Garlic: Difference between revisions

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Garlic (Allium sativum) is a species of bulbous flowering plants in the genus Allium. Its close relatives include the onion, shallot, leek, chives,^[1] Welsh onion, and Chinese onion.^[2] Garlic is native to central and south Asia, stretching from the Black Sea through the southern Caucasus, northeastern Iran, and the Hindu Kush;^[3]^[4]^[5] it also grows wild in parts of Mediterranean Europe.^[6] There are two subspecies and hundreds of varieties of garlic.

Garlic has been used for thousands of years as a seasoning, culinary ingredient, and traditional medical remedy. It was known in many ancient civilizations, including the Babylonians, Egyptians, Jews, Romans, and Chinese,^[5]^[7] and remains significant in many cuisines and folk treatments, especially across the Mediterranean and Asia.^[8]^[9]^[10] Garlic propagates in a variety of climates and conditions and is produced globally; China is by far the largest producer, accounting for over two thirds (73%) of the world's supply in 2021.Template:According to whom

Description

File:Opened garlic bulb with garlic clove.jpg

Garlic bulb with a clove removed

Garlic is a perennial flowering plant that is native to Central Asia, South Asia and northeastern Iran.^[3]^[4] It grows from a bulb, with a tall, erect flowering stem that reaches up to Template:Cvt. The leaf blade is flat, linear, solid, and approximately Template:Cvt wide, with an acute apex. The plant may produce pink to purple flowers from July to September in the Northern Hemisphere. The bulb has a strong odor and is typically made up of 10 to 20 cloves. The cloves close to the center are symmetrical, and those surrounding the center can be asymmetrical. Each clove is enclosed in an inner sheathing leaf surrounded by layers of outer sheathing leaves.^[11] If garlic is planted at the proper time and depth, it can be grown as far north as Alaska.^[12] It produces hermaphroditic flowers. It is pollinated by butterflies, moths, and other insects.^[13]

Chemistry

Fresh or crushed garlic yields the sulfur-containing compounds allicin, ajoene, diallyl polysulfides, vinyldithiins, and S-allylcysteine, as well as enzymes, saponins, flavonoids, and Maillard reaction products when cooked, which are not sulfur-containing compounds.

The phytochemicals responsible for the sharp flavor of garlic are produced when the plant's cells are damaged. When a cell is broken by chopping, chewing, or crushing, enzymes stored in cell vacuoles trigger the breakdown of several sulfur-containing compounds stored in the cell fluids (cytosol).^[14] The resultant compounds are responsible for the sharp or hot taste and strong smell of garlic. Some of the compounds are unstable and continue to react over time.^[15]

Among alliums, garlic has by far the highest concentrations of initial reaction products, making garlic much more potent than onion, shallot, or leeks.^[15] Although many humans enjoy the taste of garlic, these compounds are believed to have evolved as a defensive mechanism, deterring animals such as birds, insects, and worms from eating the plant.^[16]

A large number of sulfur compounds contribute to the smell and taste of garlic. Allicin has been found to be the compound most responsible for the "hot" sensation of raw garlic. This chemical opens thermo-transient receptor potential channels that are responsible for the burning sense of heat in foods. The process of cooking garlic removes allicin, thus mellowing its spiciness.^[16] Allicin, along with its decomposition products diallyl disulfide and diallyl trisulfide, are major contributors to the characteristic odor of garlic, with other allicin-derived compounds, such as vinyldithiins and ajoene.^[1]

Taxonomy

Identification of the wild progenitor of common garlic is difficult due to the sterility of its many cultivars, which limits the ability to cross test with wild relatives.Script error: No such module "Unsubst".Template:Efn Genetically and morphologically, garlic is most similar to the wild species Allium longicuspis, which grows in central and southwestern Asia.^[17]^[18]^[19] However, because A. longicuspis is also mostly sterile, it is doubtful that it is the ancestor of A. sativum.^[17] Other candidates that have been suggested include A. tuncelianum, A. macrochaetum, and A. truncatum, all of which are native to the Middle East.^[17]

Allium sativum grows in the wild in areas where it has become naturalized. The "wild garlic", "crow garlic", and "field garlic" of Britain are members of the species A. ursinum, A. vineale, and A. oleraceum, respectively. In North America, A. vineale (known as "wild garlic" or "crow garlic") and Allium canadense (known as "meadow garlic", "wild garlic", or "wild onion") are common weeds in fields.^[20] So-called elephant garlic is actually a wild leek (A. ampeloprasum) and not a true garlic. Single clove garlic (also called pearl or solo garlic) originated in the Yunnan province of China.

Subspecies and varieties

There are two subspecies of A. sativum,^[21] ten major groups of varieties, and hundreds of varieties, or cultivars.

A. sativum var. ophioscorodon (Link) Döll, called Ophioscorodon or hardneck garlic, includes porcelain garlics, rocambole garlic, and purple stripe garlics. It is sometimes considered to be a separate species, Allium ophioscorodon G.Don.
A. sativum var. sativum, or softneck garlic, includes artichoke garlic, silverskin garlic, and creole garlic.

There are at least 120 cultivars originating from Central Asia, making it the main center of garlic biodiversity.^[22]

File:Garlic flower head.jpg

Flower head

File:Italian garlic PDO.JPG

Italian garlic

Some garlics have protected status in the UK and the EU,^[23] including:

Name	Source
Aglio Rosso di Nubia (Red Garlic of Nubia)	Nubia-Paceco, Provincia di Trapani, Sicily, Italy
Aglio Bianco Polesano	Rovigo, Veneto, Italy (PDO)
Aglio di Voghiera	Ferrara, Emilia-Romagna, Italy (PDO)
Ail blanc de Lomagne	Lomagne in the Gascony, France (PGI)
Ail de la Drôme	Drôme, France (PGI)
Ail rose de Lautrec, a rose/pink garlic	Lautrec, France (PGI)
Ail violet de Cadours	Cadours, France (PDO)
Ajo Morado de Las Pedroñeras, a rose/pink garlic	Las Pedroñeras, Spain (PGI)
金鄕大蒜 Jīn Xiāng Dà Suàn	China (PGI)
Taşköprü Sarımsağı	Turkey (PDO)

Etymology

The word garlic derives from Old English, garlēac, meaning gar (spear) and leek, as a 'spear-shaped leek'.^[24]

Ecology

Garlic plants are usually hardy and not affected by many pests or diseases. Garlic plants are said to repel rabbits and moles.^[2] The California Department of Food and Agriculture conducts a certification program to assure freedom from nematode and white rot disease caused by Stromatinia cepivora, two pathogens that can both destroy a crop and remain in the soil indefinitely once introduced.^[18] Garlic may also suffer from pink root, a typically non-fatal disease that stunts the roots and turns them pink or red;^[25] or leek rust, which usually appears as bright orange spots.^[26] The larvae of the leek moth attack garlic by mining into the leaves or bulbs.^[27]

Botrytis neck and bulb rot is a disease of onion, garlic, leek and shallot. Botrytis allii and Botrytis aclada cause this disease in onion and Botrytis porri causes it in garlic. According to the University of California,

Initial symptoms usually begin at the neck, where affected tissue softens, becomes water-soaked, and turns brown. In a humid atmosphere, a gray and feltlike growth (where spores are produced) appears on rotting scales, and mycelia may develop between scales. Dark-brown-to-black sclerotia (the resting bodies of the pathogen) may eventually develop in the neck or between scales.^[28]

Cultivation

File:Garlic Fields Thattaneri Nilgiris Nov24 A7CR 05218.jpg

Garlic fields, India

Garlic is easy to cultivate and may grow year-round in mild climates.^[26] While sexual propagation of garlic is possible, nearly all of the garlic in cultivation is propagated asexually by planting individual cloves in the ground.^[18] In colder climates, cloves are best planted about six weeks before the soil freezes. The goal is to have the bulbs produce only roots and no shoots above the ground.^[29] Harvest is in late spring or early summer.

Garlic plants can be grown closely together, leaving enough space for the bulbs to mature, and are easily grown in containers of sufficient depth. Garlic does well in loose, dry, well-drained soils in sunny locations, and is hardy throughout USDA climate zones 4–9. When selecting garlic for planting, it is important to pick large bulbs from which to separate cloves. Large cloves, along with proper spacing in the planting bed, will also increase bulb size. Garlic plants prefer to grow in a soil with a high organic material content, but are capable of growing in a wide range of soil conditions and pH levels.^[18]

There are different varieties of garlic, most notably split into the subspecies of hardneck garlic and softneck garlic.^[26] The latitude where the garlic is grown affects the choice of type, as garlic can be day-length sensitive. Hardneck garlic is generally grown in cooler climates and produces relatively large cloves, whereas softneck garlic is generally grown closer to the equator and produces small, tightly packed cloves.^[26]

Garlic scapes are removed to focus all the garlic's energy into bulb growth. The scapes can be eaten raw or cooked.^[30]^[31]

File:Single clove garlic.jpg

Garlic grown without the process of vernalization

Propagation

The method of propagating garlic from planting cloves is called division. Asexual propagation of garlic for production purposes requires cool temperatures that can vary depending on the cultivar. Hardneck varieties require long cold temperature exposure whereas softneck varieties thrive in milder climates. This cold climate is required for the process of vernalization, a form of stratification of the cloves necessary for the development of multiple-clove bulbs.^[32] Solo garlic is the result of garlic grown without the process of vernalization.

Production

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Green garlic production
2023, millions of tonnesScript error: No such module "Check for unknown parameters".
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World	28.7
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In 2023, world production of garlic was 29 million tonnes, with China accounting for 72% of the total (table).

Bulbs (top-setting, grown in lieu of flowers)

Bulbs (top-setting, grown in lieu of flowers)
Garlic, from The Book of Health, 1898, by Henry Munson Lyman

Garlic, from The Book of Health, 1898, by Henry Munson Lyman
Alliin, a sulfur-containing compound found in garlic.

Alliin, a sulfur-containing compound found in garlic.

Adverse effects and toxicology

The scent of garlic is known to linger upon the human body and cause bad breath (halitosis) and body odor.^[11] This is caused by allyl methyl sulfide (AMS). AMS is a volatile liquid which is absorbed into the blood during the metabolism of garlic-derived sulfur compounds; from the blood it travels to the lungs^[1] (and from there to the mouth, causing garlic breath) and skin, where it is exuded through skin pores. Since digestion takes several hours, and release of AMS several hours more, the effect of eating garlic may be present for a long time.^[1] Washing the skin with soap is only a partial and imperfect solution to the smell. Studies have shown sipping milk at the same time as consuming garlic can significantly neutralize bad breath.^[34] Mixing garlic with milk in the mouth before swallowing reduced the odor better than drinking milk afterward.^[34] Plain water, mushrooms, and basil may also reduce the odor; the mix of fat and water found in milk, however, was the most effective.^[34] Garlic breath is allegedly alleviated by eating fresh parsley.

Abundant sulfur compounds in garlic are also responsible for turning garlic green or blue during pickling and cooking. Under these conditions (i.e., acidity, heat) the sulfur-containing compound alliin reacts with common amino acids to make pyrroles, clusters of carbon-nitrogen rings.^[35]^[36] These rings can be linked together into polypyrrole molecules. Ring structures absorb particular wavelengths of light and thus appear colored. The two-pyrrole molecule looks red, the three-pyrrole molecule looks blue, and the four-pyrrole molecule looks green (like chlorophyll, a tetrapyrrole). Like chlorophyll, the pyrrole pigments are safe to eat.^[37] Upon cutting, similar to a color change in onion caused by reactions of amino acids with sulfur compounds,^[38] garlic can turn green.^[39]^[40]

The green, dry "folds" in the center of the garlic clove are especially pungent. The sulfur compound allicin, produced by crushing or chewing fresh garlic,^[11] produces other sulfur compounds: ajoene, allyl polysulfides, and vinyldithiins.^[1] Aged garlic lacks allicin, but may have some activity due to the presence of S-allylcysteine.

Some people suffer from allergies to garlic and other species of Allium.^[1] Symptoms can include irritable bowel, diarrhea, mouth and throat ulcerations, nausea, breathing difficulties, and, in rare cases, anaphylaxis.^[11] Garlic-sensitive people show positive tests to diallyl disulfide, allylpropyldisulfide, allylmercaptan, and allicin, all of which are present in garlic. People who suffer from garlic allergies are often sensitive to many other plants, including onions, chives, leeks, shallots, garden lilies, ginger, and bananas.Script error: No such module "Unsubst".

File:Knoblauch (Allium sativum)-20200621-RM-085344.jpg

The garlic plant is starting to be green

Several reports of serious burns resulting from garlic being applied topically for various purposes, including naturopathic uses and acne treatment, indicate care must be taken for these uses, usually testing a small area of skin using a low concentration of garlic.^[41] On the basis of numerous reports of such burns, including burns to children, topical use of raw garlic, as well as insertion of raw garlic into body cavities, is discouraged.^[11] In particular, topical application of raw garlic to young children is not advisable.^[42]

The side effects of long-term garlic supplementation are largely unknown.^[11] Possible side effects include gastrointestinal discomfort, sweating, dizziness, allergic reactions, bleeding, and menstrual irregularities.^[43]

Some breastfeeding mothers have found, after consuming garlic, that their babies can be slow to feed, and have noted a garlic odor coming from them.^[11]^[44] Conversely an experiment showed, "infants were attached to the breast for longer periods of time and sucked more when the milk smelled like garlic".^[45]

If higher-than-recommended doses of garlic are taken with anticoagulant medications, this can lead to a higher risk of bleeding.^[11]^[46] Garlic may interact with warfarin,^[11] saquinavir, antihypertensives, calcium channel blockers, the quinolone family of antibiotics such as ciprofloxacin, and hypoglycemic drugs, as well as other medications.^[44] The American Veterinary Medical Association considers garlic to be toxic to pets.^[47]

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Uses

Because of sulfur compounds circulating in blood, consumed garlic may act as a mosquito repellent, although there is no scientific evidence of its efficacy.^[48]

Nutrition

In the typical serving size of 1–3 cloves (3–9 grams), raw garlic provides no significant nutritional value, with the content of all essential nutrients below 10% of the Daily Value (DV). In a reference amount of Template:Cvt, raw garlic contains some micronutrients in rich amounts (20% or more of the DV), including vitamins B6 (73% DV) and C (35% DV), and the dietary mineral, manganese (73% DV). Per 100 gram serving, raw garlic is a moderate source (10–19% DV) of the B vitamins, thiamin and pantothenic acid, as well as the dietary minerals, calcium, potassium, phosphorus, and zinc.

The composition of raw garlic is 59% water, 33% carbohydrates, 6% protein, 2% dietary fiber, and less than 1% fat.

Culinary

File:Garlic for sale.jpg

Garlic bulbs and cloves for sale at the Or Tor Kor market in Bangkok

Garlic is widely used around the world for its pungent flavor as a seasoning or condiment.

The garlic plant's bulb is the most commonly used part of the plant. With the exception of the single clove types, garlic bulbs are normally divided into numerous fleshy sections called cloves. Garlic cloves are used for consumption (raw or cooked) or for medicinal purposes. They have a characteristic pungent, spicy flavor that mellows and sweetens considerably with cooking.^[49] The distinctive aroma is mainly due to organosulfur compounds including allicin present in fresh garlic cloves and ajoene which forms when they are crushed or chopped. A further metabolite allyl methyl sulfide is responsible for garlic breath.^[50]^[51]^[52]^[53]

Other parts of the garlic plant are also edible. The leaves and flowers (bulbils) on the head (spathe) are sometimes eaten. They are milder in flavor than the bulbs,^[2] and are most often consumed while immature and still tender. Immature garlic is sometimes pulled, rather like a scallion, and sold as "green garlic".^[54] When green garlic is allowed to grow past the "scallion" stage, but not permitted to fully mature, it may produce a garlic "round", a bulb like a boiling onion, but not separated into cloves like a mature bulb.^[55]

Green garlic imparts a garlic flavor and aroma in food, minus the spiciness. Green garlic is often chopped and stir-fried or cooked in soup or hot pot in Southeast Asian (i.e. Vietnamese, Thai, Myanmar, Lao, Cambodian, Singaporean), and Chinese cookery, and is very abundant and low-priced. Additionally, the immature flower stalks (scapes) of the hardneck are sometimes marketed for uses similar to asparagus in stir-fries.^[18]

File:Warzywa czosnek002.jpg

Garlic plants

Inedible or rarely eaten parts of the garlic plant include the "skin" covering each clove and root cluster. The papery, protective layers of "skin" over various parts of the plant are generally discarded during preparation for most culinary uses, though in Korea immature whole heads are sometimes prepared with the tender skins intact.^[56] The root cluster attached to the basal plate of the bulb is the only part not typically considered palatable in any form.

An alternative is to cut the top off the bulb, coat the cloves by dribbling olive oil (or other oil-based seasoning) over them, and roast them in an oven. Garlic softens and can be extracted from the cloves by squeezing the (root) end of the bulb, or individually by squeezing one end of the clove. In Korea, heads of garlic are heated over the course of several weeks; the resulting product, called black garlic, is sweet and syrupy, and is used in the US, Europe and Australia, either produced domestically or imported.

Garlic may be applied to different kinds of bread, usually in a medium of butter or oil, to create a variety of classic dishes, such as garlic bread, garlic toast, bruschetta, crostini, and canapé. The flavor varies in intensity and aroma with the different cooking methods. It is often paired with onion, tomato, or ginger.

Immature scapes are tender and edible. They are also known as "garlic spears", "stems", or "tops". Scapes generally have a milder taste than the cloves. They are often used in stir frying or braised like asparagus.^[31] Garlic leaves are a popular vegetable in many parts of Asia. The leaves are cut, cleaned, and then stir-fried with eggs, meat, or vegetables.

Garlic powder is made from dehydrated garlic and can be used as a substitute for fresh garlic, though the taste is not quite the same. Garlic salt combines garlic powder with table salt.

Regions

File:Garlic Press and Garlic.jpg

Garlic crushed using a garlic press

Garlic is a fundamental component in many or most dishes of various regions, including eastern Asia, South Asia, Southeast Asia, the Middle East, northern Africa, southern Europe, Eastern Europe and parts of Latin America.^[57] Latin American seasonings, particularly, use garlic in sofritos and mofongos.^[58]

Oils can be flavored with garlic cloves. These infused oils are used to season all categories of vegetables, meats, breads, and pasta. Garlic, along with fish sauce, chopped fresh chilis, lime juice, sugar, and water, is a basic essential item in dipping fish sauce, a highly used dipping sauce condiment used in Indochina. In East and Southeast Asia, chili oil with garlic is a popular dipping sauce, especially for meat and seafood. Tuong ot toi Viet Nam (Vietnam chili garlic sauce) is a highly popular condiment and dip across North America and Asia.

In some cuisines, the young bulbs are pickled for three to six weeks in a mixture of sugar, salt, and spices. In eastern Europe, the shoots are pickled and eaten as an appetizer. Laba garlic, prepared by soaking garlic in vinegar, is a type of pickled garlic served with dumplings in northern China to celebrate the Chinese New Year.^[1]

Garlic is essential in Middle Eastern and Arabic cooking, with its presence in many food items. In the Levant, garlic is traditionally crushed together with olive oil, and occasionally salt, to create a Middle Eastern garlic sauce called Toum (تُوم; meaning "garlic" in Arabic). While not exclusively served with meats, toum is commonly paired with chicken or other meat dishes such as shawarma. Garlic is also a key component in some hummus varieties, an Arabic dip composed of chickpeas, tahini, garlic, lemon juice, and salt.

Lightly smoked garlic is used in British and other European cuisine. It is particularly prized for stuffing poultry and game, and in soups and stews.

Emulsifying garlic with olive oil produces aioli. Garlic, oil, and a chunky base produce skordalia. Crushed garlic, oil, and water produce a strong flavored sauce, mujdei. Blending garlic, almond, oil, and soaked bread produces ajoblanco. Tzatziki, yogurt mixed with garlic and salt, is a common sauce in Eastern Mediterranean cuisines.

Culinary history

Numerous cuneiform records show that garlic has been cultivated in Mesopotamia for at least 4,000 years.^[17] The use of garlic in China and Egypt also dates back thousands of years.^[1]^[17] Well-preserved garlic was found in the tomb of Tutankhamun (c. 1325 BC).^[17] It was consumed by ancient Greek and Roman soldiers, sailors, and rural classes (Virgil, Eclogues ii. 11), and, according to Pliny the Elder (Natural History xix. 32), by the African peasantry. Garlic was placed by the ancient Greeks on the piles of stones at crossroads, as a supper for Hecate (Theophrastus, Characters, The Superstitious Man).^[59] In classical antiquity, garlic was a highly favored food among Jews, to the extent that the Mishnah uses the nickname "garlic eaters" (Mishnah, Nedarim 3:10).^[60]

Garlic was rare in traditional English cuisine (though it is said to have been grown in England before 1548) but has been a common ingredient in Mediterranean Europe.^[61] Translations of the Template:Circa Assize of Weights and Measures, an English statute generally dated to the 13th century, indicate a passage as dealing with standardized units of garlic production, sale, and taxation—the hundred of 15 ropes of 15 heads each^[62]—but the Latin version of the text may refer to herring rather than garlic.^[63]

Storage

File:Allium sativum. Restra de allos de Oroso- Galiza.jpg

String of garlic

Domestically, garlic is stored warm [above 18°C (64°F)] and dry to keep it dormant (to inhibit sprouting). It is traditionally hung; softneck varieties are often braided in strands called plaits or grappes. Peeled cloves may be stored in wine or vinegar in the refrigerator.^[64] Commercially, garlic is stored at 0°C (32°F), in a dry, low-humidity environment. Garlic will keep longer if the tops remain attached.^[18]

Garlic is often kept in oil to produce flavored oil; however, the practice requires measures to be taken to prevent the garlic from spoiling which may include rancidity and growth of Clostridium botulinum.^[65] Acidification with a mild solution of vinegar minimizes bacterial growth.^[65] Refrigeration does not assure the safety of garlic kept in oil, requiring use within one month to avoid bacterial spoilage.^[65] Garlic is also dried at low temperatures, to preserve the enzymatic activity and sold and kept as garlic granules, and can be rehydrated to reactivate it.^[66]

Stored garlic can be affected by Penicillium decay known as "blue mold" (or "green mold" in some locales), especially in high humidity.^[67] Infection may first appear as soft or water-soaked spots, followed by white patches (of mycelium) which turn blue or green with sporulation.^[68] As sporulation and germination are delayed at low temperature, and at −4 °C are inhibited entirely,^[69] in refrigerated cloves one may only see the white mycelium during early stages. Penicillium hirsutum^[70] and Penicillium allii^[71] are two of the predominant species identified in blue mold.

Medical research

Cardiovascular

As of 2016, clinical research found that consuming garlic produces only a small reduction in blood pressure (4 mmHg),^[72]^[73]^[74]^[75] and there is no clear long-term effect on hypertension, cardiovascular morbidity or mortality.^[74] A 2016 meta-analysis indicated there was no effect of garlic consumption on blood levels of lipoprotein(a), a biomarker of atherosclerosis.^[76]

Because garlic might reduce platelet aggregation, people taking anticoagulant medication are cautioned about consuming garlic.^[43]^[77]^[78]

Cancer

Two reviews found no effect of consuming garlic on colorectal cancer.^[79]^[80] A 2016 meta-analysis of case-control and cohort studies found a moderate inverse association between garlic intake and some cancers of the upper digestive tract.^[81]

Common cold

A 2014 review found insufficient evidence to determine the effects of garlic in preventing or treating the common cold.^[82] Other reviews concluded a similar absence of high-quality evidence for garlic having a significant effect on the common cold.^[43]^[83]

File:Tacuinum sanitatis-garlic.jpg

Harvesting garlic, from Tacuinum Sanitatis, 15th century (Bibliothèque nationale de France)

Folk medicine

Garlic has been used for traditional medicine in diverse cultures such as in Korea, Egypt, Japan, China, Rome, and Greece.^[11]^[43] In his Natural History, Pliny gave a list of conditions in which garlic was considered beneficial (N.H. xx. 23). Galen, writing in the second century, eulogized garlic as the "rustic's theriac" (cure-all) (see F. Adams' Paulus Aegineta, p. 99). Alexander Neckam, a writer of the 12th century (see Wright's edition of his works, p. 473, 1863), discussed it as a palliative for the heat of the sun in field labor. In the 17th century, Thomas Sydenham valued it as an application in confluent smallpox, and William Cullen's Materia Medica of 1789 found some dropsies cured by it alone.^[59]^[84]

Other uses

The sticky juice within the bulb cloves is used as an adhesive in mending glass and porcelain.^[2] An environmentally benign garlic-derived polysulfide product is approved for use in the European Union (under Annex 1 of 91/414) and the UK as a nematicide and insecticide, including for use in the control of cabbage root fly and red mite in poultry.^[85]

In culture

Garlic is present in the folklore of many cultures. In Europe, many cultures have used garlic for protection or white magic, perhaps owing to its reputation in folk medicine.^[43] Central European folk beliefs considered garlic a powerful ward against demons, werewolves, and vampires. To ward off vampires, garlic could be worn, hung in windows, or rubbed on chimneys and keyholes.^[86]^[87]

In the foundation myth of the ancient Korean kingdom of Gojoseon, eating nothing but 20 cloves of garlic and a bundle of Korean mugwort for 100 days let a bear be transformed into a woman.^[88]

The Hebrew Bible recounts that during their journey in the wilderness, the Israelites yearned for garlic among other foods they had eaten in Egypt (Numbers, 11:5).^[60] Rabbinic literature attributes to Ezra the teaching that consuming garlic on Shabbat nights promotes intimacy, "because it brings in love and brings out lust." (Jerusalem Talmud, Megillah, 75:1).^[60]

In celebration of Nowruz (Persian calendar New Year), garlic is one of the essential items in a Script error: No such module "Lang". ('seven things beginning with "STemplate:"') table, a traditional New Year's display: the name for garlic in Persian is Script error: No such module "Lang". (Script error: No such module "Lang".), which begins with Script error: No such module "Lang". (Script error: No such module "Lang"., Script error: No such module "IPA"., Template:Respell) the Perso-Arabic letter corresponding to "S".^[89]

In Islam, it is recommended not to eat raw garlic prior to going to the mosque. This is based on several hadith.^[90]^[91]

Some Mahāyāna Buddhists and sects in China and Vietnam avoid eating onions, garlic, scallions, chives and leeks, which are known as Wu hun (Template:Lang-zh, 'the five forbidden pungent vegetables').^[92]

Because of its strong odor, garlic is sometimes called the "stinking rose".

Gallery

Chopped garlic

Chopped garlic
Garlic plant

Garlic plant
Harvested garlic left to dry

Harvested garlic left to dry
A garlic bulb

A garlic bulb
Blended garlic confit

Blended garlic confit

Notes

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References

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External links

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↑ The Science of Garlic and How to Make the Best Garlic Bread | Garlic Bread | What's Eating Dan?
↑ "Bulletin #1206, Blue Mold of Garlic," U. of Maine Cooperative Extension, https://extension.umaine.edu/publications/1206e/ Accessed Dec. 2019
↑ "Penitsyloz (penicillium rot of) garlic. Blue mould in garlic", Penitsyloz garlic. Blue mould in garlic http://www.ukrup.com.ua/en/penitsyloz-garlic-blue-mould-in-garlic/ Accessed Dec. 2019
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↑ "Low-temperature biology and pathogenic@ of Penicillium hirsutum on garlic in storage ", P. Bertolini, 1995, https://doi.org/10.1016/0925-5214(95)00025-9
↑ "Identification, pathogenicity and distribution of Penicillium spp. isolated from garlic in two regions in Argentina", J.G. Valdez et al., 2009, https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-3059.2008.01960.x
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[McGee,_pp._310–311-15] McGee, pp. 310–311

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[20] McGee p. 112

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[28] Agriculture: Onion and Garlic Pest Management Guidelines: Botrytis Neck and Bulb Rot by the University of California, Agriculture and Natural Resources

[29] "October is garlic planting time", Michigan State University Extension, 2011, https://www.canr.msu.edu/news/october_is_garlic_planting_time Accessed Dec. 2019

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[66] The Science of Garlic and How to Make the Best Garlic Bread | Garlic Bread | What's Eating Dan?

[67] "Bulletin #1206, Blue Mold of Garlic," U. of Maine Cooperative Extension, https://extension.umaine.edu/publications/1206e/ Accessed Dec. 2019

[68] "Penitsyloz (penicillium rot of) garlic. Blue mould in garlic", Penitsyloz garlic. Blue mould in garlic http://www.ukrup.com.ua/en/penitsyloz-garlic-blue-mould-in-garlic/ Accessed Dec. 2019

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[70] "Low-temperature biology and pathogenic@ of Penicillium hirsutum on garlic in storage ", P. Bertolini, 1995, https://doi.org/10.1016/0925-5214(95)00025-9

[71] "Identification, pathogenicity and distribution of Penicillium spp. isolated from garlic in two regions in Argentina", J.G. Valdez et al., 2009, https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-3059.2008.01960.x

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[84] Cullen 1789, vol.ii. p. 174.

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 }}}}
-'''Garlic''' ('''''Allium sativum''''') is a [[species]] of [[bulb]]ous [[flowering plant]]s in the [[genus]] ''[[Allium]]''. Its close relatives include the [[onion]], [[shallot]], [[leek]], [[chives]],<ref name="Block2010">{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=6AB89RHV9ucC|title=Garlic and Other Alliums: The Lore and the Science|last=Block|first=Eric|publisher=Royal Society of Chemistry|year=2010|isbn=978-0-85404-190-9}}</ref> [[Allium fistulosum|Welsh onion]], and [[Allium chinense|Chinese onion]].<ref name="AN">{{cite web|url=http://www.allallergy.net/fapaidfind.cfm?cdeoc=684|title=Substance Info: Garlic|website=All Allergy|publisher=Zing Solutions|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100615004222/http://allallergy.net/fapaidfind.cfm?cdeoc=684|archive-date=June 15, 2010|url-status=dead|access-date=April 14, 2010}}</ref> Garlic is native to [[Central Asia|central]] and [[south Asia]], stretching from the [[Black Sea]] through the southern [[Caucasus]], northeastern [[Iran]], and the [[Hindu Kush]];<ref name="kew">{{Cite web|url=http://powo.science.kew.org/taxon/urn:lsid:ipni.org:names:528796-1|title=Allium sativum L. |publisher=Plants of the World Online {{!}} Kew Science |access-date=October 31, 2018}}</ref><ref name="auto">{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=6AB89RHV9ucC|title=Garlic and Other Alliums: The Lore and the Science|last=Block|first=Eric|date=2010|publisher=Royal Society of Chemistry|isbn=9780854041909|language=en|pages=5–6}}</ref><ref name=":1">{{Cite web |title=Garlic, Allium sativum |url=https://hort.extension.wisc.edu/articles/garlic-allium-sativum |access-date=2025-03-31 |website=Wisconsin Horticulture |language=en-US}}</ref> it also grows wild in parts of [[Southern Europe|Mediterranean Europe]].<ref>{{Cite web |date=2025-03-19 |title=Garlic |publisher= Encyclopaedia Britannica |url=https://www.britannica.com/plant/garlic |access-date=2025-03-31 |language=en}}</ref> There are two subspecies and hundreds of [[Cultivar|varieties]] of garlic.
+'''Garlic''' ('''''Allium sativum''''') is a [[species]] of [[bulb]]ous [[flowering plant]]s in the [[genus]] ''[[Allium]]''. Its close relatives include the [[onion]], [[shallot]], [[leek]], [[chives]],<ref name="Block2010">{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=6AB89RHV9ucC|title=Garlic and Other Alliums: The Lore and the Science|last=Block|first=Eric|publisher=Royal Society of Chemistry|year=2010|isbn=978-0-85404-190-9}}</ref> [[Allium fistulosum|Welsh onion]], and [[Allium chinense|Chinese onion]].<ref name="AN">{{cite web|url=http://www.allallergy.net/fapaidfind.cfm?cdeoc=684|title=Substance Info: Garlic|website=All Allergy|publisher=Zing Solutions|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100615004222/http://allallergy.net/fapaidfind.cfm?cdeoc=684|archive-date=June 15, 2010|access-date=April 14, 2010}}</ref> Garlic is native to [[Central Asia|central]] and [[south Asia]], stretching from the [[Black Sea]] through the southern [[Caucasus]], northeastern [[Iran]], and the [[Hindu Kush]];<ref name="WCSP_296499"/><ref name="auto">{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=6AB89RHV9ucC|title=Garlic and Other Alliums: The Lore and the Science|last=Block|first=Eric|date=2010|publisher=Royal Society of Chemistry|isbn=978-0-85404-190-9|language=en|pages=5–6}}</ref><ref name=":1">{{Cite web |title=Garlic, Allium sativum |url=https://hort.extension.wisc.edu/articles/garlic-allium-sativum |access-date=2025-03-31 |website=Wisconsin Horticulture |language=en-US}}</ref> it also grows wild in parts of [[Southern Europe|Mediterranean Europe]].<ref>{{Cite web |date=2025-03-19 |title=Garlic |publisher= Encyclopaedia Britannica |url=https://www.britannica.com/plant/garlic |access-date=2025-03-31 |language=en}}</ref> There are two subspecies and hundreds of [[Cultivar|varieties]] of garlic.
-Garlic has been used for thousands of years as a seasoning, culinary ingredient, [[Traditional medicine|traditional medical]] remedy; it was known in many ancient civilizations, including the Babylonians, [[ancient Egypt|Egypt]]ians, Romans, and Chinese,<ref name=":1" /><ref name="Cherry12">{{cite book | last=Cherry | first=Robin | title=Garlic, an Edible Biography | publisher=Shambhala Publications | publication-place=Boston | date=2014-11-11 | isbn=978-1-61180-160-6 | page=12}}</ref> and remains significant in many cuisines and [[Traditional medicine|folk treatments]], especially across the Mediterranean and Asia.<ref name="o181">{{cite book | last=Pellechia | first=Thomas | title=Garlic, Wine, and Olive Oil | publisher=Booklink | date=2000 | isbn=978-0-88496-444-5 | page=}}</ref><ref name="r050">{{cite book | last=Newman | first=Jacqueline | title=Food Culture in China | publisher=Bloomsbury Publishing USA | date=2004-08-30 | isbn=978-0-313-08572-7 | page=}}</ref><ref name="Cherry16">{{cite book | last=Cherry | first=Robin | title=Garlic, an Edible Biography | publisher=Shambhala Publications | publication-place=Boston | date=2014-11-11 | isbn=978-1-61180-160-6 | page=16}}</ref> Garlic propagates in a variety of climates and conditions and is produced globally; [[China]] is by far the largest producer, accounting for over two thirds (73%) of the world's supply in 2021.
+Garlic has been used for thousands of years as a seasoning, culinary ingredient, and [[Traditional medicine|traditional medical]] remedy. It was known in many ancient civilizations, including the [[Neo-Babylonian Empire|Babylonians]], [[ancient Egypt|Egypt]]ians, [[Jews]], [[Ancient Rome|Romans]], and [[Ancient China|Chinese]],<ref name=":1" /><ref name="Cherry12">{{cite book | last=Cherry | first=Robin | title=Garlic, an Edible Biography | publisher=Shambhala Publications | publication-place=Boston | date=2014-11-11 | isbn=978-1-61180-160-6 | page=12}}</ref> and remains significant in many cuisines and folk treatments, especially across the Mediterranean and Asia.<ref name="o181">{{cite book | last=Pellechia | first=Thomas | title=Garlic, Wine, and Olive Oil | publisher=Booklink | date=2000 | isbn=978-0-88496-444-5 | page=}}</ref><ref name="r050">{{cite book | last=Newman | first=Jacqueline | title=Food Culture in China | publisher=Bloomsbury Publishing USA | date=2004-08-30 | isbn=978-0-313-08572-7 | page=}}</ref><ref name="Cherry16">{{cite book | last=Cherry | first=Robin | title=Garlic, an Edible Biography | publisher=Shambhala Publications | publication-place=Boston | date=2014-11-11 | isbn=978-1-61180-160-6 | page=16}}</ref> Garlic propagates in a variety of climates and conditions and is produced globally; [[China]] is by far the largest producer, accounting for over two thirds (73%) of the world's supply in 2021.{{According to whom|date=July 2025}}
 ==Description==
-Garlic is a [[perennial]] flowering plant that is native to [[Central Asia]], [[South Asia]] and northeastern [[Iran]].<ref name="kew"/><ref name="auto"/> It grows from a [[bulb]], with a tall, erect flowering stem that reaches up to {{cvt|1|m|ft|0}}. The leaf blade is flat, linear, solid, and approximately {{cvt|1.25|–|2.5|cm|6=1}} wide, with an acute apex. The plant may produce pink to purple flowers from July to September in the Northern Hemisphere. The bulb has a strong odor and is typically made up of 10 to 20 cloves. The cloves close to the center are symmetrical, and those surrounding the center can be asymmetrical. Each clove is enclosed in an inner sheathing leaf surrounded by layers of outer sheathing leaves.<ref name="drugs">{{cite web |date=19 December 2022 |title=Garlic |url=https://www.drugs.com/npp/garlic.html |access-date=20 January 2023 |publisher=Drugs.com}}</ref> If garlic is planted at the proper time and depth, it can be grown as far north as Alaska.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Rader |first1=Heidi |last2=McGuinness |first2=Julianne |title=Growing Garlic in Alaska |url=https://uaf.edu/ces/garden/garlic/ |website=[[Alaska Cooperative Extension Service|Cooperative Extension Service]] |publisher=University of Alaska Fairbanks |access-date=24 September 2019}}</ref> It produces [[hermaphrodite|hermaphroditic]] flowers. It is [[Pollination|pollinated]] by butterflies, moths, and other insects.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://garlicseed.blogspot.com/p/growing-garlic-from-true-seed.html|title=Growing Garlic from True Seed|last1=Meredith|first1=Ted Jordan|last2=Drucker|first2=Avram|website=Blogspot: Garlic Analecta|access-date=May 24, 2014}}</ref>
+[[File:Opened garlic bulb with garlic clove.jpg|thumb|Garlic bulb with a clove removed]]
+Garlic is a [[perennial]] flowering plant that is native to [[Central Asia]], [[South Asia]] and northeastern [[Iran]].<ref name="WCSP_296499"/><ref name="auto"/> It grows from a [[bulb]], with a tall, erect flowering stem that reaches up to {{cvt|1|m|ft|0}}. The leaf blade is flat, linear, solid, and approximately {{cvt|1.25|–|2.5|cm|6=1}} wide, with an acute apex. The plant may produce pink to purple flowers from July to September in the Northern Hemisphere. The bulb has a strong odor and is typically made up of 10 to 20 cloves. The cloves close to the center are symmetrical, and those surrounding the center can be asymmetrical. Each clove is enclosed in an inner sheathing leaf surrounded by layers of outer sheathing leaves.<ref name="drugs">{{cite web |date=19 December 2022 |title=Garlic |url=https://www.drugs.com/npp/garlic.html |access-date=20 January 2023 |publisher=Drugs.com}}</ref> If garlic is planted at the proper time and depth, it can be grown as far north as Alaska.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Rader |first1=Heidi |last2=McGuinness |first2=Julianne |title=Growing Garlic in Alaska |url=https://uaf.edu/ces/garden/garlic/ |website=[[Alaska Cooperative Extension Service|Cooperative Extension Service]] |publisher=University of Alaska Fairbanks |access-date=24 September 2019}}</ref> It produces [[hermaphrodite|hermaphroditic]] flowers. It is [[Pollination|pollinated]] by butterflies, moths, and other insects.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://garlicseed.blogspot.com/p/growing-garlic-from-true-seed.html|title=Growing Garlic from True Seed|last1=Meredith|first1=Ted Jordan|last2=Drucker|first2=Avram|website=Blogspot: Garlic Analecta|access-date=May 24, 2014}}</ref>
 === Chemistry ===
@@ Line 40: / Line 41: @@
 ==Taxonomy==
-Identification of the wild progenitor of common garlic is difficult due to the sterility of its many [[cultivars]], which limits the ability to [[test cross|cross test]] with wild relatives.{{citation needed|date=October 2021}}{{efn|Fertility restoration in garlic strains have been successful by physiological manipulation in some strains, but there do exist ones that are completely male-sterile due to genetic factors.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Shemesh-Mayer |first1=E |last2=Ben-Michael |first2=T |last3=Rotem |first3=N |last4=Rabinowitch |first4=HD |last5=Doron-Faigenboim |first5=A |last6=Kosmala |first6=A |last7=Perlikowski |first7=D |last8=Sherman |first8=A |last9=Kamenetsky |first9=R |title=Garlic (Allium sativum L.) fertility: transcriptome and proteome analyses provide insight into flower and pollen development. |journal=Frontiers in Plant Science |date=2015 |volume=6 |pages=271 |doi=10.3389/fpls.2015.00271 |pmid=25972879 |pmc=4411974|doi-access=free |bibcode=2015FrPS....6..271S }}</ref> Hybrids have been experimentally produced.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Yanagino |first1=Toshiya |last2=Sugawara |first2=Etsuko |last3=Watanabe |first3=Masao |last4=Takahata |first4=Yoshihito |title=Production and characterization of an interspecific hybrid between leek and garlic |journal=Theoretical and Applied Genetics |date=June 2003 |volume=107 |issue=1 |pages=1–5 |doi=10.1007/s00122-003-1232-1 |pmid=12835927|s2cid=11868237 }}</ref>}} Genetically and morphologically, garlic is most similar to the wild species ''[[Allium longicuspis]]'', which grows in central and southwestern Asia.<ref name="Zohary">{{Cite book|title=Domestication of Plants in the Old World |edition=3rd |last1=Zohary|first1=Daniel|last2=Hopf|first2=Maria|publisher=Oxford University Press|year=2000|isbn=978-0-19-850357-6|publication-date=January 11, 2001|pages=197}}</ref><ref name="SFNA"/><ref>{{cite book|title=Handbook of Vegetable Science and Technology: Production, Composition, Storage, and Processing|publisher=Marcel Dekker|isbn=978-0-8247-0105-5|editor-last=Salunkhe|editor-first=D.K.|publication-date=March 19, 1998|page=397|editor-last2=Kadam|editor-first2=S.S.|date=March 19, 1998}}</ref> However, because ''A. longicuspis'' is also mostly sterile, it is doubtful that it is the ancestor of ''A. sativum''.<ref name="Zohary"/> Other candidates that have been suggested include ''[[Allium tuncelianum|A. tuncelianum]]'', ''[[Allium macrochaetum|A. macrochaetum]]'', and ''[[Allium truncatum|A. truncatum]]'', all of which are native to the [[Middle East]].<ref name="Zohary"/>
+Identification of the wild progenitor of common garlic is difficult due to the sterility of its many [[cultivars]], which limits the ability to [[test cross|cross test]] with wild relatives.{{citation needed|date=October 2021}}{{efn|Fertility restoration in garlic strains have been successful by physiological manipulation in some strains, but there do exist ones that are completely male-sterile due to genetic factors.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Shemesh-Mayer |first1=E |last2=Ben-Michael |first2=T |last3=Rotem |first3=N |last4=Rabinowitch |first4=HD |last5=Doron-Faigenboim |first5=A |last6=Kosmala |first6=A |last7=Perlikowski |first7=D |last8=Sherman |first8=A |last9=Kamenetsky |first9=R |title=Garlic (Allium sativum L.) fertility: transcriptome and proteome analyses provide insight into flower and pollen development. |journal=Frontiers in Plant Science |date=2015 |volume=6 |page=271 |doi=10.3389/fpls.2015.00271 |pmid=25972879 |pmc=4411974|doi-access=free |bibcode=2015FrPS....6..271S }}</ref> Hybrids have been experimentally produced.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Yanagino |first1=Toshiya |last2=Sugawara |first2=Etsuko |last3=Watanabe |first3=Masao |last4=Takahata |first4=Yoshihito |title=Production and characterization of an interspecific hybrid between leek and garlic |journal=Theoretical and Applied Genetics |date=June 2003 |volume=107 |issue=1 |pages=1–5 |doi=10.1007/s00122-003-1232-1 |pmid=12835927|s2cid=11868237 }}</ref>}} Genetically and morphologically, garlic is most similar to the wild species ''[[Allium longicuspis]]'', which grows in central and southwestern Asia.<ref name="Zohary">{{Cite book|title=Domestication of Plants in the Old World |edition=3rd |last1=Zohary|first1=Daniel|last2=Hopf|first2=Maria|publisher=Oxford University Press|year=2000|isbn=978-0-19-850357-6|publication-date=January 11, 2001|page=197}}</ref><ref name="SFNA"/><ref>{{cite book|title=Handbook of Vegetable Science and Technology: Production, Composition, Storage, and Processing|publisher=Marcel Dekker|isbn=978-0-8247-0105-5|editor-last=Salunkhe|editor-first=D.K.|publication-date=March 19, 1998|page=397|editor-last2=Kadam|editor-first2=S.S.|date=March 19, 1998}}</ref> However, because ''A. longicuspis'' is also mostly sterile, it is doubtful that it is the ancestor of ''A. sativum''.<ref name="Zohary"/> Other candidates that have been suggested include ''[[Allium tuncelianum|A. tuncelianum]]'', ''[[Allium macrochaetum|A. macrochaetum]]'', and ''[[Allium truncatum|A. truncatum]]'', all of which are native to the [[Middle East]].<ref name="Zohary"/>
 ''Allium sativum'' grows in the wild in areas where it has become [[naturalisation (biology)|naturalized]]. The "wild garlic", "crow garlic", and "[[field garlic]]" of [[Great Britain|Britain]] are members of the species ''[[Allium ursinum|A. ursinum]]'', ''[[Allium vineale|A. vineale]]'', and ''[[Allium oleraceum|A. oleraceum]]'', respectively. In North America, ''[[Allium vineale|A. vineale]]'' (known as "wild garlic" or "crow garlic") and ''[[Allium canadense]]'' (known as "meadow garlic", "wild garlic", or "wild onion") are common [[weed]]s in fields.<ref>McGee p. 112</ref> So-called [[elephant garlic]] is actually a wild leek (''[[Allium ampeloprasum|A. ampeloprasum]]'') and not a true garlic. [[Solo garlic|Single clove]] garlic (also called pearl or solo garlic) originated in the [[Yunnan]] province of China.
@@ Line 100: / Line 101: @@
 == Cultivation ==
-[[File:Garlic for sale in a market in France.jpg|thumb|Garlic for sale in a market in France]]
+[[File:Garlic Fields Thattaneri Nilgiris Nov24 A7CR 05218.jpg|thumb|Garlic fields, India]]
 Garlic is easy to cultivate and may grow year-round in mild climates.<ref name="rhs">{{cite web|url=https://www.rhs.org.uk/advice/profile?PID=677|title=Garlic|date=2017|publisher=[[The Royal Horticultural Society]]|location=London, UK|access-date=January 25, 2017}}</ref> While sexual propagation of garlic is possible, nearly all of the garlic in cultivation is propagated [[asexual reproduction|asexually]] by planting individual cloves in the ground.<ref name="SFNA" />
@@ Line 117: / Line 118: @@
 === Production ===
-{| class="wikitable" style="float:right; clear:right; text-align:center;"
+{{Table alignment}}
-|+ Garlic production – 2021<ref name="fao">{{cite web |date=2023 |title=Garlic production in 2021: Crops/World Regions/Production Quantity/Year (from pick lists) |url=http://www.fao.org/faostat/en/#data/QC |access-date=27 November 2023 |publisher=Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, Statistics Division (FAOSTAT)}}</ref>
+{| class="wikitable floatright col2right"
+|+ Green garlic production <br />{{small|2023, millions of tonnes}}<br/>
 |-
-!  style="background:#ddf; | Country
+| {{CHN}} || 20.7
-!  style="background:#ddf; | Millions<br /> of [[tonne]]s
 |-
-| {{CHN}} || 20.5
+| {{IND}} || 3.3
 |-
-| {{IND}} || 3.2
+| {{BGD}} || 0.5
 |-
-| {{KOR}} || 0.8
+| {{EGY}} || 0.5
 |-
-| {{BGD}} || 0.5
+| {{ESP}} || 0.2
 |-
-| {{EGY}} || 0.3
+| '''World''' || '''28.7'''
 |-
-| {{ESP}} || 0.3
+|colspan=2|{{small|Source: [[FAOSTAT]]<br> of the [[United Nations]]}}<ref name="faostat">{{cite web|url=https://www.fao.org/faostat/en/#data/QCL|title=Green garlic production in 2023, Crops/Regions/World list/Production Quantity/Year (pick lists)|date=2025|publisher=UN Food and Agriculture Organization, Corporate Statistical Database (FAOSTAT)|access-date=4 September 2025}}</ref>
-|-
-| '''World''' || '''28.2'''
 |}
-In 2021, world production of garlic was 28 million [[tonne]]s, with China [[Garlic production in China|accounting]] for 73% of the total.<ref name="fao" />
+In 2023, world production of garlic was 29 million [[tonne]]s, with China [[Garlic production in China|accounting]] for 72% of the total (table).
 <gallery widths="200px" heights="200px">
@@ Line 149: / Line 150: @@
 The scent of garlic is known to linger upon the human body and cause bad breath ([[halitosis]]) and body odor.<ref name=drugs/> This is caused by [[allyl methyl sulfide]] (AMS). AMS is a volatile liquid which is absorbed into the blood during the metabolism of garlic-derived sulfur compounds; from the blood it travels to the lungs<ref name=Block2010/> (and from there to the mouth, causing [[garlic breath]]) and skin, where it is exuded through skin pores. Since digestion takes several hours, and release of AMS several hours more, the effect of eating garlic may be present for a long time.<ref name="Block2010" /> Washing the skin with soap is only a partial and imperfect solution to the smell. Studies have shown sipping milk at the same time as consuming garlic can significantly neutralize bad breath.<ref name="milk">{{cite news|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/health-11138979|title=Drinking a glass of milk can stop garlic breath|date=August 31, 2010|website=[[BBC News]]|access-date=August 31, 2010}}</ref> Mixing garlic with milk in the mouth before swallowing reduced the odor better than drinking milk afterward.<ref name="milk"/> Plain water, mushrooms, and basil may also reduce the odor; the mix of fat and water found in milk, however, was the most effective.<ref name="milk"/> Garlic breath is allegedly alleviated by eating fresh [[parsley]].
-Abundant sulfur compounds in garlic are also responsible for turning garlic green or blue during pickling and cooking. Under these conditions (''i.e.'', acidity, heat) the sulfur-containing compound [[alliin]] reacts with common [[amino acid]]s to make [[pyrrole]]s, clusters of carbon-nitrogen rings.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Imai |first1=Shinsuke |last2=Akita |first2=Kaori |last3=Tomotake |first3=Muneaki |last4=Sawada |first4=Hiroshi |year=2006 |title=Model Studies on Precursor System Generating Blue Pigment in Onion and Garlic |journal=[[Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry]] |volume=54 |issue=3 |pages=848–852 |doi=10.1021/jf051980f |pmid=16448193|bibcode=2006JAFC...54..848I }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Cho |first1=Jungeun |last2=Lee |first2=Seung Koo |last3=Patil |first3=B.S. |last4=Lee |first4=Eun Jin |last5=Yoo |first5=Kil Sun |year=2009 |title=Separation of Blue Pigments in Crushed Garlic Cloves: The Color-Forming Potential of Individual Amino Acids |url=http://www.actahort.org/members/showpdf?booknrarnr=841_66 |url-status=dead |journal=Acta Horticulturae |issue=841 |pages=491–494 |doi=10.17660/ActaHortic.2009.841.66 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180825190202/http://www.actahort.org/members/showpdf?booknrarnr=841_66 |archive-date=August 25, 2018 |access-date=April 21, 2013|url-access=subscription }}</ref> These rings can be linked together into [[polypyrrole]] molecules. Ring structures absorb particular wavelengths of light and thus appear colored. The two-pyrrole molecule looks red, the three-pyrrole molecule looks blue, and the four-pyrrole molecule looks green (like [[chlorophyll]], a tetrapyrrole). Like chlorophyll, the pyrrole pigments are safe to eat.<ref>{{cite web |last=McGee |first=Harold |date=December 6, 2006 |title=When Science Sniffs Around the Kitchen |url=http://www.curiouscook.com/site/2006/12/when-science-sniffs-around-the-kitchen.html |website=Curious Cook}}</ref> Upon cutting, similar to a color change in [[onion]] caused by reactions of amino acids with sulfur compounds,<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Lee |first1=Eun Jin |last2=Rezenom |first2=Yohannes H. |last3=Russell |first3=David H. |last4=Patil |first4=Bhimanagouda S. |last5=Yoo |first5=Kil Sun |date=April 1, 2012 |title=Elucidation of chemical structures of pink-red pigments responsible for 'pinking' in macerated onion (''Allium cepa'' L.) using HPLC–DAD and tandem mass spectrometry |journal=[[Food Chemistry (journal)|Food Chemistry]] |volume=131 |issue=3 |pages=852–861 |doi=10.1016/j.foodchem.2011.09.059}}</ref> garlic can turn green.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Cho |first1=Jungeun |last2=Lee |first2=Eun Jin |last3=Yoo |first3=Kil Sun |last4=Lee |first4=Seung Koo |last5=Patil |first5=Bhimanagouda S. |date=January 1, 2009 |title=Identification of Candidate Amino Acids Involved in the Formation of Blue Pigments in Crushed Garlic Cloves (''Allium sativum'' L.) |journal=[[Journal of Food Science]] |volume=74 |issue=1 |pages=C11–C16 |doi=10.1111/j.1750-3841.2008.00986.x |issn=1750-3841 |pmid=19200080 |doi-access=free}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Lukes |first=T. M. |year=1986 |title=Factors Governing the Greening of Garlic Puree |journal=[[Journal of Food Science]] |publication-date=November 1986 |volume=51 |issue=6 |pages=1577 |doi=10.1111/j.1365-2621.1986.tb13869.x |issn=1750-3841}}</ref>
+Abundant sulfur compounds in garlic are also responsible for turning garlic green or blue during pickling and cooking. Under these conditions (''i.e.'', acidity, heat) the sulfur-containing compound [[alliin]] reacts with common [[amino acid]]s to make [[pyrrole]]s, clusters of carbon-nitrogen rings.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Imai |first1=Shinsuke |last2=Akita |first2=Kaori |last3=Tomotake |first3=Muneaki |last4=Sawada |first4=Hiroshi |year=2006 |title=Model Studies on Precursor System Generating Blue Pigment in Onion and Garlic |journal=[[Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry]] |volume=54 |issue=3 |pages=848–852 |doi=10.1021/jf051980f |pmid=16448193|bibcode=2006JAFC...54..848I }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Cho |first1=Jungeun |last2=Lee |first2=Seung Koo |last3=Patil |first3=B.S. |last4=Lee |first4=Eun Jin |last5=Yoo |first5=Kil Sun |year=2009 |title=Separation of Blue Pigments in Crushed Garlic Cloves: The Color-Forming Potential of Individual Amino Acids |url=http://www.actahort.org/members/showpdf?booknrarnr=841_66 |journal=Acta Horticulturae |issue=841 |pages=491–494 |doi=10.17660/ActaHortic.2009.841.66 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180825190202/http://www.actahort.org/members/showpdf?booknrarnr=841_66 |archive-date=August 25, 2018 |access-date=April 21, 2013|url-access=subscription }}</ref> These rings can be linked together into [[polypyrrole]] molecules. Ring structures absorb particular wavelengths of light and thus appear colored. The two-pyrrole molecule looks red, the three-pyrrole molecule looks blue, and the four-pyrrole molecule looks green (like [[chlorophyll]], a tetrapyrrole). Like chlorophyll, the pyrrole pigments are safe to eat.<ref>{{cite web |last=McGee |first=Harold |date=December 6, 2006 |title=When Science Sniffs Around the Kitchen |url=http://www.curiouscook.com/site/2006/12/when-science-sniffs-around-the-kitchen.html |website=Curious Cook}}</ref> Upon cutting, similar to a color change in [[onion]] caused by reactions of amino acids with sulfur compounds,<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Lee |first1=Eun Jin |last2=Rezenom |first2=Yohannes H. |last3=Russell |first3=David H. |last4=Patil |first4=Bhimanagouda S. |last5=Yoo |first5=Kil Sun |date=April 1, 2012 |title=Elucidation of chemical structures of pink-red pigments responsible for 'pinking' in macerated onion (''Allium cepa'' L.) using HPLC–DAD and tandem mass spectrometry |journal=[[Food Chemistry (journal)|Food Chemistry]] |volume=131 |issue=3 |pages=852–861 |doi=10.1016/j.foodchem.2011.09.059}}</ref> garlic can turn green.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Cho |first1=Jungeun |last2=Lee |first2=Eun Jin |last3=Yoo |first3=Kil Sun |last4=Lee |first4=Seung Koo |last5=Patil |first5=Bhimanagouda S. |date=January 1, 2009 |title=Identification of Candidate Amino Acids Involved in the Formation of Blue Pigments in Crushed Garlic Cloves (''Allium sativum'' L.) |journal=[[Journal of Food Science]] |volume=74 |issue=1 |pages=C11–C16 |doi=10.1111/j.1750-3841.2008.00986.x |issn=1750-3841 |pmid=19200080 |doi-access=free}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Lukes |first=T. M. |year=1986 |title=Factors Governing the Greening of Garlic Puree |journal=[[Journal of Food Science]] |publication-date=November 1986 |volume=51 |issue=6 |page=1577 |doi=10.1111/j.1365-2621.1986.tb13869.x |issn=1750-3841}}</ref>
 The green, dry "folds" in the center of the garlic clove are especially [[pungency|pungent]]. The sulfur compound [[allicin]], produced by crushing or chewing fresh garlic,<ref name="drugs" /> produces other sulfur compounds: [[ajoene]], allyl polysulfides, and [[vinyldithiin]]s.<ref name="Block2010" /> Aged garlic lacks allicin, but may have some activity due to the presence of S-allylcysteine.
@@ Line 157: / Line 158: @@
 Several reports of serious burns resulting from garlic being applied [[topical]]ly for various purposes, including naturopathic uses and [[acne]] treatment, indicate care must be taken for these uses, usually testing a small area of skin using a low concentration of garlic.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Baruchin|first1=A.M.|last2=Sagi|first2=A.|last3=Yoffe|first3=B.|last4=Ronen|first4=M.|title=Garlic burns|journal=Burns|publication-date=November 2001|volume=27|issue=7|pages=781–2|doi=10.1016/S0305-4179(01)00039-0|pmid=11600262|year=2001}}</ref> On the basis of numerous reports of such burns, including burns to children, topical use of raw garlic, as well as insertion of raw garlic into body cavities, is discouraged.<ref name=drugs/> In particular, topical application of raw garlic to young children is not advisable.<ref>{{cite journal|author=Garty BZ|title=Garlic burns|journal=Pediatrics|publication-date=March 1993|volume=91|issue=3|pages=658–9|pmid=8441577|year=1993|doi=10.1542/peds.91.3.658|s2cid=44405226}}</ref>
-The side effects of long-term garlic supplementation are largely unknown.<ref name=drugs/> Possible side effects include gastrointestinal discomfort, sweating, dizziness, allergic reactions, bleeding, and menstrual irregularities.<ref name="nih">{{cite web|url=https://nccih.nih.gov/health/garlic/ataglance.htm|title=Garlic|date=1 December 2022|publisher=National Center for Complementary and Integrative Health, US National Institutes of Health|access-date=20 January 2023}}</ref>
+The side effects of long-term garlic supplementation are largely unknown.<ref name=drugs/> Possible side effects include gastrointestinal discomfort, sweating, dizziness, allergic reactions, bleeding, and menstrual irregularities.<ref name="nih">{{cite web|url=https://www.nccih.nih.gov/health/garlic|title=Garlic|date=1 December 2022|publisher=National Center for Complementary and Integrative Health, US National Institutes of Health|access-date=20 January 2023}}</ref>
+Some breastfeeding mothers have found, after consuming garlic, that their babies can be slow to feed, and have noted a garlic odor coming from them.<ref name=drugs/><ref name=UKMi>{{cite web|last=Hogg |first=Jennifer |title=Garlic Supplements |website=Complementary Medicines Summary |publisher=UK Medicines Information, [[National Health Service]] |date=December 13, 2002 |url=http://www.ukmi.nhs.uk/Med_info/documents/GarlicSuppsCMSFinal2.pdf |access-date=July 7, 2007 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070926081857/http://www.ukmi.nhs.uk/Med_info/documents/GarlicSuppsCMSFinal2.pdf |archive-date=September 26, 2007 }}</ref>  Conversely an experiment showed, "infants were attached to the breast for longer periods of time and sucked more when the milk smelled like garlic".<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Mennella |first1=JA |last2=Beauchamp |first2=GK |title=Maternal diet alters the sensory qualities of human milk and the nursling's behavior. |journal=Pediatrics |date=October 1991 |volume=88 |issue=4 |pages=737–44 |pmid=1896276 }}</ref>
-Some breastfeeding mothers have found, after consuming garlic, that their babies can be slow to feed, and have noted a garlic odor coming from them.<ref name=drugs/><ref name=UKMi>{{cite web|last=Hogg |first=Jennifer |title=Garlic Supplements |website=Complementary Medicines Summary |publisher=UK Medicines Information, [[National Health Service]] |date=December 13, 2002 |url=http://www.ukmi.nhs.uk/Med_info/documents/GarlicSuppsCMSFinal2.pdf |access-date=July 7, 2007 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070926081857/http://www.ukmi.nhs.uk/Med_info/documents/GarlicSuppsCMSFinal2.pdf |archive-date=September 26, 2007 }}</ref>
-[[File:Bulbs of Garlic Displayed For Sale At A Local Market.jpg|thumb|Bulbs of garlic displayed for sale at a local vegetable market]]
 If higher-than-recommended doses of garlic are taken with [[anticoagulant]] medications, this can lead to a higher risk of bleeding.<ref name=drugs/><ref name="Brown2015">{{cite journal|last1=Brown|first1=Deanna G.|last2=Wilkerson|first2=Eric C.|last3=Love|first3=W. Elliot|title=A review of traditional and novel oral anticoagulant and antiplatelet therapy for dermatologists and dermatologic surgeons|journal=Journal of the American Academy of Dermatology|publication-date=March 2015|volume=72|issue=3|pages=524–34|doi=10.1016/j.jaad.2014.10.027|pmid=25486915|year=2015}}</ref> Garlic may interact with [[warfarin]],<ref name=drugs/> [[saquinavir]], [[antihypertensives]], [[calcium channel blockers]], the [[quinolone antibiotic|quinolone family of antibiotics]] such as [[ciprofloxacin]], and [[hypoglycemic]] drugs, as well as other medications.<ref name="UKMi"/> The [[American Veterinary Medical Association]] considers garlic to be toxic to pets.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.avma.org/resources/pet-owners/petcare/household-hazards|title=Household Hazards|website=[[American Veterinary Medical Association]]|access-date=August 14, 2021}}</ref>
@@ Line 192: / Line 193: @@
 | water=59 g
 | source_usda=1
-| note=[https://fdc.nal.usda.gov/fdc-app.html#/food-details/1103354/nutrients Link to USDA Database entry]
+| note=[https://fdc.nal.usda.gov/food-details/1103354/nutrients Link to USDA Database entry]
 }}
 <!--
@@ Line 245: / Line 246: @@
 | colspan="2" align="center"|''Source: Balch p 97''<ref>Balch, Phyllis A. (2000). ''Prescription for Nutritional Healing'', 3rd ed. New York: Avery. p. 97.</ref>
 |} -->
 ==Uses==
 Because of sulfur compounds circulating in blood, consumed garlic may act as a [[mosquito repellent]], although there is no scientific evidence of its efficacy.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Rutledge |first1=C. Roxanne |last2=Day |first2=Jonathan F. |date=August 8, 2014 |title=Mosquito Repellents |url=http://edis.ifas.ufl.edu/in419 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121219024929/http://edis.ifas.ufl.edu/in419 |archive-date=December 19, 2012 |publisher=University of Florida IFAS Extension}}</ref>
@@ Line 256: / Line 258: @@
 ===Culinary===
 [[File:Garlic for sale.jpg|thumb|Garlic bulbs and cloves for sale at the Or Tor Kor market in [[Bangkok]]]]
-[[File:Garlic whole.jpg|thumb|A garlic bulb]]
 Garlic is widely used around the world for its pungent flavor as a seasoning or [[condiment]].
@@ Line 262: / Line 263: @@
 The garlic plant's [[bulb]] is the most commonly used part of the plant. With the exception of the single clove types, garlic bulbs are normally divided into numerous fleshy sections called cloves. Garlic cloves are used for consumption (raw or cooked) or for medicinal purposes. They have a characteristic [[piquancy|pungent, spicy flavor]] that mellows and sweetens considerably with cooking.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://gernot-katzers-spice-pages.com/engl/Alli_sat.html|title=Garlic (''Allium sativum'' L.)|last=Katzer|first=Gernot|date=August 8, 2009|access-date=December 2, 2012}}</ref> The distinctive aroma is mainly due to [[organosulfur]] compounds including [[allicin]] present in fresh garlic cloves and [[ajoene]] which forms when they are crushed or chopped.  A further metabolite [[allyl methyl sulfide]] is responsible for garlic breath.<ref name="Block 1984">{{cite journal | doi=10.1021/ja00338a049| year=1984|vauthors=Block E, Ahmad S, Jain MK, Crecely R, Apitz-Castro R, Cruz MR |title=(''E'',''Z'')-Ajoene: A potent antithrombotic agent from garlic|journal=[[Journal of the American Chemical Society]]|volume=106| issue=26|pages=8295–8296}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | author=Block, E | title= The chemistry of garlic and onions | journal=[[Scientific American]] | volume=252 | issue= 3| year=1985 | pages=114–119 | doi=10.1038/scientificamerican0385-114 | pmid = 3975593 | bibcode= 1985SciAm.252c.114B }}</ref><ref name="Block 2010">{{cite book | author=Block, E | title=Garlic and Other Alliums: The Lore and the Science | publisher=[[Royal Society of Chemistry]] | year=2010 | isbn=978-0-85404-190-9}}</ref><ref name="ilic">{{cite journal | title = Allicin and related compounds: Biosynthesis, synthesis and pharmacological activity | journal = Facta Universitatis | date = 2011 | volume = 9 | issue = 1 | pages= 9–20 | doi = 10.2298/FUPCT1101009I | url = http://facta.junis.ni.ac.rs/phat/pcat2011/pcat2011-02.pdf| last1 = Ilic | first1 = Dusica | last2 = Nikolic | first2 = Vesna | last3 = Nikolic | first3 = Ljubisa | last4 = Stankovic | first4 = Mihajlo | last5 = Stanojevic | first5 = Ljiljana | last6 = Cakic | first6 = Milorad | name-list-style = vanc }}</ref>
-Other parts of the garlic plant are also edible. The [[leaves]] and [[flowers]] ([[bulbil]]s) on the head ([[spathe]]) are sometimes eaten. They are milder in flavor than the bulbs,<ref name="AN"/> and are most often consumed while immature and still tender. Immature garlic is sometimes pulled, rather like a scallion, and sold as "green garlic".<ref>{{Cite book|title=The Kitchen Garden Cookbook|last=Thompson|first=Sylvia|publisher=Bantam Books|year=1997|isbn=978-0-553-37476-6|pages=144}}</ref> When green garlic is allowed to grow past the "scallion" stage, but not permitted to fully mature, it may produce a garlic "round", a bulb like a boiling onion, but not separated into cloves like a mature bulb.<ref>{{Cite book|title=The Kitchen Garden Cookbook|last=Thompson|first=Sylvia|publisher=Bantam Books|year=1997|isbn=978-0-553-37476-6|pages=145}}</ref>
+Other parts of the garlic plant are also edible. The [[leaves]] and [[flowers]] ([[bulbil]]s) on the head ([[spathe]]) are sometimes eaten. They are milder in flavor than the bulbs,<ref name="AN"/> and are most often consumed while immature and still tender. Immature garlic is sometimes pulled, rather like a scallion, and sold as "green garlic".<ref>{{Cite book|title=The Kitchen Garden Cookbook|last=Thompson|first=Sylvia|publisher=Bantam Books|year=1997|isbn=978-0-553-37476-6|page=144}}</ref> When green garlic is allowed to grow past the "scallion" stage, but not permitted to fully mature, it may produce a garlic "round", a bulb like a boiling onion, but not separated into cloves like a mature bulb.<ref>{{Cite book|title=The Kitchen Garden Cookbook|last=Thompson|first=Sylvia|publisher=Bantam Books|year=1997|isbn=978-0-553-37476-6|page=145}}</ref>
-Green garlic imparts a garlic flavor and aroma in food, minus the spiciness. Green garlic is often chopped and [[stir-fried]] or cooked in [[soup]] or [[hot pot]] in Southeast Asian (i.e. [[Vietnamese cuisine|Vietnamese]], [[Thai cuisine|Thai]], [[Burmese cuisine|Myanmar]], [[Lao cuisine|Lao]], [[Cambodian cuisine|Cambodian]], [[Singaporean cuisine|Singaporean]]), and [[Chinese cuisine|Chinese cookery]], and is very abundant and low-priced. Additionally, the immature flower stalks ([[scape (botany)|scapes]]) of the hardneck are sometimes marketed for uses similar to [[asparagus]] in [[Stir frying|stir-fries]].<ref name="SFNA">{{cite web|url=http://www.sfc.ucdavis.edu/pubs/SFNews/archive/95071.htm|title=Small Farm News Archive|last=Voss|first=Ronald E.|date=July 1995|publisher=UC Davis Small Farm Center |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070313210109/http://www.sfc.ucdavis.edu/pubs/SFNews/archive/95071.htm |archive-date=March 13, 2007|url-status=dead|access-date=April 14, 2010}}</ref>
+Green garlic imparts a garlic flavor and aroma in food, minus the spiciness. Green garlic is often chopped and [[stir-fried]] or cooked in [[soup]] or [[hot pot]] in Southeast Asian (i.e. [[Vietnamese cuisine|Vietnamese]], [[Thai cuisine|Thai]], [[Burmese cuisine|Myanmar]], [[Lao cuisine|Lao]], [[Cambodian cuisine|Cambodian]], [[Singaporean cuisine|Singaporean]]), and [[Chinese cuisine|Chinese cookery]], and is very abundant and low-priced. Additionally, the immature flower stalks ([[scape (botany)|scapes]]) of the hardneck are sometimes marketed for uses similar to [[asparagus]] in [[Stir frying|stir-fries]].<ref name="SFNA">{{cite web|url=http://www.sfc.ucdavis.edu/pubs/SFNews/archive/95071.htm|title=Small Farm News Archive|last=Voss|first=Ronald E.|date=July 1995|publisher=UC Davis Small Farm Center |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070313210109/http://www.sfc.ucdavis.edu/pubs/SFNews/archive/95071.htm |archive-date=March 13, 2007|access-date=April 14, 2010}}</ref>
 [[File:Warzywa czosnek002.jpg|thumb|Garlic plants]]
 Inedible or rarely eaten parts of the garlic plant include the "skin" covering each clove and root cluster. The papery, protective layers of "skin" over various parts of the plant are generally discarded during preparation for most culinary uses, though in [[Korea]] immature whole heads are sometimes prepared with the tender skins intact.<ref>{{cite web|author=Amanda |url=http://www.food-links.com/countries/korea/food-terms-korea.php |title=Glossary of Foods and Food Terms in Korea |publisher=Food-links.com |access-date=April 14, 2010}}</ref> The root cluster attached to the [[bulb|basal plate]] of the bulb is the only part not typically considered palatable in any form.
-An alternative is to cut the top off the bulb, coat the cloves by dribbling [[olive oil]] (or other oil-based seasoning) over them, and [[roast]] them in an oven. Garlic softens and can be extracted from the cloves by squeezing the (root) end of the bulb, or individually by squeezing one end of the clove. In Korea, heads of garlic are heated over the course of several weeks; the resulting product, called [[black garlic (food)|black garlic]], is sweet and syrupy, and is exported to the United States, United Kingdom, and Australia.
+An alternative is to cut the top off the bulb, coat the cloves by dribbling [[olive oil]] (or other oil-based seasoning) over them, and [[roast]] them in an oven. Garlic softens and can be extracted from the cloves by squeezing the (root) end of the bulb, or individually by squeezing one end of the clove. In Korea, heads of garlic are heated over the course of several weeks; the resulting product, called [[black garlic (food)|black garlic]], is sweet and syrupy, and is used in the US, Europe and Australia, either produced domestically or imported.
 Garlic may be applied to different kinds of bread, usually in a medium of butter or oil, to create a variety of classic dishes, such as [[garlic bread]], [[garlic toast]], [[bruschetta]], [[Crostino|crostini]], and [[canapé]]. The flavor varies in intensity and aroma with the different cooking methods. It is often paired with [[onion]], [[tomato]], or [[ginger]].
-[[File:GarlicBasket.jpg|thumb|A bunch of garlic on a [[basket]]]]
 Immature scapes are tender and edible. They are also known as "garlic spears", "stems", or "tops". Scapes generally have a milder taste than the cloves. They are often used in stir frying or braised like asparagus.<ref name=scapes/> Garlic leaves are a popular vegetable in many parts of Asia. The leaves are cut, cleaned, and then stir-fried with eggs, meat, or vegetables.
@@ Line 292: / Line 293: @@
 ====Culinary history ====
-Numerous cuneiform records show that garlic has been cultivated in [[Mesopotamia]] for at least 4,000 years.<ref name="Zohary" /> The use of garlic in China and Egypt also dates back thousands of years.<ref name=Block2010 /><ref name="Zohary" /> Well-preserved garlic was found in the tomb of [[Tutankhamun]] (c. 1325 <small>BC</small>).<ref name="Zohary" /> It was consumed by ancient [[Ancient Greece|Greek]] and [[ancient Rome|Roman]] soldiers, sailors, and rural classes ([[Virgil]], ''Eclogues'' ii. 11), and, according to [[Pliny the Elder]] (''[[Pliny's Natural History|Natural History]]'' xix. 32), by the African peasantry. Garlic was placed by the ancient Greeks on the piles of stones at crossroads, as a supper for [[Hecate]] ([[Theophrastus]], ''Characters, The Superstitious Man'').<ref name="EB1911">{{EB1911|inline=y|wstitle=Garlic|volume=11|pages=468–469}}</ref>
+Numerous cuneiform records show that garlic has been cultivated in [[Mesopotamia]] for at least 4,000 years.<ref name="Zohary" /> The use of garlic in China and Egypt also dates back thousands of years.<ref name=Block2010 /><ref name="Zohary" /> Well-preserved garlic was found in the tomb of [[Tutankhamun]] (c. 1325 <small>BC</small>).<ref name="Zohary" /> It was consumed by ancient [[Ancient Greece|Greek]] and [[ancient Rome|Roman]] soldiers, sailors, and rural classes ([[Virgil]], ''Eclogues'' ii. 11), and, according to [[Pliny the Elder]] (''[[Pliny's Natural History|Natural History]]'' xix. 32), by the African peasantry. Garlic was placed by the ancient Greeks on the piles of stones at crossroads, as a supper for [[Hecate]] ([[Theophrastus]], ''Characters, The Superstitious Man'').<ref name="EB1911">{{EB1911|inline=y|wstitle=Garlic|volume=11|pages=468–469}}</ref> In classical antiquity, garlic was a highly favored food among Jews, to the extent that the ''[[Mishnah]]'' uses the nickname "garlic eaters" (''Mishnah'', ''[[Nedarim (Talmud)|Nedarim]]'' 3:10).<ref name=":2">{{Cite book |last=Broshi |first=Magen |title=Bread, Wine, Walls and Scrolls |date=2001 |publisher=Bloomsbury Publishing PLC |isbn=978-1-84127-201-6 |series=The Library of Second Temple Studies |location=London |page=130}}</ref>
-Garlic was rare in traditional [[British cuisine|English cuisine]] (though it is said to have been grown in England before 1548) but has been a common ingredient in Mediterranean Europe.<ref name=":0">{{Cite book|url=https://archive.org/details/forloveofgarlicc0000reno/page/21|title=For the Love of Garlic: The Complete Guide to Garlic Cuisine|last=Renoux|first=Victoria|date=January 1, 2005|publisher=Square One Publishers, Inc.|isbn=9780757000874|pages=[https://archive.org/details/forloveofgarlicc0000reno/page/21 21–25]}}</ref> Translations of the {{circa|lk=no|1300}} [[Assize of Weights and Measures]], an English statute generally dated to the 13th century, indicate a passage as dealing with standardized units of garlic production, sale, and taxation—the [[hundred (unit)|hundred]] of 15 [[rope (garlic)|ropes]] of 15 heads each<ref>{{Citation |title=Statutes of the Realm |volume=I |date=1810 |location=London |publisher=G. Eyre & A. Strahan |page=204}}</ref>—but the Latin version of the text may refer to [[herring]] rather than garlic.<ref name=tract>{{Citation |editor-last=Ruffhead |editor-first=Owen |editor-link=Owen Ruffhead |title=The Statutes at Large |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=tKZFAAAAcAAJ |volume=&nbsp;I: From Magna Charta<!--sic--> to the End of the Reign of King Henry the Sixth. To which is prefixed, A Table of the Titles of all the Publick and Private Statutes during that Time |location=London |publisher=Mark Basket for the Crown |date=1763a |pages=[https://books.google.com/books?id=tKZFAAAAcAAJ&pg=PA148 148–149]}}. {{in lang|en}}&nbsp;& {{in lang|la}}&nbsp;& {{in lang|nrf}}</ref>
+Garlic was rare in traditional [[British cuisine|English cuisine]] (though it is said to have been grown in England before 1548) but has been a common ingredient in Mediterranean Europe.<ref name=":0">{{Cite book|url=https://archive.org/details/forloveofgarlicc0000reno/page/21|title=For the Love of Garlic: The Complete Guide to Garlic Cuisine|last=Renoux|first=Victoria|date=January 1, 2005|publisher=Square One Publishers, Inc.|isbn=978-0-7570-0087-4|pages=[https://archive.org/details/forloveofgarlicc0000reno/page/21 21–25]}}</ref> Translations of the {{circa|lk=no|1300}} [[Assize of Weights and Measures]], an English statute generally dated to the 13th century, indicate a passage as dealing with standardized units of garlic production, sale, and taxation—the [[hundred (unit)|hundred]] of 15 [[rope (garlic)|ropes]] of 15 heads each<ref>{{Citation |title=Statutes of the Realm |volume=I |date=1810 |location=London |publisher=G. Eyre & A. Strahan |page=204}}</ref>—but the Latin version of the text may refer to [[herring]] rather than garlic.<ref name=tract>{{Citation |editor-last=Ruffhead |editor-first=Owen |editor-link=Owen Ruffhead |title=The Statutes at Large |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=tKZFAAAAcAAJ |volume=&nbsp;I: From Magna Charta<!--sic--> to the End of the Reign of King Henry the Sixth. To which is prefixed, A Table of the Titles of all the Publick and Private Statutes during that Time |location=London |publisher=Mark Basket for the Crown |date=1763a |pages=[https://books.google.com/books?id=tKZFAAAAcAAJ&pg=PA148 148–149]}}. {{in lang|en}}&nbsp;& {{in lang|la}}&nbsp;& {{in lang|nrf}}</ref>
 ====Storage====
 [[File:Allium sativum. Restra de allos de Oroso- Galiza.jpg|thumb|String of garlic]]
-Domestically, garlic is stored warm [above 18°C (64°F)] and dry to keep it dormant (to inhibit sprouting). It is traditionally hung; softneck varieties are often braided in strands called plaits or [[:fr:wikt:grappe|''grappes'']]. Peeled cloves may be stored in [[wine]] or [[vinegar]] in the refrigerator.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://anrcatalog.ucdavis.edu/pdf/7231.pdf|title=Garlic: Safe Methods to Store, Preserve, and Enjoy|last=Harris|first=Linda J.|publisher=University of California, Division of Agriculture and Natural Resources|access-date=February 28, 2014|archive-date=September 9, 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140909074943/http://anrcatalog.ucdavis.edu/pdf/7231.pdf|url-status=dead}}</ref> Commercially, garlic is stored at 0°C (32°F), in a dry, low-[[humidity]] environment. Garlic will keep longer if the tops remain attached.<ref name="SFNA" />
+Domestically, garlic is stored warm [above 18°C (64°F)] and dry to keep it dormant (to inhibit sprouting). It is traditionally hung; softneck varieties are often braided in strands called plaits or [[:fr:wikt:grappe|''grappes'']]. Peeled cloves may be stored in [[wine]] or [[vinegar]] in the refrigerator.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://anrcatalog.ucdavis.edu/pdf/7231.pdf|title=Garlic: Safe Methods to Store, Preserve, and Enjoy|last=Harris|first=Linda J.|publisher=University of California, Division of Agriculture and Natural Resources|access-date=February 28, 2014|archive-date=September 9, 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140909074943/http://anrcatalog.ucdavis.edu/pdf/7231.pdf}}</ref> Commercially, garlic is stored at 0°C (32°F), in a dry, low-[[humidity]] environment. Garlic will keep longer if the tops remain attached.<ref name="SFNA" />
 Garlic is often kept in oil to produce flavored oil; however, the practice requires measures to be taken to prevent the garlic from spoiling which may include rancidity and growth of ''[[Clostridium botulinum]]''.<ref name="umaine">{{Cite web |url=https://extension.umaine.edu/publications/4385e/ |title=Safe Homemade Flavored and Infused Oils |series=Food Safety Facts |publisher=Cooperative Extension Publications, University of Maine |location=Orono, ME |date=2011}}</ref> Acidification with a mild solution of vinegar minimizes bacterial growth.<ref name=umaine /> Refrigeration does not assure the safety of garlic kept in oil, requiring use within one month to avoid bacterial spoilage.<ref name=umaine /> Garlic is also dried at low temperatures, to preserve the enzymatic activity and sold and kept as garlic granules, and can be rehydrated to reactivate it.<ref>The Science of Garlic and How to Make the Best Garlic Bread | Garlic Bread | What's Eating Dan?</ref>
@@ Line 308: / Line 309: @@
 ====Cardiovascular====
-As of 2016, [[clinical research]] found that consuming garlic produces only a small reduction in [[blood pressure]] (4 mmHg),<ref name="Ried2008">{{cite journal |last1=Ried |first1=Karin |last2=Frank |first2=Oliver R |last3=Stocks |first3=Nigel P |last4=Fakler |first4=Peter |last5=Sullivan |first5=Thomas |title=Effect of garlic on blood pressure: A systematic review and meta-analysis |journal=BMC Cardiovascular Disorders |date=16 June 2008 |volume=8 |issue=1 |page=13 |doi=10.1186/1471-2261-8-13 |pmid=18554422 |pmc=2442048 |quote=Our meta-analysis suggests that garlic preparations are superior to placebo in reducing blood pressure in individuals with hypertension.|doi-access=free }}</ref><ref name="rohner">{{cite journal|last1=Rohner|first1=Andres|last2=Ried|first2=Karin|last3=Sobenin|first3=Igor A.|last4=Bucher|first4=Heiner C.|last5=Nordmann|first5=Alain J.|date=March 1, 2015|title=A systematic review and meta-analysis on the effects of garlic preparations on blood pressure in individuals with hypertension|journal=American Journal of Hypertension|volume=28|issue=3|pages=414–423|doi=10.1093/ajh/hpu165|issn=1941-7225|pmid=25239480|doi-access=free}}</ref><ref name="Stabler2012">{{cite journal|last1=Stabler|first1=Sarah N.|last2=Tejani|first2=Aaron M.|last3=Huynh|first3=Fong|last4=Fowkes|first4=Claire|date=August 2012|title=Garlic for the prevention of cardiovascular morbidity and mortality in hypertensive patients|journal=Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews|volume=2012|issue=8|pages=CD007653|doi=10.1002/14651858.CD007653.pub2|pmid=22895963|pmc=6885043}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Varshney|first1=Ravi|last2=Budoff|first2=Matthew J|date=February 2016|title=Garlic and heart disease|journal=The Journal of Nutrition|volume=146|issue=2|pages=416S–421S|doi=10.3945/jn.114.202333|issn=1541-6100|pmid=26764327|s2cid=10921034 |url=https://escholarship.org/uc/item/01r1171s|doi-access=free}}</ref> and there is no clear long-term effect on [[hypertension]], cardiovascular [[morbidity]] or [[death|mortality]].<ref name="Stabler2012"/> A 2016 [[meta-analysis]] indicated there was no effect of garlic consumption on blood levels of [[lipoprotein(a)]], a [[biomarker]] of [[atherosclerosis]].<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Sahebkar|first1=Amirhossein|last2=Serban|first2=Corina|last3=Ursoniu|first3=Sorin|last4=Banach|first4=Maciej|title=Effect of garlic on plasma lipoprotein(a) concentrations: A systematic review and meta-analysis of randomized controlled clinical trials|journal=[[Nutrition (journal)|Nutrition]]|volume=32|issue=1|pages=33–40|doi=10.1016/j.nut.2015.06.009|issn=0899-9007|pmid=26522661|year=2016}}</ref>
+As of 2016, [[clinical research]] found that consuming garlic produces only a small reduction in [[blood pressure]] (4 mmHg),<ref name="Ried2008">{{cite journal |last1=Ried |first1=Karin |last2=Frank |first2=Oliver R |last3=Stocks |first3=Nigel P |last4=Fakler |first4=Peter |last5=Sullivan |first5=Thomas |title=Effect of garlic on blood pressure: A systematic review and meta-analysis |journal=BMC Cardiovascular Disorders |date=16 June 2008 |volume=8 |issue=1 |page=13 |doi=10.1186/1471-2261-8-13 |pmid=18554422 |pmc=2442048 |quote=Our meta-analysis suggests that garlic preparations are superior to placebo in reducing blood pressure in individuals with hypertension.|doi-access=free }}</ref><ref name="rohner">{{cite journal|last1=Rohner|first1=Andres|last2=Ried|first2=Karin|last3=Sobenin|first3=Igor A.|last4=Bucher|first4=Heiner C.|last5=Nordmann|first5=Alain J.|date=March 1, 2015|title=A systematic review and meta-analysis on the effects of garlic preparations on blood pressure in individuals with hypertension|journal=American Journal of Hypertension|volume=28|issue=3|pages=414–423|doi=10.1093/ajh/hpu165|issn=1941-7225|pmid=25239480|doi-access=free}}</ref><ref name="Stabler2012">{{cite journal|last1=Stabler|first1=Sarah N.|last2=Tejani|first2=Aaron M.|last3=Huynh|first3=Fong|last4=Fowkes|first4=Claire|date=August 2012|title=Garlic for the prevention of cardiovascular morbidity and mortality in hypertensive patients|journal=Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews|volume=2012|issue=8|article-number=CD007653|doi=10.1002/14651858.CD007653.pub2|pmid=22895963|pmc=6885043}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Varshney|first1=Ravi|last2=Budoff|first2=Matthew J|date=February 2016|title=Garlic and heart disease|journal=The Journal of Nutrition|volume=146|issue=2|pages=416S–421S|doi=10.3945/jn.114.202333|issn=1541-6100|pmid=26764327|s2cid=10921034 |url=https://escholarship.org/uc/item/01r1171s|doi-access=free}}</ref> and there is no clear long-term effect on [[hypertension]], cardiovascular [[morbidity]] or [[death|mortality]].<ref name="Stabler2012"/> A 2016 [[meta-analysis]] indicated there was no effect of garlic consumption on blood levels of [[lipoprotein(a)]], a [[biomarker]] of [[atherosclerosis]].<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Sahebkar|first1=Amirhossein|last2=Serban|first2=Corina|last3=Ursoniu|first3=Sorin|last4=Banach|first4=Maciej|title=Effect of garlic on plasma lipoprotein(a) concentrations: A systematic review and meta-analysis of randomized controlled clinical trials|journal=[[Nutrition (journal)|Nutrition]]|volume=32|issue=1|pages=33–40|doi=10.1016/j.nut.2015.06.009|issn=0899-9007|pmid=26522661|year=2016}}</ref>
 Because garlic might reduce [[platelet aggregation]], people taking [[anticoagulant]] medication are cautioned about consuming garlic.<ref name="nih" /><ref>{{cite journal|last=Rahman|first=Khalid|date=November 2007|title=Effects of garlic on platelet biochemistry and physiology|journal=[[Molecular Nutrition & Food Research]]|volume=51|issue=11|pages=1335–44|doi=10.1002/mnfr.200700058|pmid=17966136}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|last1=Borrelli|first1=Francesca|last2=Capasso|first2=Raffaele|last3=Izzo|first3=Angelo A.|date=November 2007|title=Garlic (''Allium sativum'' L.): Adverse effects and drug interactions in humans|journal=[[Molecular Nutrition and Food Research]]|volume=51|issue=11|pages=1386–97|doi=10.1002/mnfr.200700072|pmid=17918162}}</ref>
@@ Line 316: / Line 317: @@
 ====Common cold====
-A 2014 review found insufficient evidence to determine the effects of garlic in preventing or treating the [[common cold]].<ref name="Cochrane2014">{{cite journal|last1=Lissiman|first1=Elizabeth|last2=Bhasale|first2=Alice L.|last3=Cohen|first3=Marc|date=November 2014|title=Garlic for the common cold|journal=[[Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews]]|volume=11|issue=11|pages=CD006206|doi=10.1002/14651858.CD006206.pub4|pmid=25386977|pmc=6465033}}</ref> Other reviews concluded a similar absence of high-quality evidence for garlic having a significant effect on the common cold.<ref name="nih" /><ref name="Allan2014">{{cite journal|last1=Allan|first1=G. Michael|last2=Arroll|first2=Bruce|title=Prevention and treatment of the common cold: making sense of the evidence|journal=Canadian Medical Association Journal|publication-date=February 18, 2014|volume=186|issue=3|pages=190–9|doi=10.1503/cmaj.121442|pmc=3928210|pmid=24468694|year=2014}}</ref>
+A 2014 review found insufficient evidence to determine the effects of garlic in preventing or treating the [[common cold]].<ref name="Cochrane2014">{{cite journal|last1=Lissiman|first1=Elizabeth|last2=Bhasale|first2=Alice L.|last3=Cohen|first3=Marc|date=November 2014|title=Garlic for the common cold|journal=[[Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews]]|volume=11|issue=11|article-number=CD006206|doi=10.1002/14651858.CD006206.pub4|pmid=25386977|pmc=6465033}}</ref> Other reviews concluded a similar absence of high-quality evidence for garlic having a significant effect on the common cold.<ref name="nih" /><ref name="Allan2014">{{cite journal|last1=Allan|first1=G. Michael|last2=Arroll|first2=Bruce|title=Prevention and treatment of the common cold: making sense of the evidence|journal=Canadian Medical Association Journal|publication-date=February 18, 2014|volume=186|issue=3|pages=190–9|doi=10.1503/cmaj.121442|pmc=3928210|pmid=24468694|year=2014}}</ref>
 [[File:Tacuinum sanitatis-garlic.jpg|thumb|Harvesting garlic, from ''[[Tacuinum Sanitatis]]'', 15th century ([[Bibliothèque nationale de France]])]]
@@ Line 329: / Line 330: @@
 Garlic is present in the [[folklore]] of many cultures. In Europe, many cultures have used garlic for protection or [[white magic]], perhaps owing to its reputation in [[folk medicine]].<ref name=nih/> Central European folk beliefs considered garlic a powerful ward against [[demon]]s, [[werewolf|werewolves]], and [[vampire]]s. To ward off vampires, garlic could be worn, hung in windows, or rubbed on chimneys and keyholes.<ref name="asdf">{{cite book|title=In Search of Dracula: The History of Dracula and Vampires|last1=McNally|first1=Raymond T.|last2=Florescu|first2=Radu|publisher=Houghton Mifflin|year=1994|isbn=978-0-395-65783-6|pages=[https://archive.org/details/insearchofdracul00mcna/page/120 120–122]|url=https://archive.org/details/insearchofdracul00mcna/page/120}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|title=Cassell's Dictionary of Superstitions|last=Pickering|first=David|publisher=Sterling Publishing|year=2003|isbn=978-0-304-36561-6|page=211}}</ref>
-In the foundation myth of the ancient Korean kingdom of [[Gojoseon]], eating nothing but 20 cloves of garlic and a bundle of [[Artemisia princeps|Korean mugwort]] for 100 days let a [[Ungnyeo|bear be transformed into a woman]].<ref>{{Cite book|title=Korean Cuisine: An Illustrated History|last=Pettid|first=Michael J.|publisher=[[Reaktion Books]]|year=2008|isbn=978-1-86189-348-2|location=London|pages=12}}</ref>
+In the foundation myth of the ancient Korean kingdom of [[Old Chosŏn|Gojoseon]], eating nothing but 20 cloves of garlic and a bundle of [[Artemisia princeps|Korean mugwort]] for 100 days let a [[Ungnyeo|bear be transformed into a woman]].<ref>{{Cite book|title=Korean Cuisine: An Illustrated History|last=Pettid|first=Michael J.|publisher=[[Reaktion Books]]|year=2008|isbn=978-1-86189-348-2|location=London|page=12}}</ref>
+The [[Hebrew Bible]] recounts that during their [[The Exodus|journey in the wilderness]], the [[Israelites]] yearned for garlic among other foods they had eaten in Egypt (''[[Book of Numbers|Numbers]]'', 11:5).<ref name=":2" /> [[Rabbinic literature]] attributes to [[Ezra]] the teaching that consuming garlic on [[Shabbat (Talmud)|Shabbat]] nights promotes intimacy, "because it brings in love and brings out lust." (''[[Jerusalem Talmud]]'', ''[[Megillah (Talmud)|Megillah]]'', 75:1).<ref name=":2" />
 In celebration of [[Nowruz]] (Persian calendar New Year), garlic is one of the essential items in a {{lang|fa-Latn|[[haft-sin]]}} ('seven things beginning with "S{{"'}}) table, a traditional New Year's display: the name for garlic in [[Persian language|Persian]] is {{lang|fa|سیر}} ({{lang|fa-Latn|seer}}), which begins with {{lang|fa|[[Shin (letter)#Arabic shīn|س]]}} ({{lang|fa-Latn|sin}}, {{IPA|fa|siːn|pron}}, {{Respell|seen}}) the [[Perso-Arabic]] letter corresponding to "S".<ref>{{Cite news |last=Fulton |first=April |date=2024-03-19 |title=Nowruz: Persian New Year's Table Celebrates Spring Deliciously |url=https://www.npr.org/sections/thesalt/2016/03/20/471174857/nowruz-persian-new-years-table-celebrates-spring-deliciously |access-date=2025-03-13 |publisher=[[NPR]] |language=en}}</ref>
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 [[Category:Root vegetables]]
 [[Category:Spices]]
-[[Category:Taxa named by Carl Linnaeus]]
+[[Category:Botanical taxa named by Carl Linnaeus]]
 [[Category:Romani cuisine]]