenylalanine. It is about 180–200 times sweeter than sugar,^[9]^[10] and can be used as a tabletop sweetener or in frozen desserts, gelatins, beverages and chewing gum. When cooked or stored at high temperatures, aspartame breaks down into its constituent amino acids. This makes aspartame undesirable as a baking sweetener. It is more stable in somewhat acidic conditions, such as in soft drinks. Though it does not have a bitter aftertaste like saccharin, it may not taste exactly like sugar. When eaten, aspartame is metabolized into its original amino acids. Because it is so intensely sweet, relatively little of it is needed to sweeten a food product, and is thus useful for reducing the number of calories in a product.

The safety of aspartame has been studied extensively since its discovery with research that includes animal studies, clinical and epidemiological research, and postmarketing surveillance,^[11] with aspartame being a rigorously tested food ingredient.^[12] Although aspartame has been subject to claims against its safety,^[13] multiple authoritative reviews have found it to be safe for consumption at typical levels used in food manufacturing.^[11]^[13]^[14]^[15] Aspartame has been deemed safe for human consumption by over 100 regulatory agencies in their respective countries,^[15] including the UK Food Standards Agency,^[9] the European Food Safety Authority (EFSA)^[10] and Health Canada.^[16]

Cyclamate

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File:SweetnLowSweetener.JPG

Cyclamate-based sugar substitute sold in Canada (Sweet'N Low)

In the United States, the Food and Drug Administration banned the sale of cyclamate in 1969 after lab tests in rats involving a 10:1 mixture of cyclamate and saccharin (at levels comparable to humans ingesting 550 cans of diet soda per day) caused bladder cancer.^[17] This information, however, is regarded as "weak" evidence of carcinogenic activity,^[18] and cyclamate remains in common use in many parts of the world, including Canada, the European Union and Russia.^[19]^[20]

Mogrosides (monk fruit)

Script error: No such module "Labelled list hatnote". Mogrosides, extracted from monk fruit (which is commonly also called Script error: No such module "Lang".), are recognized as safe for human consumption and are used in commercial products worldwide.^[21]^[22] As of 2017, it is not a permitted sweetener in the European Union,^[23] although it is allowed as a flavor at concentrations where it does not function as a sweetener.^[22] In 2017, a Chinese company requested a scientific review of its mogroside product by the European Food Safety Authority.^[24] It is the basis of McNeil Nutritionals' tabletop sweetener Nectresse in the United States and Norbu Sweetener in Australia.^[25]

Saccharin

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File:Süßstoff Saccharin Zucker-Museum.jpg

Saccharin, historical wrapping – Sugar Museum, Berlin

Apart from sugar of lead (used as a sweetener in ancient through medieval times before the toxicity of lead was known), saccharin was the first artificial sweetener and was originally synthesized in 1879 by Remsen and Fahlberg. Its sweet taste was discovered by accident. It had been created in an experiment with toluene derivatives. A process for the creation of saccharin from phthalic anhydride was developed in 1950, and, currently, saccharin is created by this process as well as the original process by which it was discovered. It is 300 to 500 times sweeter than sucrose and is often used to improve the taste of toothpastes, dietary foods and dietary beverages. The bitter aftertaste of saccharin is often minimized by blending it with other sweeteners.

Fear about saccharin increased when a 1960 study showed that high levels of saccharin may cause bladder cancer in laboratory rats. In 1977, Canada banned saccharin as a result of the animal research. In the United States, the FDA considered banning saccharin in 1977, but Congress stepped in and placed a moratorium on such a ban. The moratorium required a warning label and also mandated further study of saccharin safety.

Subsequently, it was discovered that saccharin causes cancer in male rats by a mechanism not found in humans. At high doses, saccharin causes a precipitate to form in rat urine. This precipitate damages the cells lining the bladder (urinary bladder urothelial cytotoxicity) and a tumor forms when the cells regenerate (regenerative hyperplasia). According to the International Agency for Research on Cancer, part of the World Health Organization, "This mechanism is not relevant to humans because of critical interspecies differences in urine composition".^[26]

In 2001, the United States repealed the warning label requirement, while the threat of an FDA ban had already been lifted in 1991. Most other countries also permit saccharin, but restrict the levels of use, while other countries have outright banned it.

The EPA has removed saccharin and its salts from their list of hazardous constituents and commercial chemical products. In a 14 December 2010 release, the EPA stated that saccharin is no longer considered a potential hazard to human health.

Steviol glycosides (stevia)

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Stevia is a natural non-caloric sweetener derived from the Stevia rebaudiana plant, and is manufactured as a sweetener.^[27] It is indigenous to South America, and has historically been used in Japanese food products, although it is now common internationally.^[27] In 1987, the FDA issued a ban on stevia because it had not been approved as a food additive, although it continued to be available as a dietary supplement.^[28] After being provided with sufficient scientific data demonstrating safety of using stevia as a manufactured sweetener, from companies such as Cargill and Coca-Cola, the FDA gave a "no objection" status as generally recognized as safe (GRAS) in December 2008 to Cargill for its stevia product, Truvia, for use of the refined stevia extracts as a blend of rebaudioside A and erythritol.^[29]^[30]^[31] In Australia, the brand Vitarium uses Natvia, a stevia sweetener, in a range of sugar-free children's milk mixes.^[32]

In August 2019, the FDA placed an import alert on stevia leaves and crude extracts—which do not have GRAS status—and on foods or dietary supplements containing them, citing concerns about safety and potential for toxicity.^[33]

Sucralose

Script error: No such module "Labelled list hatnote". The world's most commonly used artificial sweetener,^[19] sucralose is a chlorinated sugar that is about 600 times sweeter than sugar. It is produced from sucrose when three chlorine atoms replace three hydroxyl groups. It is used in beverages, frozen desserts, chewing gum, baked goods and other foods. Unlike other artificial sweeteners, it is stable when heated and can therefore be used in baked and fried goods. Discovered in 1976, the FDA approved sucralose for use in 1998.^[34]

Most of the controversy surrounding Splenda, a sucralose sweetener, is focused not on safety but on its marketing. It has been marketed with the slogan, "Splenda is made from sugar, so it tastes like sugar." Sucralose is prepared from either of two sugars, sucrose or raffinose. With either base sugar, processing replaces three oxygen-hydrogen groups in the sugar molecule with three chlorine atoms.^[35] The "Truth About Splenda" website was created in 2005 by the Sugar Association, an organization representing sugar beet and sugar cane farmers in the United States,^[36] to provide its view of sucralose. In December 2004, five separate false-advertising claims were filed by the Sugar Association against Splenda manufacturers Merisant and McNeil Nutritionals for claims made about Splenda related to the slogan, "Made from sugar, so it tastes like sugar." French courts ordered the slogan to no longer be used in France, while in the U.S., the case came to an undisclosed settlement during the trial.^[35]

There are few safety concerns pertaining to sucralose^[37] and the way sucralose is metabolized suggests a reduced risk of toxicity. For example, sucralose is extremely insoluble in fat and, thus, does not accumulate in fatty tissues; sucralose also does not break down and will dechlorinate only under conditions that are not found during regular digestion (i.e., high heat applied to the powder form of the molecule).^[38] Only about 15% of sucralose is absorbed by the body and most of it passes out of the body unchanged.^[38]

In 2017, sucralose was the most common sugar substitute used in the manufacture of foods and beverages; it had 30% of the global market, which was projected to be valued at $2.8 billion by 2021.^[19]

Sugar alcohol

Script error: No such module "Labelled list hatnote". Sugar alcohols, or polyols, are sweetening and bulking ingredients used in the manufacturing of foods and beverages, particularly sugar-free candies, cookies and chewing gums.^[39]^[40] As a sugar substitute, they typically are less-sweet and supply fewer calories (about a half to one-third fewer calories) than sugar. They are converted to glucose slowly, and do not spike increases in blood glucose.^[39]^[40]^[41]

Sorbitol, xylitol, mannitol, erythritol and lactitol are examples of sugar alcohols.^[40] These are, in general, less sweet than sucrose, but have similar bulk properties and can be used in a wide range of food products.^[40] The sweetness profile may be altered during manufacturing by mixing with high-intensity sweeteners.

Sugar alcohols are carbohydrates with a biochemical structure partially matching the structures of sugar and alcohol, although not containing ethanol.^[40]^[42] They are not entirely metabolized by the human body.^[42] The unabsorbed sugar alcohols may cause bloating and diarrhea due to their osmotic effect, if consumed in sufficient amounts.^[43] They are found commonly in small quantities in some fruits and vegetables, and are commercially manufactured from different carbohydrates and starch.^[40]^[42]^[44]

Production

Template:Uncited section The majority of sugar substitutes approved for food use are artificially synthesized compounds. However, some bulk plant-derived sugar substitutes are known, including sorbitol, xylitol and lactitol. As it is not commercially profitable to extract these products from fruits and vegetables, they are produced by catalytic hydrogenation of the appropriate reducing sugar. For example, xylose is converted to xylitol, lactose to lactitol, and glucose to sorbitol.

Use

Reasons for use

Sugar substitutes are used instead of sugar for a number of reasons, including:

Dental care

Carbohydrates and sugars usually adhere to the tooth enamel, where bacteria feed upon them and quickly multiply.^[45] The bacteria convert the sugar to acids that decay the teeth. Sugar substitutes, unlike sugar, do not erode teeth as they are not fermented by the microflora of the dental plaque. A sweetener that may benefit dental health is xylitol, which tends to prevent bacteria from adhering to the tooth surface, thus preventing plaque formation and eventually tooth decay. A Cochrane review, however, found only low-quality evidence that xylitol in a variety of dental products actually has any benefit in preventing tooth decay in adults and children.^[45]

Dietary concerns

Sugar substitutes are a fundamental ingredient in diet drinks to sweeten them without adding calories. Additionally, sugar alcohols such as erythritol, xylitol and sorbitol are derived from sugars. In the United States, six high-intensity sugar substitutes have been approved for use: aspartame, sucralose, neotame, acesulfame potassium (Ace-K), saccharin and advantame.^[5] Food additives must be approved by the FDA,^[5] and sweeteners must be proven as safe via submission by a manufacturer of a GRAS document.^[46] The conclusions about GRAS are based on a detailed review of a large body of information, including rigorous toxicological and clinical studies.^[46] GRAS notices exist for two plant-based, high-intensity sweeteners: steviol glycosides obtained from stevia leaves (Stevia rebaudiana) and extracts from Siraitia grosvenorii, also called luo han guo or monk fruit.^[5]

Glucose metabolism

Diabetes mellitus – People with diabetes limit refined sugar intake to regulate their blood sugar levels. Many artificial sweeteners allow sweet-tasting food without increasing blood glucose. Others do release energy but are metabolized more slowly, preventing spikes in blood glucose. A concern, however, is that overconsumption of foods and beverages made more appealing with sugar substitutes may increase risk of developing diabetes.^[47] A 2014 systematic review showed that a 330ml/day (an amount little less than the standard U.S can size) consumption of artificially sweetened beverages lead to increased risks of type 2 diabetes.^[48] A 2015 meta-analysis of numerous clinical studies showed that habitual consumption of sugar sweetened beverages, artificially sweetened beverages, and fruit juice increased the risk of developing diabetes, although with inconsistent results and generally low quality of evidence.^[47] A 2016 review described the relationship between non-nutritive sweeteners as inconclusive.^[48] A 2020 Cochrane systematic review compared several non-nutritive sweeteners to sugar, placebo and a nutritive low-calorie sweetener (tagatose), but the results were unclear for effects on HbA1c, body weight and adverse events.^[49] The studies included were mainly of very low certainty and did not report on health-related quality of life, diabetes complications, all-cause mortality or socioeconomic effects.^[49]
Reactive hypoglycemia – Individuals with reactive hypoglycemia will produce an excess of insulin after quickly absorbing glucose into the bloodstream. This causes their blood glucose levels to fall below the amount needed for proper body and brain function. As a result, like diabetics, they must avoid intake of high-glycemic foods like white bread, and often use artificial sweeteners for sweetness without blood glucose.

Cost and shelf life

Many sugar substitutes are cheaper than sugar in the final food formulation. Sugar substitutes are often lower in total cost because of their long shelf life and high sweetening intensity. This allows sugar substitutes to be used in products that will not perish after a short period of time.^[50]

Acceptable daily intake levels

In the United States, the FDA provides guidance for manufacturers and consumers about the daily limits for consuming high-intensity sweeteners, a measure called acceptable daily intake (ADI).^[5] During their premarket review for all of the high-intensity sweeteners approved as food additives, the FDA established an ADI defined as an amount in milligrams per kilogram of body weight per day (mg/kg bw/d), indicating that a high-intensity sweetener does not cause safety concerns if estimated daily intakes are lower than the ADI.^[51] The FDA states: "An ADI is the amount of a substance that is considered safe to consume each day over the course of a person's lifetime." For stevia (specifically, steviol glycosides), an ADI was not derived by the FDA, but by the Joint Food and Agricultural Organization/World Health Organization Expert Committee on Food Additives, whereas an ADI has not been determined for monk fruit.^[51]

For the sweeteners approved as food additives, the ADIs in milligrams per kilogram of body weight per day are:^[51]

Acesulfame potassium, ADI 15
Advantame, ADI 32.8
Aspartame, ADI 50
Neotame, ADI 0.3
Saccharin, ADI 15
Sucralose, ADI 5
Stevia (pure extracted steviol glycosides), ADI 4
Monk fruit extract, no ADI determined^[51]

Mouthfeel

Template:Uncited section If the sucrose, or other sugar, that is replaced has contributed to the texture of the product, then a bulking agent is often also needed. This may be seen in soft drinks or sweet teas that are labeled as "diet" or "light" that contain artificial sweeteners and often have notably different mouthfeel, or in table sugar replacements that mix maltodextrins with an intense sweetener to achieve satisfactory texture sensation.

Sweetness intensity

The FDA has published estimates of sweetness intensity, called a multiplier of sweetness intensity (MSI) as compared to table sugar.

Plant-derived

Template:More citations needed The sweetness levels and energy densities are in comparison to those of sucrose.

Name	Relative sweetness to sucrose by weight	Sweetness by food energy	Energy density	Notes
Brazzein	1250			Protein
Curculin	1250			Protein; also changes the taste of water and sour solutions to sweet
Erythritol	0.65	14	0.05
Fructooligosaccharide	0.4
Glycyrrhizin	40
Glycerol	0.6	0.55	1.075	E422
Hydrogenated starch hydrolysates	0.65	0.85	0.75
Inulin	0.1
Isomalt	0.55	1.1	0.5	E953
Isomaltooligosaccharide	0.5
Isomaltulose	0.5
Lactitol	0.4	0.8	0.5	E966
Mogroside mix	300
Mabinlin	100			Protein
Maltitol	0.825	1.7	0.525	E965
Maltodextrin	0.15
Mannitol	0.5	1.2	0.4	E421
Miraculin				A protein that does not taste sweet by itself but modifies taste receptors to make sour foods taste sweet temporarily
Monatin	3,000			Sweetener isolated from the plant Sclerochiton ilicifolius
Monellin	1,400			Sweetening protein in serendipity berries
Osladin	500
Pentadin	500			Protein
Polydextrose	0.1
Psicose	0.7
Sorbitol	0.6	0.9	0.65	Sugar alcohol, E420
Stevia	250			Extracts known as rebiana, rebaudioside A, a steviol glycoside; commercial products: Truvia, PureVia, Stevia In The Raw
Tagatose	0.92	2.4	0.38	Monosaccharide
Thaumatin	2,000			Protein; E957
Xylitol	1.0	1.7	0.6	E967

Artificial

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Name	Relative sweetness to sucrose by weight	Trade name	Approval	Notes
Acesulfame potassium	200^[51]	Nutrinova	FDA 1988	E950 Hyet Sweet
Advantame	20,000^[51]		FDA 2014	E969
Alitame	2,000		approved in Mexico, Australia, New Zealand and China	Pfizer
Aspartame	200^[51]	NutraSweet, Equal	FDA 1981, EU-wide 1994	E951 Hyet Sweet
Salt of aspartame-acesulfame	350	Twinsweet		E962
Carrelame	200,000
Sodium cyclamate	40		FDA banned 1969, approved in EU and Canada	E952, Abbott
Dulcin	250		FDA banned 1950
Glucin	300
Lugduname	220,000–300,000
Neohesperidin dihydrochalcone	1650		EU 1994	E959
Neotame	7,000–13,000^[51]	NutraSweet	FDA 2002	E961
P-4000	4,000		FDA banned 1950
Saccharin	200–700^[51]	Sweet'N Low	FDA 1958, Canada 2014	E954
Sucralose	600^[51]	Kaltame, Splenda	Canada 1991, FDA 1998, EU 2004	E955, Tate & Lyle

Sugar alcohols

Sugar alcohols relative sweetness^[42]^[52]
Name	Relative sweetness to sucrose by weight	Food energy (kcal/g)	Sweetness per food energy, relative to sucrose	Food energy for equal sweetness, relative to sucrose
Arabitol	0.7	0.2	14	7.1%
Erythritol	0.8	0.21	15	6.7%
Glycerol	0.6	4.3	0.56	180%
HSH	0.4–0.9	3.0	0.52–1.2	83–190%
Isomalt	0.5	2.0	1.0	100%
Lactitol	0.4	2.0	0.8	125%
Maltitol	0.9	2.1	1.7	59%
Mannitol	0.5	1.6	1.2	83%
Sorbitol	0.6	2.6	0.92	108%
Xylitol	1.0	2.4	1.6	62%
Compare with: Sucrose	1.0	4.0	1.0	100%

Research

Body weight

Reviews and dietetic professionals have concluded that moderate use of non-nutritive sweeteners as a safe replacement for sugars may help limit energy intake and assist with managing blood glucose and weight.^[53]^[54]^[55] Other reviews found that the association between body weight and non-nutritive sweetener usage is inconclusive.^[48]^[56]^[57] Observational studies tend to show a relation with increased body weight, while randomized controlled trials instead show a little causal weight loss.^[48]^[56]^[57] Other reviews concluded that use of non-nutritive sweeteners instead of sugar reduces body weight.^[53]^[54]

Obesity

There is little evidence that artificial sweeteners directly affect the onset and mechanisms of obesity, although consuming sweetened products is associated with weight gain in children.^[58]^[59] Some preliminary studies indicate that consumption of products manufactured with artificial sweeteners is associated with obesity and metabolic syndrome, decreased satiety, disturbed glucose metabolism and weight gain, mainly due to increased overall calorie intake, although the numerous factors influencing obesity remain poorly studied, as of 2021.^[58]^[59]^[60]^[61]

Cancer

Multiple reviews have found no link between artificial sweeteners and the risk of cancer.^[48]^[62]^[63]^[64] FDA scientists have reviewed scientific data regarding the safety of aspartame and different sweeteners in food, concluding that they are safe for the general population under common intake conditions.^[65]

Mortality

High consumption of artificially sweetened beverages was associated with a 12% higher risk of all-cause mortality and a 23% higher risk of cardiovascular disease (CVD) mortality in a 2021 meta-analysis.^[66] A 2020 meta-analysis found a similar result, with the highest-consuming group having a 13% higher risk of all-cause mortality and a 25% higher risk of CVD mortality.^[67] However, both studies also found similar or greater increases in all-cause mortality when consuming the same amount of sugar-sweetened beverages.

Non-nutritive sweeteners vs sugar

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The World Health Organization does not recommend using non-nutritive sweeteners to control body weight, based on a 2022 review that could only find small reductions in body fat and no effect on cardiometabolic risk.^[68] It recommends fruit or non-sweetened foods instead.^[69]

Notes

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References

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External links

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Calorie Control Council—trade association for manufacturers of artificial sweeteners and products

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[Wilson2011-22] Wilson, Rachel (26 July 2011), "New and Emerging Opportunities for Plant-Derived Sweeteners" Template:Webarchive, Natural Products Insider

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[28] Sweet on Stevia: Sugar Substitute Gains Fans Template:Webarchive, Columbia Daily Tribune, 23 March 2008

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[34] FDA approves new high-intensity sweetener sucralose Template:Webarchive

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[36] Truth About Splenda Template:Webarchive, Sugar Association website

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@@ Line 2: / Line 2: @@
 {{Redirect|Sugar free}}
 {{Use dmy dates|date=January 2020}}
-[[File:No-Calorie-Sweetener-Packets.jpg|thumb|Three artificial sweeteners in paper packets, coded by color: [[Equal (sweetener)|Equal]] ([[aspartame]]; blue), [[Sweet'n Low|Sweet'N Low]] ([[saccharin]], pink),{{refn|group=note|One U.S. brand of saccharin uses yellow packets. In Canada, [[cyclamate]] is used.}} and [[Splenda]] ([[sucralose]], yellow). Other colors used are green for [[stevia]].<ref>{{cite web |last=Stein |first=Anne |date=May 11, 2011 |title=Artificial sweeteners. What's the difference? |url=https://www.chicagotribune.com/2011/05/11/artificial-sweeteners-whats-the-difference/ |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150712025420/http://articles.chicagotribune.com/2011-05-11/health/sc-health-0511-whats-the-difference-s20110511_1_general-purpose-sweetener-artificial-sweeteners-aspartame |archive-date=2015-07-12 |access-date=2022-04-03 |url-status=live |work=Chicago Tribune}}</ref>]]
+[[File:No-Calorie-Sweetener-Packets.jpg|thumb|Three artificial sweeteners in paper packets, coded by color: [[Equal (sweetener)|Equal]] ([[aspartame]]; blue), [[Sweet'N Low]] ([[saccharin]], pink){{refn|group=note|One U.S. brand of saccharin uses yellow packets. In Canada, [[cyclamate]] is used.}} and [[Splenda]] ([[sucralose]], yellow). Other colors used are green for [[stevia]].<ref>{{cite web |last=Stein |first=Anne |date=May 11, 2011 |title=Artificial sweeteners. What's the difference? |url=https://www.chicagotribune.com/2011/05/11/artificial-sweeteners-whats-the-difference/ |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150712025420/http://articles.chicagotribune.com/2011-05-11/health/sc-health-0511-whats-the-difference-s20110511_1_general-purpose-sweetener-artificial-sweeteners-aspartame |archive-date=2015-07-12 |access-date=2022-04-03 |url-status=live |work=Chicago Tribune}}</ref>]]
-A '''sugar substitute''' or '''artificial sweetener''',  is a [[food additive]] that provides a [[sweetness]] like that of [[sugar]] while containing significantly less [[food energy]] than sugar-based sweeteners, making it a '''zero-calorie''' ('''{{nowrap|non-nutritive}}''')<ref name="nal.usda.gov">{{Cite web |title=Nutritive and Nonnutritive Sweetener Resources {{!}} Food and Nutrition Information Center {{!}} NAL {{!}} USDA |url=https://www.nal.usda.gov/fnic/nutritive-and-nonnutritive-sweetener-resources |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200922182606/https://www.nal.usda.gov/fnic/nutritive-and-nonnutritive-sweetener-resources |archive-date=22 September 2020 |access-date=2020-09-17 |website=nal.usda.gov}}</ref> or '''low-calorie sweetener'''. Artificial sweeteners may be derived through manufacturing of plant [[extract]]s or processed by [[chemical synthesis]]. Sugar substitute products are commercially available in various forms, such as small pills, powders and packets.
+A '''sugar substitute''' or '''artificial sweetener'''<ref>{{cite web |title=Pros and cons of artificial sweeteners |url=https://www.mayoclinic.org/healthy-lifestyle/nutrition-and-healthy-eating/in-depth/artificial-sweeteners/art-20046936 |website=[[Mayo Clinic]] |author=<!-- Mayo Clinic Staff --> |access-date=24 July 2025 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250619152241/https://www.mayoclinic.org/healthy-lifestyle/nutrition-and-healthy-eating/in-depth/artificial-sweeteners/art-20046936 |archive-date=Jun 19, 2025 |language=en |date=Jan 10, 2023 |url-status=live}}</ref> is a [[food additive]] that provides a [[sweetness]] like that of [[sugar]] while containing significantly less [[food energy]] than sugar-based [[sweetener]]s, making it a '''[[zero-calorie]]''' ('''{{nowrap|non-nutritive}}''')<ref name="nal.usda.gov">{{Cite web |title=Nutritive and Nonnutritive Sweetener Resources {{!}} Food and Nutrition Information Center {{!}} NAL {{!}} USDA |url=https://www.nal.usda.gov/human-nutrition-and-food-safety/food-composition/sweeteners |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200922182606/https://www.nal.usda.gov/fnic/nutritive-and-nonnutritive-sweetener-resources |archive-date=22 September 2020 |access-date=2020-09-17 |website=nal.usda.gov}}</ref> or '''[[low-calorie]] sweetener'''. Artificial sweeteners may be derived from plant [[extract]]s or processed by [[chemical synthesis]]. Sugar substitute products are commercially available in various forms, such as small pills, powders and packets.
 Common sugar substitutes include [[aspartame]], [[monk fruit]] extract, [[saccharin]], [[sucralose]], [[stevia]], [[acesulfame potassium]] (ace-K) and [[cyclamate]]. These sweeteners are a fundamental ingredient in [[diet drink]]s to sweeten them without adding [[calorie]]s. Additionally, [[sugar alcohol]]s such as [[erythritol]], [[xylitol]] and [[sorbitol]] are derived from sugars.
-No links have been found between approved artificial sweeteners and cancer in humans. Reviews and dietetic professionals have concluded that moderate use of non-nutritive sweeteners as a safe replacement for sugars can help limit energy intake and assist with managing [[blood glucose]] and [[Human body weight|weight]].
+No links have been found between approved artificial sweeteners and cancer in humans.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Ghusn |first1=Wissam |last2=Naik |first2=Roopa |last3=Yibrin |first3=Marcel |date=2023-12-29 |title=The Impact of Artificial Sweeteners on Human Health and Cancer Association: A Comprehensive Clinical Review |url=https://www.cureus.com/articles/216740-the-impact-of-artificial-sweeteners-on-human-health-and-cancer-association-a-comprehensive-clinical-review |journal=Cureus |language=en |doi=10.7759/cureus.51299 |pmid=38288206 |doi-access=free |issn=2168-8184|pmc=10822749 }}</ref> Reviews and dietetic professionals have concluded that moderate use of non-nutritive sweeteners as a relatively safe replacement for sugars that can help limit energy intake and assist with managing [[blood glucose]] and [[Human body weight|weight]].
-== Description ==
-A sugar substitute is a [[food additive]] that provides a [[sweetness]] like that of [[sugar]] while containing significantly less [[food energy]] than sugar-based sweeteners, making it a [[zero-calorie]] ({{nowrap|non-nutritive}})<ref name="nal.usda.gov"/> or [[low-calorie]] sweetener. Sugar substitute products are commercially available in various forms, such as small pills, powders and packets.
 ==Types==
@@ Line 19: / Line 16: @@
 '''High-intensity sweeteners'''—one type of sugar substitute—are compounds with many times the [[sweetness]] of [[sucrose]] (common table sugar). As a result, much less sweetener is required and energy contribution is often negligible. The sensation of sweetness caused by these compounds is sometimes notably different from sucrose, so they are often used in complex mixtures that achieve the most intense sweet sensation.
-In [[North America]], common sugar substitutes include [[aspartame]], [[monk fruit]] extract, [[saccharin]], [[sucralose]] and [[stevia]]. [[Cyclamate]] is prohibited from being used as a sweetener within the United States, but is allowed in other parts of the world.<ref name="his-fda">{{cite web |date=19 May 2014 |title=High-Intensity Sweeteners |url=https://www.fda.gov/food/ingredientspackaginglabeling/foodadditivesingredients/ucm397716.htm |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190423150420/https://www.fda.gov/Food/IngredientsPackagingLabeling/FoodAdditivesIngredients/ucm397716.htm |archive-date=23 April 2019 |access-date=11 January 2018 |publisher=US Food and Drug Administration}}</ref>
+In [[North America]], common sugar substitutes include [[aspartame]], [[monk fruit]] extract, [[saccharin]], [[sucralose]] and [[stevia]]. [[Cyclamate]] is prohibited from being used as a sweetener within the United States, but is allowed in other parts of the world.<ref name="his-fda">{{cite web |date=19 May 2014 |title=High-Intensity Sweeteners |url=https://www.fda.gov/food/ingredientspackaginglabeling/foodadditivesingredients/ucm397716.htm |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190423150420/https://www.fda.gov/Food/IngredientsPackagingLabeling/FoodAdditivesIngredients/ucm397716.htm |archive-date=23 April 2019 |access-date=11 January 2018 |publisher=US Food and Drug Administration}}</ref>
 [[Sorbitol]], [[xylitol]] and [[lactitol]] are examples of [[sugar alcohol]]s (also known as polyols). These are, in general, less sweet than sucrose but have similar bulk properties and can be used in a wide range of food products. Sometimes the sweetness profile is fine-tuned by mixing with high-intensity sweeteners.
@@ Line 26: / Line 23: @@
 {{Main article|Allulose}}
-Allulose is a sweetener in the sugar family, with a chemical structure similar to fructose. It is naturally found in figs, maple syrup and some fruit. While it comes from the same family as other sugars, it does not substantially metabolize as sugar in the body.<ref>{{Cite web|date=2020-11-03|title=What Is Allulose (And Is It Keto)? The Ultimate Guide {{!}} Wholesome Yum|url=https://www.wholesomeyum.com/what-is-allulose/|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210126114645/https://www.wholesomeyum.com/what-is-allulose/|archive-date=26 January 2021|access-date=2021-01-26|website=Wholesome Yum|language=en-US}}</ref> The FDA recognizes that allulose does not act like sugar, and as of 2019, no longer requires it to be listed with sugars on U.S. nutrition labels.<ref>{{Cite journal|author=Office of the Commissioner|date=2019-12-20|title=FDA In Brief: FDA allows the low-calorie sweetener allulose to be excluded from total and added sugars counts on Nutrition and Supplement Facts labels when used as an ingredient|url=https://www.fda.gov/news-events/fda-brief/fda-brief-fda-allows-low-calorie-sweetener-allulose-be-excluded-total-and-added-sugars-counts|journal=FDA|language=en|access-date=26 January 2021|archive-date=23 January 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210123200211/https://www.fda.gov/news-events/fda-brief/fda-brief-fda-allows-low-calorie-sweetener-allulose-be-excluded-total-and-added-sugars-counts|url-status=dead}}</ref> Allulose is about 70% as sweet as sugar, which is why it is sometimes combined with high-intensity sweeteners to make sugar substitutes.<ref>{{Cite web|date=2019-12-23|title=Sugar-Free Keto Sweeteners Conversion Chart & Guide {{!}} Wholesome Yum|url=https://www.wholesomeyum.com/natural-low-carb-sweeteners-guide-conversion-chart/|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210123162321/https://www.wholesomeyum.com/natural-low-carb-sweeteners-guide-conversion-chart/|archive-date=23 January 2021|access-date=2021-01-26|website=Wholesome Yum|language=en-US}}</ref>
+Allulose is a sweetener in the sugar family, with a chemical structure similar to fructose. It is naturally found in figs, maple syrup and some fruit. While it comes from the same family as other sugars, it does not substantially metabolize as sugar in the body.<ref>{{Cite web|date=2020-11-03|title=What Is Allulose (And Is It Keto)? The Ultimate Guide {{!}} Wholesome Yum|url=https://www.wholesomeyum.com/what-is-allulose/|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210126114645/https://www.wholesomeyum.com/what-is-allulose/|archive-date=26 January 2021|access-date=2021-01-26|website=Wholesome Yum|language=en-US}}</ref> The FDA recognizes that allulose does not act like sugar, and as of 2019, no longer requires it to be listed with sugars on U.S. nutrition labels.<ref>{{Cite journal|author=Office of the Commissioner|date=2019-12-20|title=FDA In Brief: FDA allows the low-calorie sweetener allulose to be excluded from total and added sugars counts on Nutrition and Supplement Facts labels when used as an ingredient|url=https://www.fda.gov/news-events/fda-brief/fda-brief-fda-allows-low-calorie-sweetener-allulose-be-excluded-total-and-added-sugars-counts|journal=FDA|language=en|access-date=26 January 2021|archive-date=23 January 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210123200211/https://www.fda.gov/news-events/fda-brief/fda-brief-fda-allows-low-calorie-sweetener-allulose-be-excluded-total-and-added-sugars-counts}}</ref> Allulose is about 70% as sweet as sugar, which is why it is sometimes combined with high-intensity sweeteners to make sugar substitutes.<ref>{{Cite web|date=2019-12-23|title=Sugar-Free Keto Sweeteners Conversion Chart & Guide {{!}} Wholesome Yum|url=https://www.wholesomeyum.com/natural-low-carb-sweeteners-guide-conversion-chart/|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210123162321/https://www.wholesomeyum.com/natural-low-carb-sweeteners-guide-conversion-chart/|archive-date=23 January 2021|access-date=2021-01-26|website=Wholesome Yum|language=en-US}}</ref>
 ===Acesulfame potassium===
@@ Line 38: / Line 35: @@
 Aspartame was discovered in 1965 by James M. Schlatter at the [[G.D. Searle]] company. He was working on an anti-ulcer drug and accidentally spilled some aspartame on his hand. When he licked his finger, he noticed that it had a sweet taste. [[Torunn Atteraas Garin]] oversaw the development of aspartame as an artificial sweetener. It is an odorless, white crystalline powder that is derived from the two amino acids [[aspartic acid]] and [[phenylalanine]]. It is about 180–200 times sweeter than sugar,<ref name=fsa/><ref name=efsa2010/> and can be used as a tabletop sweetener or in frozen desserts, gelatins, [[beverage]]s and [[chewing gum]]. When cooked or stored at high temperatures, aspartame breaks down into its constituent amino acids. This makes aspartame undesirable as a baking sweetener. It is more stable in somewhat acidic conditions, such as in soft drinks. Though it does not have a bitter aftertaste like saccharin, it may not taste exactly like sugar. When eaten, aspartame is metabolized into its original [[amino acid]]s. Because it is so intensely sweet, relatively little of it is needed to sweeten a food product, and is thus useful for reducing the number of calories in a product.
-The safety of aspartame has been studied extensively since its discovery with research that includes animal studies, clinical and epidemiological research, and postmarketing surveillance,<ref name=EFSAExperts>{{cite journal | last = EFSA National Experts | title = Report of the meetings on aspartame with national experts | journal = EFSA Supporting Publications | volume = 7 | issue = 5 |date = May 2010| doi = 10.2903/sp.efsa.2010.ZN-002}}</ref> with aspartame being a rigorously tested food ingredient.<ref>{{Cite book | vauthors = Mitchell H | title = Sweeteners and sugar alternatives in food technology | place = Oxford, UK | publisher = Wiley-Blackwell | year = 2006 | page = 94| isbn = 978-1-4051-3434-7}}</ref> Although aspartame has been subject to [[Aspartame controversy|claims against its safety]],<ref name=Magnuson/> multiple authoritative reviews have found it to be safe for consumption at typical levels used in food manufacturing.<ref name=EFSAExperts/><ref name=Magnuson>{{cite journal |vauthors=Magnuson BA, Burdock GA, Doull J, Kroes RM, Marsh GM, Pariza MW, Spencer PS, Waddell WJ, Walker R, Williams GM | title = Aspartame: a safety evaluation based on current use levels, regulations, and toxicological and epidemiological studies | journal = Crit. Rev. Toxicol. | volume = 37 | issue = 8 | pages = 629–727 | year = 2007 | pmid = 17828671 | doi = 10.1080/10408440701516184 | s2cid = 7316097 }}</ref><ref name=FSANZ2>{{cite web|url=http://www.nzfsa.govt.nz/consumers/chemicals-nutrients-additives-and-toxins/aspartame/ |title=Food Standards Australia New Zealand: Aspartame – what it is and why it's used in our food |access-date=9 December 2008 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081014010341/http://nzfsa.govt.nz/consumers/chemicals-nutrients-additives-and-toxins/aspartame/ |archive-date=14 October 2008 }}</ref><ref name=Butchko>{{cite journal |vauthors=Butchko HH, Stargel WW, Comer CP, Mayhew DA, Benninger C, Blackburn GL, de Sonneville LM, Geha RS, Hertelendy Z, Koestner A, Leon AS, Liepa GU, McMartin KE, Mendenhall CL, Munro IC, Novotny EJ, Renwick AG, Schiffman SS, Schomer DL, Shaywitz BA, Spiers PA, Tephly TR, Thomas JA, Trefz FK | title = Aspartame: review of safety | journal = Regul. Toxicol. Pharmacol. | volume = 35 | issue = 2 Pt 2 | pages = S1–93 | date = April 2002 | pmid = 12180494 | doi = 10.1006/rtph.2002.1542 }}</ref> Aspartame has been deemed safe for human consumption by over 100 regulatory agencies in their respective countries,<ref name=Butchko/> including the UK [[Food Standards Agency]],<ref name="fsa">{{cite web | title = Aspartame | publisher = UK FSA | date = 17 June 2008 | url = http://www.food.gov.uk/safereating/chemsafe/additivesbranch/sweeteners/55174#h_2 | access-date = 23 September 2010 | archive-date = 21 February 2012 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20120221223646/http://www.food.gov.uk/safereating/chemsafe/additivesbranch/sweeteners/55174#h_2 | url-status = dead }}</ref> the [[European Food Safety Authority]] (EFSA),<ref name="efsa2010">{{cite web | title = Aspartame | publisher = EFSA | url = https://www.efsa.europa.eu/en/topics/topic/aspartame | access-date = 23 September 2010 | archive-date = 10 March 2011 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20110310160411/https://www.efsa.europa.eu/en/topics/topic/aspartame | url-status = live }}</ref> and [[Health Canada]].<ref>{{cite web | title = Aspartame | publisher = Health Canada | url = http://www.hc-sc.gc.ca/fn-an/securit/addit/sweeten-edulcor/aspartame-eng.php | access-date = 23 September 2010 | date = 5 November 2002 | archive-date = 22 September 2010 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20100922181732/http://www.hc-sc.gc.ca/fn-an/securit/addit/sweeten-edulcor/aspartame-eng.php | url-status = live }}</ref>
+The safety of aspartame has been studied extensively since its discovery with research that includes animal studies, clinical and epidemiological research, and postmarketing surveillance,<ref name="EFSAExperts">{{cite journal |last=EFSA National Experts |date=May 2010 |title=Report of the meetings on aspartame with national experts |journal=EFSA Supporting Publications |volume=7 |issue=5 |doi=10.2903/sp.efsa.2010.ZN-002}}</ref> with aspartame being a rigorously tested food ingredient.<ref>{{Cite book | vauthors = Mitchell H | title = Sweeteners and sugar alternatives in food technology | place = Oxford, UK | publisher = Wiley-Blackwell | year = 2006 | page = 94| isbn = 978-1-4051-3434-7}}</ref> Although aspartame has been subject to [[Aspartame controversy|claims against its safety]],<ref name=Magnuson/> multiple authoritative reviews have found it to be safe for consumption at typical levels used in food manufacturing.<ref name=EFSAExperts/><ref name="Magnuson">{{cite journal |vauthors=Magnuson BA, Burdock GA, Doull J, Kroes RM, Marsh GM, Pariza MW, Spencer PS, Waddell WJ, Walker R, Williams GM |year=2007 |title=Aspartame: a safety evaluation based on current use levels, regulations, and toxicological and epidemiological studies |journal=Crit. Rev. Toxicol. |volume=37 |issue=8 |pages=629–727 |doi=10.1080/10408440701516184 |pmid=17828671 |s2cid=7316097}}</ref><ref name="FSANZ2">{{cite web |title=Food Standards Australia New Zealand: Aspartame – what it is and why it's used in our food |url=http://www.nzfsa.govt.nz/consumers/chemicals-nutrients-additives-and-toxins/aspartame/ |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081014010341/http://nzfsa.govt.nz/consumers/chemicals-nutrients-additives-and-toxins/aspartame/ |archive-date=14 October 2008 |access-date=9 December 2008 |website=nzfsa.govt.nz}}</ref><ref name="Butchko">{{cite journal |vauthors=Butchko HH, Stargel WW, Comer CP, Mayhew DA, Benninger C, Blackburn GL, de Sonneville LM, Geha RS, Hertelendy Z, Koestner A, Leon AS, Liepa GU, McMartin KE, Mendenhall CL, Munro IC, Novotny EJ, Renwick AG, Schiffman SS, Schomer DL, Shaywitz BA, Spiers PA, Tephly TR, Thomas JA, Trefz FK |date=April 2002 |title=Aspartame: review of safety |journal=Regul. Toxicol. Pharmacol. |volume=35 |issue=2 Pt 2 |pages=S1–93 |doi=10.1006/rtph.2002.1542 |pmid=12180494}}</ref> Aspartame has been deemed safe for human consumption by over 100 regulatory agencies in their respective countries,<ref name=Butchko/> including the UK [[Food Standards Agency]],<ref name="fsa">{{cite web |date=17 June 2008 |title=Aspartame |url=http://www.food.gov.uk/safereating/chemsafe/additivesbranch/sweeteners/55174#h_2 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120221223646/http://www.food.gov.uk/safereating/chemsafe/additivesbranch/sweeteners/55174#h_2 |archive-date=21 February 2012 |access-date=23 September 2010 |publisher=UK FSA}}</ref> the [[European Food Safety Authority]] (EFSA)<ref name="efsa2010">{{cite web |title=Aspartame |url=https://www.efsa.europa.eu/en/topics/topic/aspartame |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110310160411/https://www.efsa.europa.eu/en/topics/topic/aspartame |archive-date=10 March 2011 |access-date=23 September 2010 |publisher=EFSA}}</ref> and [[Health Canada]].<ref>{{cite web |date=5 November 2002 |title=Aspartame |url=http://www.hc-sc.gc.ca/fn-an/securit/addit/sweeten-edulcor/aspartame-eng.php |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100922181732/http://www.hc-sc.gc.ca/fn-an/securit/addit/sweeten-edulcor/aspartame-eng.php |archive-date=22 September 2010 |access-date=23 September 2010 |publisher=Health Canada}}</ref>
 ===Cyclamate===
 {{Main|Cyclamate}}
-[[File:SweetnLowSweetener.JPG|thumb|Cyclamate-based sugar substitute sold in Canada ([[Sweet'n Low|Sweet'N Low]])]]
+[[File:SweetnLowSweetener.JPG|thumb|Cyclamate-based sugar substitute sold in Canada ([[Sweet'N Low]])]]
-In the United States, the [[Food and Drug Administration]] banned the sale of cyclamate in 1969 after lab tests in rats involving a 10:1 mixture of cyclamate and [[saccharin]] (at levels comparable to humans ingesting 550 cans of diet soda per day) caused [[bladder cancer]].<ref>{{Cite book|title=The Case against Sugar| vauthors = Taubes G |publisher=Portobello books|year=2017|isbn=9781846276378|location=London, England|pages=143–144}}</ref> This information, however, is regarded as "weak" evidence of [[carcinogenic]] activity,<ref name="pubchem">{{cite web|title=Cyclamic acid|url=https://pubchem.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/compound/Cyclamic_acid#section=Top|publisher=PubChem, US National Library of Medicine|access-date=10 January 2018|date=6 January 2018|archive-date=11 January 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180111110243/https://pubchem.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/compound/Cyclamic_acid#section=Top|url-status=live}}</ref> and cyclamate remains in common use in many parts of the world, including [[Canada]], the [[European Union]] and [[Russia]].<ref name="yahoo">{{cite web |author=((Business Wire)) |date=31 March 2017 |title=Sweetener Market Projected to Be Worth USD 2.84 Billion by 2021: Technavio |url=https://finance.yahoo.com/news/global-zero-calorie-sweetener-market-181500597.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170425235621/https://finance.yahoo.com/news/global-zero-calorie-sweetener-market-181500597.html |archive-date=25 April 2017 |access-date=10 January 2018 |publisher=Yahoo Finance}}</ref><ref name="cyclamate.org">{{cite web|title=Worldwide status of cyclamate|url=https://docs.google.com/viewer?url=https://www.cyclamate.org/pdf/cyclamate_6-19-13.docx|publisher=Calorie Control Council|access-date=10 January 2018|archive-date=21 April 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210421212931/https://docs.google.com/viewer?url=https://www.cyclamate.org/pdf/cyclamate_6-19-13.docx|url-status=live}}</ref>
+In the United States, the [[Food and Drug Administration]] banned the sale of cyclamate in 1969 after lab tests in rats involving a 10:1 mixture of cyclamate and [[saccharin]] (at levels comparable to humans ingesting 550 cans of diet soda per day) caused [[bladder cancer]].<ref>{{Cite book|title=The Case against Sugar| vauthors = Taubes G |publisher=Portobello books|year=2017|isbn=978-1-84627-637-8|location=London, England|pages=143–144}}</ref> This information, however, is regarded as "weak" evidence of [[carcinogenic]] activity,<ref name="pubchem">{{cite web|title=Cyclamic acid|url=https://pubchem.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/compound/Cyclamic_acid#section=Top|publisher=PubChem, US National Library of Medicine|access-date=10 January 2018|date=6 January 2018|archive-date=11 January 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180111110243/https://pubchem.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/compound/Cyclamic_acid#section=Top|url-status=live}}</ref> and cyclamate remains in common use in many parts of the world, including [[Canada]], the [[European Union]] and [[Russia]].<ref name="yahoo">{{cite web |author=((Business Wire)) |date=31 March 2017 |title=Sweetener Market Projected to Be Worth USD 2.84 Billion by 2021: Technavio |url=https://finance.yahoo.com/news/global-zero-calorie-sweetener-market-181500597.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170425235621/https://finance.yahoo.com/news/global-zero-calorie-sweetener-market-181500597.html |archive-date=25 April 2017 |access-date=10 January 2018 |publisher=Yahoo Finance}}</ref><ref name="cyclamate.org">{{cite web|title=Worldwide status of cyclamate|url=https://docs.google.com/viewer?url=https://www.cyclamate.org/pdf/cyclamate_6-19-13.docx|publisher=Calorie Control Council|access-date=10 January 2018|archive-date=21 April 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210421212931/https://docs.google.com/viewer?url=https://www.cyclamate.org/pdf/cyclamate_6-19-13.docx|url-status=live}}</ref>
 ===Mogrosides (monk fruit)===
 {{Main|Siraitia grosvenorii}}
-[[Mogroside]]s, extracted from monk fruit (which is commonly also called {{Lang|zh-latn|luǒ hán guò}}), are recognized as safe for human consumption and are used in commercial products worldwide.<ref name="O'Brien-Nabors2011">{{cite book|author=Lyn O'Brien-Nabors|title=Alternative Sweeteners|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=coDPwzFX7rAC&pg=PA226|year=2011|publisher=CRC Press|isbn=978-1-4398-4614-8|pages=226–227|access-date=5 March 2016|archive-date=23 April 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230423112930/https://books.google.com/books?id=coDPwzFX7rAC&pg=PA226|url-status=live}}</ref><ref name="Wilson2011">Rachel Wilson (26 July 2011), [http://www.naturalproductsinsider.com/articles/2011/07/new-and-emerging-opportunities-for-plant-derived-sweeteners.aspx "New and Emerging Opportunities for Plant-Derived Sweeteners"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160323210027/http://www.naturalproductsinsider.com/articles/2011/07/new-and-emerging-opportunities-for-plant-derived-sweeteners.aspx |date=23 March 2016 }}, Natural Products Insider</ref> As of 2017, it is not a permitted sweetener in the European Union,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://ec.europa.eu/food/safety/novel_food/catalogue/search/public/index.cfm|title=Search; Siraitia grosvenorii|publisher=Novel Food Catalogue, European Commission|date=2017|access-date=27 July 2017|archive-date=3 April 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190403221542/http://ec.europa.eu/food/safety/novel_food/catalogue/search/public/index.cfm|url-status=live}}</ref> although it is allowed as a flavor at concentrations where it does not function as a sweetener.<ref name="Wilson2011"/> In 2017, a Chinese company requested a scientific review of its mogroside product by the [[European Food Safety Authority]].<ref>{{cite web|vauthors=Michail N|title=Chinese supplier Layn to bring monk fruit to Europe|url=https://www.foodnavigator.com/Article/2017/08/04/Chinese-supplier-Layn-to-bring-monk-fruit-to-Europe|publisher=FoodNavigator.com|access-date=18 February 2018|date=3 August 2017|archive-date=18 September 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190918100500/https://www.foodnavigator.com/Article/2017/08/04/Chinese-supplier-Layn-to-bring-monk-fruit-to-Europe|url-status=live}}</ref> It is the basis of [[McNeil Nutritionals]]'s tabletop sweetener Nectresse in the United States and Norbu Sweetener in Australia.<ref name="Adams2012">{{cite web | vauthors = Adams C | date = 28 August 2012 | url = http://www.nzherald.co.nz/business/news/article.cfm?c_id=3&objectid=10829886 | title = US launch sweet news for kiwi supplier | work = [[The New Zealand Herald]] | access-date = 20 September 2012 | archive-date = 29 August 2012 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20120829033128/http://www.nzherald.co.nz/business/news/article.cfm?c_id=3&objectid=10829886 | url-status = live }}</ref>
+[[Mogroside]]s, extracted from monk fruit (which is commonly also called {{Lang|zh-latn|luǒ hán guò}}), are recognized as safe for human consumption and are used in commercial products worldwide.<ref name="O'Brien-Nabors2011">{{cite book|author=Lyn O'Brien-Nabors|title=Alternative Sweeteners|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=coDPwzFX7rAC&pg=PA226|year=2011|publisher=CRC Press|isbn=978-1-4398-4614-8|pages=226–227|access-date=5 March 2016|archive-date=23 April 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230423112930/https://books.google.com/books?id=coDPwzFX7rAC&pg=PA226|url-status=live}}</ref><ref name="Wilson2011">Wilson, Rachel (26 July 2011), [http://www.naturalproductsinsider.com/articles/2011/07/new-and-emerging-opportunities-for-plant-derived-sweeteners.aspx "New and Emerging Opportunities for Plant-Derived Sweeteners"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160323210027/http://www.naturalproductsinsider.com/articles/2011/07/new-and-emerging-opportunities-for-plant-derived-sweeteners.aspx|date=23 March 2016}}, Natural Products Insider</ref> As of 2017, it is not a permitted sweetener in the European Union,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://ec.europa.eu/food/safety/novel_food/catalogue/search/public/index.cfm|title=Search; Siraitia grosvenorii|publisher=Novel Food Catalogue, European Commission|date=2017|access-date=27 July 2017|archive-date=3 April 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190403221542/http://ec.europa.eu/food/safety/novel_food/catalogue/search/public/index.cfm|url-status=live}}</ref> although it is allowed as a flavor at concentrations where it does not function as a sweetener.<ref name="Wilson2011"/> In 2017, a Chinese company requested a scientific review of its mogroside product by the [[European Food Safety Authority]].<ref>{{cite web|vauthors=Michail N|title=Chinese supplier Layn to bring monk fruit to Europe|url=https://www.foodnavigator.com/Article/2017/08/04/Chinese-supplier-Layn-to-bring-monk-fruit-to-Europe|publisher=FoodNavigator.com|access-date=18 February 2018|date=3 August 2017|archive-date=18 September 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190918100500/https://www.foodnavigator.com/Article/2017/08/04/Chinese-supplier-Layn-to-bring-monk-fruit-to-Europe|url-status=live}}</ref> It is the basis of [[McNeil Nutritionals]]' tabletop sweetener Nectresse in the United States and Norbu Sweetener in Australia.<ref name="Adams2012">{{cite web |date=28 August 2012 |title=US launch sweet news for kiwi supplier |url=https://www.nzherald.co.nz/business/us-launch-sweet-news-for-kiwi-supplier/2PXIWDXISAGJCTYQULTGONMCEA/?c_id=3&objectid=10829886 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120829033128/http://www.nzherald.co.nz/business/news/article.cfm?c_id=3&objectid=10829886 |archive-date=29 August 2012 |access-date=4 November 2025 |work=[[The New Zealand Herald]] |vauthors=Adams C}}</ref>
 ===Saccharin===
@@ Line 56: / Line 53: @@
 Fear about saccharin increased when a 1960 study showed that high levels of saccharin may cause [[bladder cancer]] in laboratory rats. In 1977, [[Canada]] banned saccharin as a result of the animal research. In the United States, the FDA considered banning saccharin in 1977, but Congress stepped in and placed a moratorium on such a ban. The moratorium required a warning label and also mandated further study of saccharin safety.
-Subsequently, it was discovered that saccharin causes cancer in male rats by a mechanism not found in humans. At high doses, saccharin causes a precipitate to form in rat urine. This precipitate damages the cells lining the bladder (urinary bladder urothelial [[cytotoxicity]]) and a [[tumor]] forms when the cells regenerate (regenerative hyperplasia). According to the [[International Agency for Research on Cancer]], part of the [[World Health Organization]], "This mechanism is not relevant to humans because of critical interspecies differences in urine composition".<ref>{{Cite book |url=https://publications.iarc.fr/Book-And-Report-Series/Iarc-Monographs-On-The-Identification-Of-Carcinogenic-Hazards-To-Humans/Some-Chemicals-That-Cause-Tumours-Of-The-Kidney-Or-Urinary-Bladder-In-Rodents-And-Some-Other-Substances-1999 |title=IARC Monograohs on the Evaluation of Carcinogenic Risks to Humans: Some Chemicals that Cause Tumours of the Kidney or Urinary Bladder in Rodents and Some Other Substances |publisher=[[International Agency for Research on Cancer]] |year=1999 |isbn=978-92-832-1273-7 |volume=73 |location=Lyon, France |pages=607}}</ref>
+Subsequently, it was discovered that saccharin causes cancer in male rats by a mechanism not found in humans. At high doses, saccharin causes a precipitate to form in rat urine. This precipitate damages the cells lining the bladder (urinary bladder urothelial [[cytotoxicity]]) and a [[tumor]] forms when the cells regenerate (regenerative hyperplasia). According to the [[International Agency for Research on Cancer]], part of the [[World Health Organization]], "This mechanism is not relevant to humans because of critical interspecies differences in urine composition".<ref>{{Cite book |url=https://publications.iarc.fr/Book-And-Report-Series/Iarc-Monographs-On-The-Identification-Of-Carcinogenic-Hazards-To-Humans/Some-Chemicals-That-Cause-Tumours-Of-The-Kidney-Or-Urinary-Bladder-In-Rodents-And-Some-Other-Substances-1999 |title=IARC Monograohs on the Evaluation of Carcinogenic Risks to Humans: Some Chemicals that Cause Tumours of the Kidney or Urinary Bladder in Rodents and Some Other Substances |publisher=[[International Agency for Research on Cancer]] |year=1999 |isbn=978-92-832-1273-7 |volume=73 |location=Lyon, France |page=607}}</ref>
 In 2001, the United States repealed the warning label requirement, while the threat of an FDA ban had already been lifted in 1991. Most other countries also permit saccharin, but restrict the levels of use, while other countries have outright banned it.
@@ Line 65: / Line 62: @@
 {{Main|Stevia}}
-Stevia is a natural non-caloric sweetener derived from the ''[[Stevia rebaudiana]]'' plant, and is manufactured as a sweetener.<ref name="goyal">{{cite journal | vauthors = Goyal SK, Goyal RK | title = Stevia (Stevia rebaudiana) a bio-sweetener: a review | journal = International Journal of Food Sciences and Nutrition | volume = 61 | issue = 1 | pages = 1–10 | date = February 2010 | pmid = 19961353 | doi = 10.3109/09637480903193049 | s2cid = 24564964 }}</ref> It is indigenous to [[South America]], and has historically been used in Japanese food products, although it is now common internationally.<ref name=goyal/> In 1987, the FDA issued a ban on stevia because it had not been approved as a food additive, although it continued to be available as a [[dietary supplement]].<ref>[http://archive.columbiatribune.com/2008/mar/20080323puls010.asp Sweet on Stevia: Sugar Substitute Gains Fans] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110708180323/http://archive.columbiatribune.com/2008/mar/20080323puls010.asp |date=8 July 2011 }}, ''Columbia Daily Tribune'', 23 March 2008</ref> After being provided with sufficient scientific data demonstrating safety of using stevia as a manufactured sweetener, from companies such as [[Cargill]] and [[The Coca-Cola Company|Coca-Cola]], the FDA gave a "no objection" status as [[generally recognized as safe]] (GRAS) in December 2008 to Cargill for its stevia product, [[Truvia]], for use of the refined stevia extracts as a blend of [[rebaudioside A]] and [[erythritol]].<ref name="FDA GRAS Notice">{{cite web | author=Curry, Leslie Lake | title=Agency Response Letter GRAS Notice No. GRN 000287 | url=http://www.accessdata.fda.gov/scripts/fcn/fcnDetailNavigation.cfm?rpt=grasListing&id=287 | access-date=26 October 2017 | archive-date=29 March 2011 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110329092815/http://www.accessdata.fda.gov/scripts/fcn/fcnDetailNavigation.cfm?rpt=grasListing&id=287 | url-status=dead }}</ref><ref name="FDA2017">{{cite web|url=https://www.fda.gov/aboutfda/transparency/basics/ucm194320.htm|publisher=US Food and Drug Administration|date=28 April 2017|title=Has Stevia been approved by FDA to be used as a sweetener?|access-date=26 October 2017|archive-date=29 July 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170729074803/https://www.fda.gov/AboutFDA/Transparency/Basics/ucm194320.htm|url-status=dead}}</ref><ref>{{cite news | vauthors = Newmarker C | title = Federal regulators give OK for Cargill's Truvia sweetener | publisher = Minneapolis / St. Paul Business Journal | url = http://www.bizjournals.com/twincities/stories/2008/12/15/daily38.html | access-date = 18 December 2008 | date = 18 December 2008 | archive-date = 20 June 2017 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20170620153855/http://www.bizjournals.com/twincities/stories/2008/12/15/daily38.html | url-status = live }}</ref> In Australia, the brand Vitarium uses Natvia, a stevia sweetener, in a range of sugar-free children's milk mixes.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.vitarium.com.au/|title=du Chocolat -|work=vitarium.com.au|access-date=6 August 2013|archive-date=6 August 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130806111824/http://www.vitarium.com.au/|url-status=live}}</ref>
+Stevia is a natural non-caloric sweetener derived from the ''[[Stevia rebaudiana]]'' plant, and is manufactured as a sweetener.<ref name="goyal">{{cite journal | vauthors = Goyal SK, Goyal RK | title = Stevia (Stevia rebaudiana) a bio-sweetener: a review | journal = International Journal of Food Sciences and Nutrition | volume = 61 | issue = 1 | pages = 1–10 | date = February 2010 | pmid = 19961353 | doi = 10.3109/09637480903193049 | s2cid = 24564964 }}</ref> It is indigenous to [[South America]], and has historically been used in Japanese food products, although it is now common internationally.<ref name=goyal/> In 1987, the FDA issued a ban on stevia because it had not been approved as a food additive, although it continued to be available as a [[dietary supplement]].<ref>[http://archive.columbiatribune.com/2008/mar/20080323puls010.asp Sweet on Stevia: Sugar Substitute Gains Fans] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110708180323/http://archive.columbiatribune.com/2008/mar/20080323puls010.asp |date=8 July 2011 }}, ''Columbia Daily Tribune'', 23 March 2008</ref> After being provided with sufficient scientific data demonstrating safety of using stevia as a manufactured sweetener, from companies such as [[Cargill]] and [[The Coca-Cola Company|Coca-Cola]], the FDA gave a "no objection" status as [[generally recognized as safe]] (GRAS) in December 2008 to Cargill for its stevia product, [[Truvia]], for use of the refined stevia extracts as a blend of [[rebaudioside A]] and [[erythritol]].<ref name="FDA GRAS Notice">{{cite web | author=Curry, Leslie Lake | title=Agency Response Letter GRAS Notice No. GRN 000287 | url=http://www.accessdata.fda.gov/scripts/fcn/fcnDetailNavigation.cfm?rpt=grasListing&id=287 | access-date=26 October 2017 | archive-date=29 March 2011 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110329092815/http://www.accessdata.fda.gov/scripts/fcn/fcnDetailNavigation.cfm?rpt=grasListing&id=287 }}</ref><ref name="FDA2017">{{cite web|url=https://www.fda.gov/aboutfda/transparency/basics/ucm194320.htm|publisher=US Food and Drug Administration|date=28 April 2017|title=Has Stevia been approved by FDA to be used as a sweetener?|access-date=26 October 2017|archive-date=29 July 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170729074803/https://www.fda.gov/AboutFDA/Transparency/Basics/ucm194320.htm}}</ref><ref>{{cite news | vauthors = Newmarker C | title = Federal regulators give OK for Cargill's Truvia sweetener | publisher = Minneapolis / St. Paul Business Journal | url = http://www.bizjournals.com/twincities/stories/2008/12/15/daily38.html | access-date = 18 December 2008 | date = 18 December 2008 | archive-date = 20 June 2017 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20170620153855/http://www.bizjournals.com/twincities/stories/2008/12/15/daily38.html | url-status = live }}</ref> In Australia, the brand Vitarium uses Natvia, a stevia sweetener, in a range of sugar-free children's milk mixes.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.vitarium.com.au/|title=du Chocolat -|work=vitarium.com.au|access-date=6 August 2013|archive-date=6 August 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130806111824/http://www.vitarium.com.au/|url-status=live}}</ref>
 In August 2019, the FDA placed an import alert on stevia leaves and crude extracts—which do not have GRAS status—and on foods or dietary supplements containing them, citing concerns about safety and potential for [[toxicity]].<ref name="fda19">{{cite web |title=Import Alert 45-06: Detention without Physical Examination of Stevia Leaves, Crude Extracts of Stevia Leaves and foods Containing Stevia Leaves and/or Stevia Extracts |url=https://www.accessdata.fda.gov/cms_ia/importalert_119.html |publisher=US Food and Drug Administration |access-date=23 November 2019 |date=16 August 2019 |archive-date=23 November 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191123175839/https://www.accessdata.fda.gov/cms_ia/importalert_119.html |url-status=live }}</ref>
@@ Line 71: / Line 68: @@
 ===Sucralose===
 {{Main|Sucralose}}
-The world's most commonly used artificial sweetener,<ref name=yahoo/> sucralose is a chlorinated sugar that is about 600 times sweeter than sugar. It is produced from sucrose when three chlorine atoms replace three [[hydroxyl group]]s. It is used in [[beverage]]s, [[frozen dessert]]s, [[chewing gum]], [[baked good]]s and other foods. Unlike other artificial sweeteners, it is stable when heated and can therefore be used in baked and fried goods. Discovered in 1976, the FDA approved sucralose for use in 1998.<ref>[https://www.fda.gov/bbs/topics/ANSWERS/ANS00859.html FDA approves new high-intensity sweetener sucralose] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20050520074139/https://www.fda.gov/bbs/topics/ANSWERS/ANS00859.html |date=20 May 2005 }}</ref>
+The world's most commonly used artificial sweetener,<ref name=yahoo/> sucralose is a chlorinated sugar that is about 600 times sweeter than sugar. It is produced from sucrose when three chlorine atoms replace three [[hydroxyl group]]s. It is used in [[beverage]]s, [[frozen dessert]]s, [[chewing gum]], [[baked goods]] and other foods. Unlike other artificial sweeteners, it is stable when heated and can therefore be used in baked and fried goods. Discovered in 1976, the FDA approved sucralose for use in 1998.<ref>[https://www.fda.gov/bbs/topics/ANSWERS/ANS00859.html FDA approves new high-intensity sweetener sucralose] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20050520074139/https://www.fda.gov/bbs/topics/ANSWERS/ANS00859.html |date=20 May 2005 }}</ref>
 Most of the controversy surrounding [[Splenda]], a sucralose sweetener, is focused not on safety but on its marketing. It has been marketed with the slogan, "Splenda is made from sugar, so it tastes like sugar." Sucralose is prepared from either of two sugars, sucrose or [[raffinose]]. With either base sugar, processing replaces three oxygen-hydrogen groups in the sugar molecule with three chlorine atoms.<ref name=livescience>{{cite web|url=http://www.livescience.com/health/070515_bad_sugar.html|title=Bitter Battle over Truth in Sweeteners|work=Live Science|date=15 May 2007|access-date=17 May 2007|archive-date=1 January 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110101092255/http://www.livescience.com/health/070515_bad_sugar.html|url-status=live}}</ref>
@@ Line 82: / Line 79: @@
 ===Sugar alcohol===
 {{Main|Sugar alcohol}}
-Sugar alcohols, or [[polyol]]s, are sweetening and bulking ingredients used in the manufacturing of foods and beverages, particularly sugar-free candies, cookies and [[chewing gum]]s.<ref name="ghosh">{{cite journal |vauthors=Ghosh S, Sudha ML |date=May 2012 |title=A review on polyols: new frontiers for health-based bakery products |journal=International Journal of Food Sciences and Nutrition |volume=63 |issue=3 |pages=372–379 |doi=10.3109/09637486.2011.627846 |pmid=22023673 |s2cid=12298507}}</ref><ref name="fda14">{{cite web |title=High-intensity sweeteners |url=https://www.fda.gov/food/food-additives-petitions/high-intensity-sweeteners |publisher=US Food and Drug Administration |access-date=23 November 2019 |date=19 May 2014 |archive-date=24 April 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220424104602/https://www.fda.gov/food/food-additives-petitions/high-intensity-sweeteners |url-status=live }}</ref> As a sugar substitute, they typically are less-sweet and supply fewer calories (about a half to one-third fewer calories) than sugar. They are converted to glucose slowly, and do not spike increases in [[blood glucose]].<ref name="ghosh"/><ref name=fda14/><ref>{{Cite web |date=10 March 2005 |title=Eat any sugar alcohol lately? |url=http://www.ynhh.org/about-us/sugar_alcohol.aspx |access-date=25 June 2012 |publisher=Yale-New Haven Hospital |archive-date=29 September 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150929053527/http://www.ynhh.org/about-us/sugar_alcohol.aspx |url-status=dead }}</ref>
+Sugar alcohols, or [[polyol]]s, are sweetening and bulking ingredients used in the manufacturing of foods and beverages, particularly sugar-free candies, cookies and [[chewing gum]]s.<ref name="ghosh">{{cite journal |vauthors=Ghosh S, Sudha ML |date=May 2012 |title=A review on polyols: new frontiers for health-based bakery products |journal=International Journal of Food Sciences and Nutrition |volume=63 |issue=3 |pages=372–379 |doi=10.3109/09637486.2011.627846 |pmid=22023673 |s2cid=12298507}}</ref><ref name="fda14">{{cite web |title=High-intensity sweeteners |url=https://www.fda.gov/food/food-additives-petitions/high-intensity-sweeteners |publisher=US Food and Drug Administration |access-date=23 November 2019 |date=19 May 2014 |archive-date=24 April 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220424104602/https://www.fda.gov/food/food-additives-petitions/high-intensity-sweeteners |url-status=live }}</ref> As a sugar substitute, they typically are less-sweet and supply fewer calories (about a half to one-third fewer calories) than sugar. They are converted to glucose slowly, and do not spike increases in [[blood glucose]].<ref name="ghosh"/><ref name=fda14/><ref>{{Cite web |date=10 March 2005 |title=Eat any sugar alcohol lately? |url=http://www.ynhh.org/about-us/sugar_alcohol.aspx |access-date=25 June 2012 |publisher=Yale-New Haven Hospital |archive-date=29 September 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150929053527/http://www.ynhh.org/about-us/sugar_alcohol.aspx }}</ref>
 [[Sorbitol]], [[xylitol]], [[mannitol]], [[erythritol]] and [[lactitol]] are examples of sugar alcohols.<ref name=fda14/> These are, in general, less sweet than sucrose, but have similar bulk properties and can be used in a wide range of food products.<ref name=fda14/> The sweetness profile may be altered during manufacturing by mixing with high-intensity sweeteners.
-Sugar alcohols are carbohydrates with a biochemical structure partially matching the structures of sugar and alcohol, although not containing [[ethanol]].<ref name=fda14/><ref name="IFIC Foundation-2009">{{Cite web|url=https://foodinsight.org/sugar-alcohols-fact-sheet/|title=Sugar alcohols fact sheet|publisher=Food Insight|date=15 October 2009|website=IFIC Foundation|language=en-US|access-date=23 November 2019|archive-date=30 June 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200630111323/https://foodinsight.org/sugar-alcohols-fact-sheet/|url-status=dead}}</ref> They are not entirely metabolized by the human body.<ref name="IFIC Foundation-2009"/> The unabsorbed sugar alcohols may cause bloating and [[diarrhea]] due to their [[osmotic]] effect, if consumed in sufficient amounts.<ref name=yale1>{{Cite web| title = Eat Any Sugar Alcohol Lately?| publisher = Yale New Haven Health| date = 2005-03-10| url = https://www.ynhh.org/services/nutrition/sugar-alcohol.aspx| access-date = January 6, 2018| archive-date = 23 October 2021| archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20211023023920/https://www.ynhh.org/services/nutrition/sugar-alcohol.aspx| url-status = live}}</ref> They are found commonly in small quantities in some fruits and vegetables, and are commercially manufactured from different carbohydrates and [[starch]].<ref name=fda14/><ref name="IFIC Foundation-2009"/><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.accessdata.fda.gov/scripts/InteractiveNutritionFactsLabel/sugar-alcohol.html|title=Sugar alcohols|publisher=US Food and Drug Administration|access-date=23 November 2019|archive-date=3 February 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200203012634/https://www.accessdata.fda.gov/scripts/InteractiveNutritionFactsLabel/sugar-alcohol.html|url-status=dead}}</ref>
+Sugar alcohols are carbohydrates with a biochemical structure partially matching the structures of sugar and alcohol, although not containing [[ethanol]].<ref name=fda14/><ref name="IFIC Foundation-2009">{{Cite web|url=https://foodinsight.org/sugar-alcohols-fact-sheet/|title=Sugar alcohols fact sheet|publisher=Food Insight|date=15 October 2009|website=IFIC Foundation|language=en-US|access-date=23 November 2019|archive-date=30 June 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200630111323/https://foodinsight.org/sugar-alcohols-fact-sheet/}}</ref> They are not entirely metabolized by the human body.<ref name="IFIC Foundation-2009"/> The unabsorbed sugar alcohols may cause bloating and [[diarrhea]] due to their [[osmotic]] effect, if consumed in sufficient amounts.<ref name=yale1>{{Cite web| title = Eat Any Sugar Alcohol Lately?| publisher = Yale New Haven Health| date = 2005-03-10| url = https://www.ynhh.org/services/nutrition/sugar-alcohol.aspx| access-date = January 6, 2018| archive-date = 23 October 2021| archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20211023023920/https://www.ynhh.org/services/nutrition/sugar-alcohol.aspx| url-status = live}}</ref> They are found commonly in small quantities in some fruits and vegetables, and are commercially manufactured from different carbohydrates and [[starch]].<ref name=fda14/><ref name="IFIC Foundation-2009"/><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.accessdata.fda.gov/scripts/InteractiveNutritionFactsLabel/sugar-alcohol.html|title=Sugar alcohols|publisher=US Food and Drug Administration|access-date=23 November 2019|archive-date=3 February 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200203012634/https://www.accessdata.fda.gov/scripts/InteractiveNutritionFactsLabel/sugar-alcohol.html}}</ref>
 == Production ==
+{{uncited section|date=July 2025}}
 The majority of sugar substitutes approved for food use are artificially synthesized compounds. However, some bulk [[plant-based diet|plant-derived]] sugar substitutes are known, including [[sorbitol]], [[xylitol]] and [[lactitol]]. As it is not commercially profitable to extract these products from fruits and vegetables, they are produced by [[catalysis|catalytic]] [[hydrogenation]] of the appropriate reducing sugar. For example, [[xylose]] is converted to xylitol, [[lactose]] to lactitol, and [[glucose]] to sorbitol.
@@ Line 97: / Line 95: @@
 ==== Dental care ====
-Carbohydrates and sugars usually adhere to the [[tooth enamel]], where bacteria feed upon them and quickly multiply.<ref name="riley">{{cite journal | vauthors = Riley P, Moore D, Ahmed F, Sharif MO, Worthington HV | title = Xylitol-containing products for preventing dental caries in children and adults | journal = The Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews | issue = 3 | pages = CD010743 | date = March 2015 | volume = 2015 | pmid = 25809586 | doi = 10.1002/14651858.CD010743.pub2 | pmc = 9345289 }}</ref> The bacteria convert the sugar to acids that decay the teeth. Sugar substitutes, unlike sugar, do not erode teeth as they are not fermented by the [[microflora]] of the [[dental plaque]]. A sweetener that may benefit dental health is [[xylitol]], which tends to prevent bacteria from adhering to the tooth surface, thus preventing plaque formation and eventually [[tooth decay]]. A [[Cochrane (organisation)|Cochrane]] review, however, found only low-quality evidence that xylitol in a variety of dental products actually has any benefit in preventing tooth decay in adults and children.<ref name="riley"/>
+Carbohydrates and sugars usually adhere to the [[tooth enamel]], where bacteria feed upon them and quickly multiply.<ref name="riley">{{cite journal | vauthors = Riley P, Moore D, Ahmed F, Sharif MO, Worthington HV | title = Xylitol-containing products for preventing dental caries in children and adults | journal = The Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews | issue = 3 | article-number = CD010743 | date = March 2015 | volume = 2015 | pmid = 25809586 | doi = 10.1002/14651858.CD010743.pub2 | pmc = 9345289 }}</ref> The bacteria convert the sugar to acids that decay the teeth. Sugar substitutes, unlike sugar, do not erode teeth as they are not fermented by the [[microflora]] of the [[dental plaque]]. A sweetener that may benefit dental health is [[xylitol]], which tends to prevent bacteria from adhering to the tooth surface, thus preventing plaque formation and eventually [[tooth decay]]. A [[Cochrane (organisation)|Cochrane]] review, however, found only low-quality evidence that xylitol in a variety of dental products actually has any benefit in preventing tooth decay in adults and children.<ref name="riley"/>
 ==== Dietary concerns ====
-Sugar substitutes are a fundamental ingredient in [[diet drink]]s to sweeten them without adding [[calorie]]s. Additionally, [[sugar alcohol]]s such as [[erythritol]], [[xylitol]] and [[sorbitol]] are derived from sugars. In the United States, six high-intensity sugar substitutes have been approved for use: [[aspartame]], [[sucralose]], [[neotame]], [[acesulfame potassium]] (Ace-K), [[saccharin]] and [[advantame]].<ref name="his-fda"/> [[Food additive]]s must be approved by the FDA,<ref name="his-fda"/> and sweeteners must be proven as safe via submission by a manufacturer of a [[generally recognized as safe|GRAS]] document.<ref name="GRAS">{{cite web |date=14 July 2014 |title=Generally Recognized as Safe (GRAS) |url=https://www.fda.gov/Food/IngredientsPackagingLabeling/GRAS/default.htm |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140905135135/http://www.fda.gov/Food/IngredientsPackagingLabeling/GRAS/default.htm |archive-date=5 September 2014 |access-date=17 September 2014 |publisher=U.S. [[Food and Drug Administration]]}}</ref> The conclusions about GRAS are based on a detailed review of a large body of information, including rigorous toxicological and clinical studies.<ref name="GRAS"/> GRAS notices exist for two plant-based, high-intensity sweeteners: steviol glycosides obtained from stevia leaves (''[[Stevia rebaudiana]]'') and [[extract]]s from ''[[Siraitia grosvenorii]]'', also called ''luo han guo'' or monk fruit.<ref name="his-fda"/>
+Sugar substitutes are a fundamental ingredient in [[diet drink]]s to sweeten them without adding [[calorie]]s. Additionally, [[sugar alcohol]]s such as [[erythritol]], [[xylitol]] and [[sorbitol]] are derived from sugars. In the United States, six high-intensity sugar substitutes have been approved for use: [[aspartame]], [[sucralose]], [[neotame]], [[acesulfame potassium]] (Ace-K), [[saccharin]] and [[advantame]].<ref name="his-fda"/> [[Food additive]]s must be approved by the FDA,<ref name="his-fda"/> and sweeteners must be proven as safe via submission by a manufacturer of a [[generally recognized as safe|GRAS]] document.<ref name="GRAS">{{cite web |date=14 July 2014 |title=Generally Recognized as Safe (GRAS) |url=https://www.fda.gov/Food/IngredientsPackagingLabeling/GRAS/default.htm |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140905135135/http://www.fda.gov/Food/IngredientsPackagingLabeling/GRAS/default.htm |archive-date=5 September 2014 |access-date=17 September 2014 |publisher=U.S. [[Food and Drug Administration]]}}</ref> The conclusions about GRAS are based on a detailed review of a large body of information, including rigorous toxicological and clinical studies.<ref name="GRAS"/> GRAS notices exist for two plant-based, high-intensity sweeteners: steviol glycosides obtained from stevia leaves (''[[Stevia rebaudiana]]'') and [[extract]]s from ''[[Siraitia grosvenorii]]'', also called ''luo han guo'' or monk fruit.<ref name="his-fda"/>
 ===== Glucose metabolism =====
-*[[Diabetes mellitus]] – People with diabetes limit [[refined sugar]] intake to regulate their blood sugar levels. Many artificial sweeteners allow sweet-tasting food without increasing blood glucose. Others do release energy but are metabolized more slowly, preventing spikes in blood glucose. A concern, however, is that [[overconsumption]] of foods and beverages made more appealing with sugar substitutes may increase risk of developing diabetes.<ref name="bmj">{{cite journal | vauthors = Imamura F, O'Connor L, Ye Z, Mursu J, Hayashino Y, Bhupathiraju SN, Forouhi NG | title = Consumption of sugar sweetened beverages, artificially sweetened beverages, and fruit juice and incidence of type 2 diabetes: systematic review, meta-analysis, and estimation of population attributable fraction | journal = BMJ | volume = 351 | pages = h3576 | date = July 2015 | pmid = 26199070 | pmc = 4510779 | doi = 10.1136/bmj.h3576 }}</ref> A 2014 systematic review showed that a 330ml/day (an amount little less than the standard U.S can size) consumption of artificially sweetened beverages lead to increased risks of type 2 diabetes.<ref name="Lohner-2017">{{cite journal | vauthors = Lohner S, Toews I, Meerpohl JJ | title = Health outcomes of non-nutritive sweeteners: analysis of the research landscape | journal = Nutrition Journal | volume = 16 | issue = 1 | pages = 55 | date = September 2017 | pmid = 28886707 | pmc = 5591507 | doi = 10.1186/s12937-017-0278-x | doi-access = free }}</ref> A 2015 [[meta-analysis]] of numerous [[clinical research|clinical studies]] showed that habitual consumption of sugar sweetened beverages, artificially sweetened beverages, and fruit juice increased the risk of developing diabetes, although with inconsistent results and generally low quality of evidence.<ref name=bmj/> A 2016 review described the relationship between non-nutritive sweeteners as inconclusive.<ref name="Lohner-2017"/> A 2020 Cochrane systematic review compared several non-nutritive sweeteners to sugar, placebo and a nutritive low-calorie sweetener ([[tagatose]]), but the results were unclear for effects on HbA1c, body weight and adverse events.<ref name="Lohner-2020">{{Cite journal |last1=Lohner |first1=Szimonetta |last2=Kuellenberg de Gaudry |first2=Daniela |last3=Toews |first3=Ingrid |last4=Ferenci |first4=Tamas |last5=Meerpohl |first5=Joerg J |date=2020-05-25 |editor-last=Cochrane Metabolic and Endocrine Disorders Group |title=Non-nutritive sweeteners for diabetes mellitus |journal=Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews |language=en |volume=2020 |issue=5 |pages=CD012885 |doi=10.1002/14651858.CD012885.pub2 |pmc=7387865 |pmid=32449201}}</ref> The studies included were mainly of very low certainty and did not report on health-related quality of life, diabetes complications, all-cause mortality or socioeconomic effects.<ref name="Lohner-2020"/>
+*[[Diabetes mellitus]] – People with diabetes limit [[refined sugar]] intake to regulate their blood sugar levels. Many artificial sweeteners allow sweet-tasting food without increasing blood glucose. Others do release energy but are metabolized more slowly, preventing spikes in blood glucose. A concern, however, is that [[overconsumption]] of foods and beverages made more appealing with sugar substitutes may increase risk of developing diabetes.<ref name="bmj">{{cite journal | vauthors = Imamura F, O'Connor L, Ye Z, Mursu J, Hayashino Y, Bhupathiraju SN, Forouhi NG | title = Consumption of sugar sweetened beverages, artificially sweetened beverages, and fruit juice and incidence of type 2 diabetes: systematic review, meta-analysis, and estimation of population attributable fraction | journal = BMJ | volume = 351 | article-number = h3576 | date = July 2015 | pmid = 26199070 | pmc = 4510779 | doi = 10.1136/bmj.h3576 }}</ref> A 2014 systematic review showed that a 330ml/day (an amount little less than the standard U.S can size) consumption of artificially sweetened beverages lead to increased risks of type 2 diabetes.<ref name="Lohner-2017">{{cite journal | vauthors = Lohner S, Toews I, Meerpohl JJ | title = Health outcomes of non-nutritive sweeteners: analysis of the research landscape | journal = Nutrition Journal | volume = 16 | issue = 1 | article-number = 55 | date = September 2017 | pmid = 28886707 | pmc = 5591507 | doi = 10.1186/s12937-017-0278-x | doi-access = free }}</ref> A 2015 [[meta-analysis]] of numerous [[clinical research|clinical studies]] showed that habitual consumption of sugar sweetened beverages, artificially sweetened beverages, and fruit juice increased the risk of developing diabetes, although with inconsistent results and generally low quality of evidence.<ref name=bmj/> A 2016 review described the relationship between non-nutritive sweeteners as inconclusive.<ref name="Lohner-2017"/> A 2020 Cochrane systematic review compared several non-nutritive sweeteners to sugar, placebo and a nutritive low-calorie sweetener ([[tagatose]]), but the results were unclear for effects on HbA1c, body weight and adverse events.<ref name="Lohner-2020">{{Cite journal |last1=Lohner |first1=Szimonetta |last2=Kuellenberg de Gaudry |first2=Daniela |last3=Toews |first3=Ingrid |last4=Ferenci |first4=Tamas |last5=Meerpohl |first5=Joerg J |date=2020-05-25 |editor-last=Cochrane Metabolic and Endocrine Disorders Group |title=Non-nutritive sweeteners for diabetes mellitus |journal=Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews |language=en |volume=2020 |issue=5 |article-number=CD012885 |doi=10.1002/14651858.CD012885.pub2 |pmc=7387865 |pmid=32449201}}</ref> The studies included were mainly of very low certainty and did not report on health-related quality of life, diabetes complications, all-cause mortality or socioeconomic effects.<ref name="Lohner-2020"/>
 *[[Reactive hypoglycemia]] – Individuals with reactive hypoglycemia will produce an excess of insulin after quickly absorbing glucose into the bloodstream. This causes their blood glucose levels to fall below the amount needed for proper body and brain function. As a result, like diabetics, they must avoid intake of [[Glycemic|high-glycemic]] foods like white bread, and often use artificial sweeteners for sweetness without blood glucose.
@@ Line 111: / Line 109: @@
 ===Acceptable daily intake levels===
-In the United States, the [[FDA]] provides guidance for manufacturers and consumers about the daily limits for consuming high-intensity sweeteners, a measure called ''[[acceptable daily intake]]'' (ADI).<ref name="his-fda"/> During their premarket review for all of the high-intensity sweeteners approved as food additives, the FDA established an ADI defined as an amount in milligrams per [[kilogram]] of body weight per day (mg/kg bw/d), indicating that a high-intensity sweetener does not cause safety concerns if estimated daily intakes are lower than the ADI.<ref name="adi-fda">{{cite web|title=Additional Information about High-Intensity Sweeteners Permitted for Use in Food in the United States|url=https://www.fda.gov/Food/IngredientsPackagingLabeling/FoodAdditivesIngredients/ucm397725.htm#SummaryTable|publisher=US Food and Drug Administration|access-date=11 January 2018|date=19 December 2017|archive-date=30 June 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170630134543/https://www.fda.gov/Food/IngredientsPackagingLabeling/FoodAdditivesIngredients/ucm397725.htm#SummaryTable|url-status=dead}}</ref> The FDA states: "An ADI is the amount of a substance that is considered safe to consume each day over the course of a person's lifetime." For stevia (specifically, steviol glycosides), an ADI was not derived by the FDA, but by the Joint Food and Agricultural Organization/[[World Health Organization]] Expert Committee on Food Additives, whereas an ADI has not been determined for monk fruit.<ref name="adi-fda"/>
+In the United States, the [[FDA]] provides guidance for manufacturers and consumers about the daily limits for consuming high-intensity sweeteners, a measure called ''[[acceptable daily intake]]'' (ADI).<ref name="his-fda"/> During their premarket review for all of the high-intensity sweeteners approved as food additives, the FDA established an ADI defined as an amount in milligrams per [[kilogram]] of body weight per day (mg/kg bw/d), indicating that a high-intensity sweetener does not cause safety concerns if estimated daily intakes are lower than the ADI.<ref name="adi-fda">{{cite web|title=Additional Information about High-Intensity Sweeteners Permitted for Use in Food in the United States|url=https://www.fda.gov/Food/IngredientsPackagingLabeling/FoodAdditivesIngredients/ucm397725.htm#SummaryTable|publisher=US Food and Drug Administration|access-date=11 January 2018|date=19 December 2017|archive-date=30 June 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170630134543/https://www.fda.gov/Food/IngredientsPackagingLabeling/FoodAdditivesIngredients/ucm397725.htm#SummaryTable}}</ref> The FDA states: "An ADI is the amount of a substance that is considered safe to consume each day over the course of a person's lifetime." For stevia (specifically, steviol glycosides), an ADI was not derived by the FDA, but by the Joint Food and Agricultural Organization/[[World Health Organization]] Expert Committee on Food Additives, whereas an ADI has not been determined for monk fruit.<ref name="adi-fda"/>
 For the sweeteners approved as food additives, the ADIs in milligrams per kilogram of body weight per day are:<ref name=adi-fda/>
@@ Line 124: / Line 122: @@
 === Mouthfeel ===
+{{uncited section|date=July 2025}}
 If the sucrose, or other sugar, that is replaced has contributed to the texture of the product, then a bulking agent is often also needed. This may be seen in [[soft drink]]s or [[sweet tea]]s that are labeled as "diet" or "light" that contain artificial sweeteners and often have notably different [[mouthfeel]], or in table sugar replacements that mix [[maltodextrin]]s with an intense sweetener to achieve satisfactory texture sensation.
@@ Line 136: / Line 135: @@
 |-
 ! Name
-! data-sort-type="number" | Relative sweetness<br>to sucrose by weight
+! data-sort-type="number" | Relative sweetness<br/>to sucrose by weight
 ! data-sort-type="number" | Sweetness by food energy
 ! data-sort-type="number" | Energy density
@@ Line 322: / Line 321: @@
 |-
 ! Name
-! data-sort-type="number" | Relative sweetness to<br>sucrose by weight
+! data-sort-type="number" | Relative sweetness to<br/>sucrose by weight
 ! Trade name
 ! Approval
@@ Line 422: / Line 421: @@
 |+Sugar alcohols relative sweetness<ref name="IFIC Foundation-2009"/><ref>{{Cite journal|vauthors=Godswill AC|title=Sugar alcohols: chemistry, production, health concerns and nutritional importance of mannitol, sorbitol, xylitol, and erythritol.|date=February 2017|url=https://www.ijaar.org/articles/Volume3-Number2/Sciences-Technology-Engineering/ijaar-ste-v3n2-feb17-p2.pdf|journal=International Journal of Advanced Academic Research|volume=3|issue=2|pages=31–66|issn=2488-9849|access-date=23 November 2019|archive-date=21 September 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180921045340/http://www.ijaar.org/articles/Volume3-Number2/Sciences-Technology-Engineering/ijaar-ste-v3n2-feb17-p2.pdf|url-status=live}}</ref>
 !Name
-! data-sort-type="number" | Relative sweetness<br>to sucrose by weight
+! data-sort-type="number" | Relative sweetness<br/>to sucrose by weight
 ! data-sort-type="number" | Food energy (kcal/g)
 ! data-sort-type="number" | Sweetness per food energy,
@@ Line 504: / Line 503: @@
 ===Obesity===
-There is little evidence that artificial sweeteners directly affect the onset and mechanisms of [[obesity]], although consuming sweetened products is associated with weight gain in children.<ref name="brown">{{cite journal | last1=Brown | first1=Rebecca J. | last2=de Banate | first2=Mary Ann | last3=Rother | first3=Kristina I. | title=Artificial Sweeteners: A systematic review of metabolic effects in youth | journal=International Journal of Pediatric Obesity | volume=5 | issue=4 | year=2010 | issn=1747-7166 | pmid=20078374 | pmc=2951976 | doi=10.3109/17477160903497027 | pages=305–312}}</ref><ref name="young">{{cite journal | last1=Young | first1=Jordan | last2=Conway | first2=Ellen M. | last3=Rother | first3=Kristina I. | last4=Sylvetsky | first4=Allison C. | title=Low-calorie sweetener use, weight, and metabolic health among children: A mini-review | journal=Pediatric Obesity | volume=14 | issue=8 | date=2019-04-14 | pages=e12521 | issn=2047-6302 | pmid=30983091 | doi=10.1111/ijpo.12521 | s2cid=115206999 }}</ref> Some preliminary studies indicate that consumption of products manufactured with artificial sweeteners is associated with obesity and [[metabolic syndrome]], decreased [[satiety]], disturbed glucose [[metabolism]], and weight gain, mainly due to increased overall calorie intake, although the numerous factors influencing obesity remain poorly studied, as of 2021.<ref name=brown/><ref name=young/><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Pearlman |first1=Michelle |last2=Obert |first2=Jon |last3=Casey |first3=Lisa |name-list-style=amp |date=December 2017 |title=The association between artificial sweeteners and obesity |url=http://link.springer.com/10.1007/s11894-017-0602-9 |url-status=live |journal=Current Gastroenterology Reports |language=en |volume=19 |issue=12 |pages=64 |doi=10.1007/s11894-017-0602-9 |issn=1522-8037 |pmid=29159583 |s2cid=46270291 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230423112917/https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s11894-017-0602-9 |archive-date=23 April 2023 |access-date=22 September 2022|url-access=subscription }}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Christofides |first=Elena A. |date=October 2021 |title=Artificial sweeteners and obesity—Not the solution and potentially a problem |url=https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S1530891X21011575 |journal=Endocrine Practice |language=en |volume=27 |issue=10 |pages=1052–1055 |doi=10.1016/j.eprac.2021.08.001 |pmid=34389515 |s2cid=237009397 |access-date=22 September 2022 |archive-date=27 November 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221127161625/https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S1530891X21011575 |url-status=live |url-access=subscription }}</ref>
+There is little evidence that artificial sweeteners directly affect the onset and mechanisms of [[obesity]], although consuming sweetened products is associated with weight gain in children.<ref name="brown">{{cite journal |last1=Brown |first1=Rebecca J. |last2=de Banate |first2=Mary Ann |last3=Rother |first3=Kristina I. |year=2010 |title=Artificial Sweeteners: A systematic review of metabolic effects in youth |journal=International Journal of Pediatric Obesity |volume=5 |issue=4 |pages=305–312 |doi=10.3109/17477160903497027 |issn=1747-7166 |pmc=2951976 |pmid=20078374}}</ref><ref name="young">{{cite journal |last1=Young |first1=Jordan |last2=Conway |first2=Ellen M. |last3=Rother |first3=Kristina I. |last4=Sylvetsky |first4=Allison C. |date=2019-04-14 |title=Low-calorie sweetener use, weight, and metabolic health among children: A mini-review |journal=Pediatric Obesity |volume=14 |issue=8 |doi=10.1111/ijpo.12521 |issn=2047-6302 |pmid=30983091 |s2cid=115206999 |article-number=e12521}}</ref> Some preliminary studies indicate that consumption of products manufactured with artificial sweeteners is associated with obesity and [[metabolic syndrome]], decreased [[satiety]], disturbed glucose [[metabolism]] and weight gain, mainly due to increased overall calorie intake, although the numerous factors influencing obesity remain poorly studied, as of 2021.<ref name=brown/><ref name=young/><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Pearlman |first1=Michelle |last2=Obert |first2=Jon |last3=Casey |first3=Lisa |name-list-style=amp |date=December 2017 |title=The association between artificial sweeteners and obesity |url=http://link.springer.com/10.1007/s11894-017-0602-9 |url-status=live |journal=Current Gastroenterology Reports |language=en |volume=19 |issue=12 |page=64 |doi=10.1007/s11894-017-0602-9 |issn=1522-8037 |pmid=29159583 |s2cid=46270291 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230423112917/https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s11894-017-0602-9 |archive-date=23 April 2023 |access-date=22 September 2022|url-access=subscription }}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Christofides |first=Elena A. |date=October 2021 |title=Artificial sweeteners and obesity—Not the solution and potentially a problem |url=https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S1530891X21011575 |journal=Endocrine Practice |language=en |volume=27 |issue=10 |pages=1052–1055 |doi=10.1016/j.eprac.2021.08.001 |pmid=34389515 |s2cid=237009397 |access-date=22 September 2022 |archive-date=27 November 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221127161625/https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S1530891X21011575 |url-status=live |url-access=subscription }}</ref>
 ===Cancer===
-Multiple reviews have found no link between artificial sweeteners and the risk of [[cancer]].<ref name="Lohner-2017"/><ref name="cancer">{{cite web |date=3 February 2014 |title=Common Cancer Myths and Misconceptions |url=https://www.cancer.gov/about-cancer/causes-prevention/risk/myths |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220101101433/https://www.cancer.gov/about-cancer/causes-prevention/risk/myths |archive-date=1 January 2022 |access-date=17 August 2021 |work=[[National Cancer Institute]]}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Bosetti C, Gallus S, Talamini R, Montella M, Franceschi S, Negri E, La Vecchia C | title = Artificial sweeteners and the risk of gastric, pancreatic, and endometrial cancers in Italy | journal = Cancer Epidemiology, Biomarkers & Prevention | volume = 18 | issue = 8 | pages = 2235–2238 | date = August 2009 | pmid = 19661082 | doi = 10.1158/1055-9965.epi-09-0365 | doi-access =  }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Mishra A, Ahmed K, Froghi S, Dasgupta P | title = Systematic review of the relationship between artificial sweetener consumption and cancer in humans: analysis of 599,741 participants | journal = International Journal of Clinical Practice | volume = 69 | issue = 12 | pages = 1418–1426 | date = December 2015 | pmid = 26202345 | doi = 10.1111/ijcp.12703 | doi-access = free }}</ref> FDA scientists have reviewed scientific data regarding the safety of aspartame and different sweeteners in food, concluding that they are safe for the general population under common intake conditions.<ref>{{Cite journal |author=Center for Food Safety and Applied Nutrition |date=2020-02-20 |title=Additional Information about High-Intensity Sweeteners Permitted for Use in Food in the United States |url=https://www.fda.gov/food/food-additives-petitions/additional-information-about-high-intensity-sweeteners-permitted-use-food-united-states |journal=FDA |language=en |access-date=26 March 2022 |archive-date=10 December 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211210013904/https://www.fda.gov/food/food-additives-petitions/additional-information-about-high-intensity-sweeteners-permitted-use-food-united-states |url-status=dead }}</ref>
+Multiple reviews have found no link between artificial sweeteners and the risk of [[cancer]].<ref name="Lohner-2017"/><ref name="cancer">{{cite web |date=3 February 2014 |title=Common Cancer Myths and Misconceptions |url=https://www.cancer.gov/about-cancer/causes-prevention/risk/myths |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220101101433/https://www.cancer.gov/about-cancer/causes-prevention/risk/myths |archive-date=1 January 2022 |access-date=17 August 2021 |work=[[National Cancer Institute]]}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Bosetti C, Gallus S, Talamini R, Montella M, Franceschi S, Negri E, La Vecchia C | title = Artificial sweeteners and the risk of gastric, pancreatic, and endometrial cancers in Italy | journal = Cancer Epidemiology, Biomarkers & Prevention | volume = 18 | issue = 8 | pages = 2235–2238 | date = August 2009 | pmid = 19661082 | doi = 10.1158/1055-9965.epi-09-0365 | doi-access =  }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Mishra A, Ahmed K, Froghi S, Dasgupta P | title = Systematic review of the relationship between artificial sweetener consumption and cancer in humans: analysis of 599,741 participants | journal = International Journal of Clinical Practice | volume = 69 | issue = 12 | pages = 1418–1426 | date = December 2015 | pmid = 26202345 | doi = 10.1111/ijcp.12703 | doi-access = free }}</ref> FDA scientists have reviewed scientific data regarding the safety of aspartame and different sweeteners in food, concluding that they are safe for the general population under common intake conditions.<ref>{{Cite journal |author=Center for Food Safety and Applied Nutrition |date=2020-02-20 |title=Additional Information about High-Intensity Sweeteners Permitted for Use in Food in the United States |url=https://www.fda.gov/food/food-additives-petitions/additional-information-about-high-intensity-sweeteners-permitted-use-food-united-states |journal=FDA |language=en |access-date=26 March 2022 |archive-date=10 December 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211210013904/https://www.fda.gov/food/food-additives-petitions/additional-information-about-high-intensity-sweeteners-permitted-use-food-united-states }}</ref>
 ===Mortality===
-High consumption of artificially sweetened beverages was associated with a 12% higher risk of all-cause mortality and a 23% higher risk of [[cardiovascular disease]] (CVD) mortality in a 2021 [[meta-analysis]].<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Li H, Liang H, Yang H, Zhang X, Ding X, Zhang R, Mao Y, Liu Z, Kan Q, Sun T | display-authors = 6 | title = Association between intake of sweetened beverages with all-cause and cause-specific mortality: a systematic review and meta-analysis | journal = Journal of Public Health | volume =  44| issue =  3| date = April 2021 | pages = 516–526 | pmid = 33837431 | doi = 10.1093/pubmed/fdab069 | doi-access = free }}</ref> A 2020 meta-analysis found a similar result, with the highest consuming group having a 13% higher risk of all-cause mortality and a 25% higher risk of CVD mortality.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Zhang YB, Jiang YW, Chen JX, Xia PF, Pan A | title = Association of Consumption of Sugar-Sweetened Beverages or Artificially Sweetened Beverages with Mortality: A Systematic Review and Dose-Response Meta-Analysis of Prospective Cohort Studies | journal = Advances in Nutrition | volume = 12 | issue = 2 | pages = 374–383 | date = March 2021 | pmid = 33786594 | pmc = 8009739 | doi = 10.1093/advances/nmaa110 }}</ref> However, both studies also found similar or greater increases in all-cause mortality when consuming the same amount of sugar-sweetened beverages.
+High consumption of artificially sweetened beverages was associated with a 12% higher risk of all-cause mortality and a 23% higher risk of [[cardiovascular disease]] (CVD) mortality in a 2021 [[meta-analysis]].<ref>{{cite journal |vauthors=Li H, Liang H, Yang H, Zhang X, Ding X, Zhang R, Mao Y, Liu Z, Kan Q, Sun T |date=April 2021 |title=Association between intake of sweetened beverages with all-cause and cause-specific mortality: a systematic review and meta-analysis |journal=Journal of Public Health |volume=44 |issue=3 |pages=516–526 |doi=10.1093/pubmed/fdab069 |pmid=33837431 |doi-access=free}}</ref> A 2020 meta-analysis found a similar result, with the highest-consuming group having a 13% higher risk of all-cause mortality and a 25% higher risk of CVD mortality.<ref>{{cite journal |vauthors=Zhang YB, Jiang YW, Chen JX, Xia PF, Pan A |date=March 2021 |title=Association of Consumption of Sugar-Sweetened Beverages or Artificially Sweetened Beverages with Mortality: A Systematic Review and Dose-Response Meta-Analysis of Prospective Cohort Studies |journal=Advances in Nutrition |volume=12 |issue=2 |pages=374–383 |doi=10.1093/advances/nmaa110 |pmc=8009739 |pmid=33786594}}</ref> However, both studies also found similar or greater increases in all-cause mortality when consuming the same amount of sugar-sweetened beverages.
 == Non-nutritive sweeteners vs sugar ==
@@ Line 519: / Line 518: @@
 == See also ==
-*[[Sugar alcohol]]
-*[[Sweetener]]
 *[[VirtualTaste]] – database (2010)

Sugar substitute: Difference between revisions

Latest revision as of 16:18, 4 November 2025

Contents

Types

Allulose

Acesulfame potassium

Aspartame

Cyclamate

Mogrosides (monk fruit)

Saccharin

Steviol glycosides (stevia)

Sucralose

Sugar alcohol

Production

Use

Reasons for use

Dental care

Dietary concerns

Glucose metabolism

Cost and shelf life

Acceptable daily intake levels

Mouthfeel

Sweetness intensity

Plant-derived

Artificial

Sugar alcohols

Research

Body weight

Obesity

Cancer

Mortality

Non-nutritive sweeteners vs sugar

See also

Notes

References

External links

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