Giant panda: Difference between revisions

Latest revision as of 21:59, 14 November 2025

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The giant panda (Ailuropoda melanoleuca), also known as the panda bear or simply panda, is a bear species endemic to China. It is characterised by its white coat with black patches around the eyes, ears, legs and shoulders. Its body is rotund; adult individuals weigh Template:Cvt and are typically Template:Cvt long. It is sexually dimorphic, with males being typically 10 to 20% larger than females. A thumb is visible on its forepaw, which helps in holding bamboo in place for feeding. It has large molar teeth and expanded temporal fossa to meet its dietary requirements. It can digest starch and is mostly herbivorous with a diet consisting almost entirely of bamboo and bamboo shoots.

The giant panda lives exclusively in six montane regions in a few Chinese provinces at elevations of up to Template:Cvt. It is solitary and gathers only in mating seasons. It relies on olfactory communication to communicate and uses scent marks as chemical cues and on landmarks like rocks or trees. Females rear cubs for an average of 18 to 24 months. The oldest known giant panda was 38 years old.

As a result of farming, deforestation and infrastructural development, the giant panda has been driven out of the lowland areas where it once lived. The Fourth National Survey (2011–2014), published in 2015, estimated that the wild population of giant pandas aged over 1.5 years (i.e. excluding dependent young) had increased to 1,864 individuals; based on this number, and using the available estimated percentage of cubs in the population (9.6%), the IUCN estimated the total number of Pandas to be approximately 2,060.^[1]^[2] Since 2016, it has been listed as Vulnerable on the IUCN Red List. In July 2021, Chinese authorities also classified the giant panda as vulnerable. It is a conservation-reliant species. By 2007, the captive population comprised 239 giant pandas in China and another 27 outside the country. It has often served as China's national symbol, appeared on Chinese Gold Panda coins since 1982 and as one of the five Fuwa mascots of the 2008 Summer Olympics held in Beijing.

Etymology

The word panda was borrowed into English from French, but no conclusive explanation of the origin of the French word panda has been found.^[3] The closest candidate is the Nepali word ponya, possibly referring to the adapted wrist bone of the red panda, which is native to Nepal. In many older sources, the name "panda" or "common panda" refers to the red panda (Ailurus fulgens),^[4] which was described some 40 years earlier and over that period was the only animal known as a panda.^[5] The binomial name Ailuropoda melanoleuca means black and white (melanoleuca) cat-foot (ailuropoda).^[6]

Since the earliest collection of Chinese writings, the Chinese language has given the bear many different names, including mò (Script error: No such module "Lang"., ancient Chinese name for giant panda),^[7] huāxióng (Script error: No such module "Lang".; "spotted bear") and zhúxióng (Script error: No such module "Lang".; "bamboo bear").^[8] The most popular names in China today are dàxióngmāo (Script error: No such module "Lang".; Template:Lit), or simply xióngmāo (Script error: No such module "Lang".; Template:Lit). As with the word panda in English, xióngmāo (Script error: No such module "Lang".) was originally used to describe just the red panda, but dàxióngmāo (Script error: No such module "Lang".) and xiǎoxióngmāo (Script error: No such module "Lang".; Template:Lit) were coined to differentiate between the species.^[8]

In Taiwan, another popular name for panda is the inverted dàmāoxióng (Script error: No such module "Lang".; Template:Lit), though many encyclopedias and dictionaries in Taiwan still use the "bear cat" form as the correct name. Some linguists argue, in this construction, "bear" instead of "cat" is the base noun, making the name more grammatically and logically correct, which have led to the popular choice despite official writings.^[8] This name did not gain its popularity until 1988, when a private zoo in Tainan painted a sun bear black and white and created the Tainan fake panda incident.^[9]^[10]

Taxonomy

For many decades, the precise taxonomic classification of the giant panda was under debate because it shares characteristics with both bears and raccoons.^[11] In 1985, molecular studies indicated that the giant panda is a true bear, part of the family Ursidae.^[12]^[13] These studies show it diverged about Template:Mya from the common ancestor of the Ursidae;^[14] it is the most basal member of this family and equidistant from all other extant bear species.^[14]^[15]

Subspecies

File:Quinlingpandabearr.jpg

The Qinling panda has a light brown-and-white pattern

Two subspecies of giant panda have been recognized on the basis of distinct cranial measurements, colour patterns, and population genetics.Template:Sfn

The nominate subspecies, A. m. melanoleuca, consists of most extant populations of the giant panda. These animals are principally found in Sichuan and display the typical stark black and white contrasting colours.^[16]
The Qinling panda, A. m. qinlingensis,^[17] is restricted to the Qinling Mountains in Shaanxi at elevations of Template:Cvt. The typical black and white pattern of Sichuan giant pandas is replaced with a light brown and white pattern.Template:Sfn The skull of A. m. qinlingensis is smaller than its relatives, and it has larger molars.^[18]

A detailed study of the giant panda's genetic history from 2012 confirms that the separation of the Qinling population occurred about 300,000 years ago, and reveals that the non-Qinling population further diverged into two groups, named the Minshan and the Qionglai-Daxiangling-Xiaoxiangling-Liangshan group respectively, about 2,800 years ago.^[19]

Phylogeny

Of the eight extant species in the bear family Ursidae, the giant panda's lineage branched off the earliest.^[20]^[21]

Template:Clade

Distribution and habitat

The giant panda is endemic to China. It is found in small, fragmented populations in six mountainous regions in the country, mainly in Sichuan, and also in neighbouring Shaanxi and Gansu.^[22] Successful habitat preservation has seen a rise in panda numbers, though loss of habitat due to human activities remains its biggest threat. In areas with a high concentration of medium-to-large-sized mammalsTemplate:Emdashsuch as domestic cattle, a species known to degrade the landscapeTemplate:Emdashthe giant panda population is generally low. This is mainly attributed to the panda's avoidance of interspecific competition.^[23]^[24]

The species has been located at elevations of Template:Cvt above sea level.^[25] They frequent habitats with a healthy concentration of bamboos, typically old-growth forests, but may also venture into secondary forest habitats.^[26] The Daxiangling Mountain population inhabits both coniferous and broadleaf forests.^[27] Additionally, the Qinling population often selects evergreen broadleaf and conifer forests, while pandas in the Qionglai mountainous region exclusively select upland conifer forests. The remaining two populations, namely those occurring in the Liangshan and Xiaoxiangling mountains, predominantly occur in broadleaf evergreen and conifer forests.^[12]Template:Rp

Giant pandas once roamed across Southeast Asia from Myanmar to northern Vietnam. Their range in China spanned much of the southeast region. By the Pleistocene, climate change affected panda populations, and the subsequent domination of modern humans led to large-scale habitat loss.^[28]^[29] In 2001, it was estimated that the range of the giant panda had declined by about 99% of its range in earlier millenniums.^[30]

Description

Template:Multiple image The giant panda has a body shape typical of bears. It has black fur on its ears, limbs, shoulders and around the eyes. The rest of the animal's coat is white.^[31] The giant panda's distinctive coloration appears to serve as camouflage in both winter and summer environments as they do not hibernate. The white areas serve as camouflage in snow, while the black shoulders and legs conceal them in shade.^[32] Studies in the wild have found that when viewed from a distance, the panda displays disruptive coloration, while up close, they rely more on blending in.^[33] The black ears may be used to display aggression,^[32] while the eye patches might facilitate them identifying one another.^[32]^[34] The giant panda's thick, woolly coat keeps it warm in the cool forests of its habitat.^[31]

The panda's skull shape is typical of durophagous carnivorans. It has evolved from previous ancestors to exhibit larger molars with increased complexity and expanded temporal fossa.^[35]^[36] A study revealed that a Template:Cvt giant panda had a bite force of 1298.9 Newton (BFQ 151.4) at canine teeth and 1815.9 Newton (BFQ 141.8) at carnassial teeth.^[37] Finite element analysis has found that pandas have the highest bite force relative to their body size among ursids.^[38] The giant panda has the largest masticatory muscles among bears, being more than twice as large as those of the American black bear with an equivalent brain weight; digastric muscle is equal to 30% of brain weight in giant panda compared to 10% in black bear.^[39] Adults measure around Template:Cvt long, including a tail of about Template:Cvt and Template:Cvt tall at the shoulder.^[40] Males can weigh up to Template:Cvt.^[41] Females are generally 10–20% smaller than males.^[42] They weigh between Template:Cvt and Template:Cvt.^[43]^[44] The average weight for adults is Template:Cvt.^[45]

The giant panda's paw has a digit similar to a thumb and five fingers; the thumb-like digit is actually a modified sesamoid bone that helps it to hold bamboo while eating.^[46]^[47] The evolution of the panda's pseudo-thumb may have occurred because the first digit of its forepaws, equivalent to the thumb in primates, is not opposable and is aligned with the rest of the digits.^[48]^[49] The giant panda's tail, measuring Template:Cvt, is the second-longest in the bear family after the sloth bear.^[42]

Ecology

Diet

File:Giant Pandas having a snack.jpg

Giant pandas eating bamboo

File:Pandas playing 640x480.ogv

Pandas eating, standing, and playing

Despite its taxonomic classification as a carnivoran, the giant panda's diet is primarily herbivorous, with approximately 99% of its diet consisting of bamboo.^[50] However, the giant panda still has the digestive system of a carnivore, as well as carnivore-specific genes,^[51] and thus derives little energy and little protein from the consumption of bamboo. The ability to break down cellulose and lignin is very weak, and their main source of nutrients comes from starch and hemicelluloses. The most important part of their bamboo diet is the shoots, that are rich in starch and have up to 32% protein content. Accordingly, pandas have evolved a higher capability to digest starches than strict carnivores.^[52] Raw bamboo is toxic, containing cyanide compounds. Pandas' body tissues are less able than herbivores to detoxify cyanide, but their gut microbiomes are significantly enriched in putative genes coding for enzymes related to cyanide degradation, suggesting that they have cyanide-digesting gut microbes.^[53] It has been estimated that an adult panda absorbs Template:Cvt of cyanide a day through its diet. To prevent poisoning, they have evolved anti-toxic mechanisms to protect themselves. About 80% of the cyanide is metabolized to less toxic thiocyanate and discharged in urine, while the remaining 20% is detoxified by other minor pathways.^[54]

File:Giant Panda Eating.jpg

A giant panda feeding on bamboo

During the shoot season from April to August, the giant panda stores a large amount of food in preparation for the months succeeding this seasonal period, in which it lives off a diet of bamboo leaves.^[55] The average giant panda eats Template:Cvt of bamboo shoots per day to compensate for the limited energy content of its diet. Ingestion of such a large quantity of material is possible and necessary because of the rapid passage of large amounts of indigestible plant material through the short, straight digestive tract.^[56]^[57] Such rapid passage of digesta limits the potential of microbial digestion in the gastrointestinal tract,^[56] limiting alternative forms of digestion. Given this voluminous diet, the giant panda defecates up to 40 times a day.^[58]

The limited energy input imposed on it by its diet has affected the giant panda's behaviour. It tends to limit its social interactions and avoids steeply sloping terrain to limit its energy expenditures.^[59] Their field metabolic rate, the amount of energy used by an animal in its daily life, is one of the lowest reported among mammals, comparable to that of sloths.^[60]

Two of the panda's most distinctive features, its large size and round face, are adaptations to its bamboo diet. Anthropologist Russell Ciochon observed: "[much] like the vegetarian gorilla, the low body surface area to body volume [of the giant panda] is indicative of a lower metabolic rate. This lower metabolic rate and a more sedentary lifestyle allows the giant panda to subsist on nutrient poor resources such as bamboo."^[59] The giant panda's round face is the result of powerful jaw muscles, which attach from the top of the head to the jaw.^[59] Large molars crush and grind fibrous plant material.^[61]

The enzyme Alanine—glyoxylate transaminase is also expressed in the peroxisome of giant panda cells instead of only in the mitochondria like carnivorous mammals, which would enable glyoxylate to be metabolised from glycolate in plant matter.^[62] Proteins make up 50% of the macronutrients absorbed, similar to proportion of carnivorous mammals at 52–54%; the nutritional contribution of protein from bamboo is 61% when only the leaves and shoots are considered, and 48% when the digestible parts of cellulose and hemicellulose are included. This indicates that the transition to herbivory was not as extreme in this species as it might appear.^[63]

The morphological characteristics of extinct relatives of the giant panda suggest that while the ancient giant panda was omnivorous 7 million years ago (mya), it only became herbivorous some 2–2.4 mya with the emergence of A. microta.^[61]^[64] Genome sequencing of the giant panda suggests that the dietary switch could have initiated from the loss of the sole umami taste receptor, encoded by the genes TAS1R1 and TAS1R3 (also known as T1R1 and T1R3), resulting from two frameshift mutations within the T1R1 exons.^[51] Umami taste corresponds to high levels of glutamate as found in meat and may have thus altered the food choice of the giant panda.^[65] Although the pseudogenisation (conversion into a pseudogene) of the umami taste receptor in Ailuropoda coincides with the dietary switch to herbivory, it is likely a result of, and not the reason for, the dietary change.^[61]^[51]^[65] The mutation time for the T1R1 gene in the giant panda is estimated to 4.2 mya^[61] while fossil evidence indicates bamboo consumption in the giant panda species at least 7 mya,^[64] signifying that although complete herbivory occurred around 2 mya, the dietary switch was initiated prior to T1R1 loss-of-function.^[66]

Giant pandas eat any of 25 bamboo species in the wild, with the most common including Fargesia dracocephala^[66] and Fargesia rufa.^[67] Only a few bamboo species are widespread at the high altitudes pandas now inhabit. Bamboo leaves contain the highest protein levels; stems have less.^[68] Because of the synchronous flowering, death, and regeneration of all bamboo within a species, the giant panda must have at least two different species available in its range to avoid starvation. While primarily herbivorous, the giant panda still retains decidedly ursine teeth and will eat meat, fish, and eggs when available. In captivity, zoos typically maintain the giant panda's bamboo diet, though some will provide specially formulated biscuits or other dietary supplements.^[69]

Giant pandas will travel between different habitats if they need to, so they can get the nutrients that they need and to balance their diet for reproduction.^[70]

Interspecific interactions

Although adult giant pandas have few natural predators other than humans, young cubs are vulnerable to attacks by snow leopards, yellow-throated martens,^[71] eagles, feral dogs, and the Asian black bear. Sub-adults weighing up to Template:Cvt may be vulnerable to predation by leopards.^[72]

Giant pandas are sympatric with other large mammals and bamboo feeders, such as the takin (Budorcas taxicolor). The takin and giant panda share a similar ecological niche, and they consume the same resources. When competition for food is fierce, pandas disperse to the outskirts of takin distribution. Other possible competitors include but is not limited to, the wild boar (Sus scrofa), Chinese goral (Naemorhedus griseus) and the Asian black bear (Ursus thibetanus). Giant pandas avoid areas with a mid-to-high density of livestock, as they depress the vegetation.^[73] The Tibetan Plateau is the only known area where both giant and red pandas occur. Although sharing near-identical ecological niches, competition between the two species has rarely been observed. Nearly 50% of their respective distribution overlaps, and successful coexistence is achieved through distinct habitat selection.^[74]

Pathogens and parasites

A captive female died from toxoplasmosis, a disease caused by Toxoplasma gondii that infects most warm-blooded animals.^[75] They are likely susceptible to diseases from Baylisascaris schroederi, a parasitic nematode known to infect giant panda intestines. This nematode species is known to cause baylisascariasis, a deadly disease that kills more wild giant pandas than any other cause.^[76] Additionally, the giant panda is susceptible to canine distemper virus, canine parvovirus, rotavirus, canine adenovirus, and canine coronavirus. Bacteria, such as Clostridium welchii, Proteus mirabilis, Klebsiella pneumoniae, and Escherichia coli, may also be lethal.^[77]

Behavior

The giant panda is a terrestrial animal and primarily spends its life roaming and feeding in the bamboo forests of the Qinling Mountains and in the hilly province of Sichuan.^[78] Giant pandas are generally solitary.^[79] Each adult has a defined territory and a female is not tolerant of other females in her range. Social encounters occur primarily during the brief breeding season in which pandas in proximity to one another will gather.^[80] After mating, the male leaves the female alone to raise the cub.^[31] Pandas were thought to fall into the crepuscular category, those who are active twice a day, at dawn and dusk; however, pandas may belong to a category all of their own, with activity peaks in the morning, afternoon and midnight. The low nutrition quality of bamboo means pandas need to eat more frequently, and due to their lack of major predators they can be active at any time of the day.^[81] Activity is highest in June and decreases in late summer to autumn with an increase from November through the following March.^[82] Activity is also directly related to the amount of sunlight during colder days.^[82] There is a significant interaction of solar radiation, such that solar radiation has a stronger positive effect on activity levels of panda bears.^[82]

Pandas communicate through vocalisation and scent marking such as clawing trees or spraying urine.^[44] They are able to climb and take shelter in hollow trees or rock crevices, but do not establish permanent dens. For this reason, pandas do not hibernate, which is similar to other subtropical mammals, and will instead move to elevations with warmer temperatures.^[83] Pandas rely primarily on spatial memory rather than visual memory.^[84] Though the panda is often assumed to be docile, it has been known to attack humans on rare occasions.^[85]^[86]^[87] Pandas have been known to cover themselves in horse manure to protect themselves against cold temperatures.^[88]

The species communicates foremost through a blatting sound; they achieve peaceful interactions through the emission of this sound. When in oestrus, a female emits a chirp. In hostile confrontations or during fights, the giant panda emits vocalizations such as a roar or growl. On the other hand, squeals typically indicate inferiority and submission in a dispute. Other vocalizations include honks and moans.^[89]

Olfactory communication

Giant pandas heavily rely on olfactory communication to communicate with one another. Scent marks are used to spread these chemical cues and are placed on landmarks like rocks or trees.^[90] Chemical communication in giant pandas plays many roles in their social situations. Scent marks and odors are used to spread information about sexual status, whether a female is in estrus or not, age, gender, individuality, dominance over territory, and choice of settlement.^[90] Giant pandas communicate by excreting volatile compounds, or scent marks, through the anogenital gland.^[90]^[91] Giant pandas have unique positions in which they will scent mark. Males deposit scent marks or urine by lifting their hind leg, rubbing their backside, or standing in order to rub the anogenital gland onto a landmark. Females, however, exercise squatting or simply rubbing their genitals onto a landmark.^[90]^[92]

The season plays a major role in mediating chemical communication.^[93] Depending on the season, mainly whether it is breeding season or not, may influence which odors are prioritized. Chemical signals can have different functions in different seasons. During the non-breeding season, females prefer the odors of other females because reproduction is not their primary motivation. However, during breeding season, odors from the opposite sex will be more attractive.^[93]^[94] Because they are solitary mammals and their breeding season is so brief, female pandas secrete chemical cues in order to let males know their sexual status.^[94] The chemical cues female pandas secrete can be considered to be pheromones for sexual reproduction.^[94] Females deposit scent marks through their urine which induces an increase in androgen levels in males.^[94] Androgen is a sex hormone found in both males and females; testosterone is the major androgen produced by males. Civetone and decanoic acid are chemicals found in female urine which promote behavioral responses in males; both chemicals are considered giant panda pheromones.^[94] Male pandas also secrete chemical signals that include information about their sexual reproductivity and age, which is beneficial for a female when choosing a mate.^[90]^[93] For example, age can be useful for a female to determine sexual maturity and sperm quality.^[95] Pandas are also able to determine when the signal was placed, further aiding in the quest to find a potential mate.^[95] However, chemical cues are not just used for communication between males and females, pandas can determine individuality from chemical signals. This allows them to be able to differentiate between a potential partner or someone of the same sex, which could be a potential competitor.^[95]

Chemical cues, or odors, play an important role in how a panda chooses their habitat. Pandas look for odors that tell them not only the identity of another panda, but if they should avoid them or not.^[95] Pandas tend to avoid their species for most of the year, breeding season being the brief time of major interaction.^[95] Chemical signaling allows for avoidance and competition.^[92]^[93] Pandas whose habitats are in similar locations will collectively leave scent marks in a unique location which is termed "scent stations".^[95] When pandas come across these scent stations, they are able to identify a specific panda and the scope of their habitat. This allows pandas to be able to pursue a potential mate or avoid a potential competitor.^[95]

Pandas can assess an individual's dominance status, including their age and size, via odor cues and may choose to avoid a scent mark if the signaler's competitive ability outweighs their own.^[92] A panda's size can be conveyed through the height of the scent mark.^[92]^[96] Since larger animals can place higher scent marks, an elevated scent mark advertises a higher competitive ability. Age must also be taken into consideration when assessing a competitor's fighting ability. For example, a mature panda will be larger than a younger, immature panda and possess an advantage during a fight.^[92]

Reproduction

File:Chengdu-pandas-d18.jpg

A giant panda cub

Giant pandas reach sexual maturity between the ages of four and eight, and may be reproductive until age 20.^[97] The mating season is between March and May, when a female goes into estrus, which lasts for two or three days and only occurs once a year.^[98] When mating, the female is in a crouching, head-down position as the male mounts her from behind. Copulation time ranges from 30 seconds to five minutes, but the male may mount her repeatedly to ensure successful fertilisation. The gestation period is somewhere between 95 and 160 days - the variability is due to the fact that the fertilized egg may linger in the reproductive system for a while before implanting on the uterine wall.^[98] Giant pandas give birth to twins in about half of pregnancies.^[99] If twins are born, usually only one survives in the wild. The mother will select the stronger of the cubs, and the weaker cub will die due to starvation. The mother is thought to be unable to produce enough milk for two cubs since she does not store fat.^[100] The father has no part in helping raise the cub.^[31]

When the cub is first born, it is pink, blind, and toothless,^[31] weighing only Template:Cvt, or about Template:Sfrac of the mother's weight,^[11] proportionally the smallest baby of any placental mammal.^[101] It nurses from its mother's breast six to 14 times a day for up to 30 minutes at a time. For three to four hours, the mother may leave the den to feed, which leaves the cub defenseless. One to two weeks after birth, the cub's skin turns grey where its hair will eventually become black. A slight pink colour may appear on the cub's fur, as a result of a chemical reaction between the fur and its mother's saliva. A month after birth, the colour pattern of the cub's fur is fully developed. Its fur is very soft and coarsens with age. The cub begins to crawl at 75 to 80 days;^[11] mothers play with their cubs by rolling and wrestling with them. The cubs can eat small quantities of bamboo after six months, though mother's milk remains the primary food source for most of the first year. Giant panda cubs weigh Template:Cvt at one year and live with their mothers until they are 18 months to two years old. The interval between births in the wild is generally two years.^[102]

Initially, the primary method of breeding giant pandas in captivity was by artificial insemination, as they seemed to lose their interest in mating once they were captured.^[103] This led some scientists to trying methods such as showing them videos of giant pandas mating^[104] and giving the males sildenafil (commonly known as Viagra).^[105] In the 2000s, researchers started having success with captive breeding programs, and they have now determined giant pandas have comparable breeding to some populations of the American black bear, a thriving bear species.^[106]^[78]

In July 2009, Chinese scientists confirmed the birth of the first cub to be successfully conceived through artificial insemination using frozen sperm.^[107] The technique for freezing the sperm in liquid nitrogen was first developed in 1980 and the first birth was hailed as a solution to the dwindling availability of giant panda semen, which had led to inbreeding.^[108]^[109] Panda semen, which can be frozen for decades, could be shared between different zoos to save the species.^[107]^[110] As of 2009, it is expected that zoos in destinations such as San Diego in the United States and Mexico City will be able to provide their own semen to inseminate more giant pandas.^[109]

Attempts have also been made to reproduce giant pandas by interspecific pregnancy where cloned panda embryos were implanted into the uterus of an animal of another species. This has resulted in panda fetuses, but no live births.^[111]

Human interaction

Early references

Script error: No such module "Labelled list hatnote". In Ancient China, people thought pandas to be rare and noble creatures – the Empress Dowager Bo was buried with a panda skull in her vault. The grandson of Emperor Taizong of Tang is said to have given Japan two pandas and a sheet of panda skin as a sign of goodwill. Unlike many other animals in Ancient China, pandas were rarely thought to have medical uses. The few known uses include the Sichuan tribal peoples' use of panda urine to melt accidentally swallowed needles, and the use of panda pelts to control menstruation as described in the Qin dynasty encyclopedia Erya.Template:Sfn

The creature named mo (貘) mentioned in some ancient books has been interpreted as giant panda.Template:Sfn The dictionary Shuowen Jiezi (Eastern Han Dynasty) says that the mo, from Shu (Sichuan), is bear-like, but yellow-and-black,^[112] although the older Erya describes mo simply as a "white leopard".^[113] The interpretation of the legendary fierce creature pixiu (貔貅) as referring to the giant panda is also common.^[114]

During the reign of the Yongle Emperor (early 15th century), his relative from Kaifeng sent him a captured zouyu (騶虞), and another zouyu was sighted in Shandong. Zouyu is a legendary "righteous" animal, which, similarly to a qilin, only appears during the rule of a benevolent and sincere monarch.^[115]

In captivity

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Pandas have been kept in zoos as early as the Western Han Dynasty in China, where the writer Sima Xiangru noted that the panda was the most treasured animal in the emperor's garden of exotic animals in the capital Chang'an (present Xi'an). Not until the 1950s were pandas again recorded to have been exhibited in China's zoos.Template:Sfn Chi Chi at the London Zoo became very popular. This influenced the World Wildlife Fund to use a panda as its symbol.^[116] A 2006 New York Times article outlined the economics of keeping pandas,^[117] which costs five times more than keeping the next most expensive animal, an elephant. American zoos generally pay the Chinese government $1 million a year in fees, as part of a typical ten-year contract. San Diego's contract with China was to expire in 2008, but got a five-year extension at about half of the previous yearly cost.^[118] The last contract, with the Memphis Zoo in Memphis, Tennessee, ended in 2013.^[117]

File:Lightmatter panda.jpg

Adult male giant panda at the San Diego Zoo in 2004

In the 1970s, gifts of giant pandas to American and Japanese zoos formed an important part of the diplomacy of the People's Republic of China, as it marked some of the first cultural exchanges between China and the West. This practice has been termed "panda diplomacy".^[119] By 1984, however, giant pandas were no longer given as gifts. Instead, China began to offer giant pandas to other nations only on 10-year loans for a fee of up to US$1,000,000 per year and with the provision that any cubs born during the loan are the property of China. As a result of this change in policy, nearly all the giant pandas in the world are owned by China, and individuals and all cubs leased to foreign zoos are eventually returned to China.^[120]^[121] As of 2022, Xin Xin at the Chapultepec Zoo in Mexico City, was the last living descendant of the gifted giant pandas.^[122]

Since 1998, because of a WWF lawsuit, the United States Fish and Wildlife Service only allows US zoos to import a panda if the zoo can ensure China channels more than half of its loan fee into conservation efforts for giant pandas and their habitat.^[123]^[124] In May 2005, China offered a breeding pair to Taiwan. The issue became embroiled in cross-Strait relations – due to both the underlying symbolism and technical issues such as whether the transfer would be considered "domestic" or "international" or whether any true conservation purpose would be served by the exchange.^[125] A contest in 2006 to name the pandas was held in the mainland, resulting in the politically charged names Tuan Tuan and Yuan Yuan (from Template:Lang-zh, implying reunification). China's offer was initially rejected by Chen Shui-bian, then President of Taiwan. However, when Ma Ying-jeou assumed the presidency in 2008, the offer was accepted and the pandas arrived in December of that year.^[126]

In the 2020s, certain "celebrity pandas" have gained a cult following amongst internet users, with dedicated fan accounts existing to keep tabs on the animals. Known as "giant panda fever" or "panda-monium", individual pandas are known to get billions of views and engagements on social media, as well as product lines specifically emulating them.^[127] At Chengdu Research Base of Giant Panda Breeding, certain of these "celebrity pandas" are known to garner hours-long lines specifically to see them.^[127]^[128]

Conservation

The giant panda is a vulnerable species, threatened by continued habitat destruction and habitat fragmentation,^[30]^[129] and by a very low birthrate, both in the wild and in captivity.^[50] Its range is confined to a small portion on the western edge of its historical range, which stretched through southern and eastern China, northern Myanmar, and northern Vietnam. The species is scattered into more than 30 subpopulations of relatively few animals. Building of roads and human settlement near panda habitat, result in population declines. Diseases from domesticated pets and livestock is another threat. By 2100, it is estimated that the distribution of the giant panda will shrink by up to 100%, mainly due to the effects of climate change.^[1] The giant panda is listed on CITES Appendix I, meaning trade of its parts is prohibited and that it requires this protection to avoid extinction.^[130] It has been protected by China's 1988 Wildlife Conservation Law.^[131]

The giant panda has been a target of poaching by locals since ancient times and by foreigners since it was introduced to the West. Starting in the 1930s, foreigners were unable to poach giant pandas in China because of the Second Sino-Japanese War and the Chinese Civil War, but pandas remained a source of soft furs for the locals. The population boom in China after 1949 created stress on the pandas' habitat and the subsequent famines led to the increased hunting of wildlife, including pandas. After the Chinese economic reform, demand for panda skins from Hong Kong and Japan led to illegal poaching for the black market, acts generally ignored by the local officials at the time. In 1963, the PRC government set up Wolong National Nature Reserve to save the declining panda population.^[132]

File:Panda Cub from Wolong, Sichuan, China.JPG

Close-up of a seven-month-old panda cub

The giant panda is among the world's most adored and protected rare animals, and is one of the few in the world whose natural inhabitant status was able to gain a UNESCO World Heritage Site designation. The Sichuan Giant Panda Sanctuaries, located in the southwest province of Sichuan and covering seven natural reserves, were inscribed onto the World Heritage List in 2006.^[133]^[134]^[135] A 2015 paper found that the giant panda can serve as an umbrella species as the preservation of their habitat also helps other endemic species in China, including 70% of the country's forest birds, 70% of mammals and 31% of amphibians.^[136]

In 2012, Earthwatch Institute, a global nonprofit that teams volunteers with scientists to conduct important environmental research, launched a program called "On the Trail of Giant Panda". This program, based in the Wolong National Nature Reserve, allows volunteers to work up close with pandas cared for in captivity, and help them adapt to life in the wild, so that they may breed, and live longer and healthier lives.^[137] Efforts to preserve the panda bear populations in China have come at the expense of other animals in the region, including snow leopards, wolves, and dholes.^[138] In order to improve living and mating conditions for the fragmented populations of pandas, nearly 70 natural reserves have been combined to form the Giant Panda National Park in 2020. With a size of 10,500 square miles, the park is roughly three times as large as Yellowstone National Park and incorporates the Wolong National Nature Reserve. Small, isolated populations run the risk of inbreeding and smaller genetic variety makes the individuals more vulnerable to various defects and genetic mutation.^[139]

Population

In 2006, scientists reported that the number of giant pandas living in the wild may have been underestimated at about 1,000. Previous population surveys had used conventional methods to estimate the size of the wild giant panda population, but using a new method that analyzes DNA from giant panda droppings, scientists believed the wild population were as large as 3,000.^[50] In 2006, there were 40 panda reserves in China, but just 13 reserves in 1998.^[140] As the species has been reclassified from "endangered" to "vulnerable" in 2016, the conservation efforts are thought to be working. Furthermore, in response to this reclassification, the State Forestry Administration of the People's Republic of China announced that they would not accordingly lower the conservation level of the giant panda, and would instead reinforce the conservation efforts.^[141]

In 2020, the giant panda population of the new national park was already above 1,800 individuals, which is roughly 80 percent of the entire panda population in China. Establishing the new protected area in the Sichuan Province also gives various other endangered or threatened species, like the Siberian tiger, the possibility to improve their living conditions by offering them a habitat.^[142] Other species who benefit from the protection of its habitat include the snow leopard, the golden snub-nosed monkey, the red panda and the complex-toothed flying squirrel.^[143]

In July 2021, Chinese conservation authorities announced that giant pandas are no longer endangered in the wild following years of conservation efforts, with a population in the wild exceeding 1,800.^[143] China has received international praise for its conservation of the species, which has also helped the country establish itself as a leader in endangered species conservation.^[144]Template:Rp

As of November 26, 2024, the global captive giant panda population had reached 757 individuals, while about 1,900 were estimated to live in the wild, bringing the total to approximately 2,657.^[145]

References

Notes

Template:Reflist

Bibliography

AFP (via Discovery Channel) (20 June 2006). Panda Numbers Exceed Expectations.
Associated Press (via CNN) (2006). Article link.
Catton, Chris (1990). Pandas. Christopher Helm.
Friends of the National Zoo (2006). Panda Cam: A Nation Watches Tai Shan the Panda Cub Grow. New York: Fireside Books.
Goodman, Brenda (12 February 2006). Pandas Eat Up Much of Zoos' Budgets. The New York Times.
Script error: No such module "citation/CS1". (An earlier edition is available as The Smithsonian Book of Giant Pandas, Smithsonian Institution Press, 2002, Template:ISBN.)
Panda Facts At a Glance (N.d.). www.wwfchina.org. WWF China.
Ryder, Joanne (2001). Little panda: The World Welcomes Hua Mei at the San Diego Zoo. New York: Simon & Schuster.
Script error: No such module "citation/CS1". (There are also several later reprints)
Script error: No such module "Citation/CS1".
Warren, Lynne (July 2006). "Panda, Inc." National Geographic. (About Mei Xiang, Tai Shan and the Wolong Panda Research Facility in Chengdu China).
Journal of Mammalogy, Volume 96, Issue 6, 24 November 2015, Pages 1116–1127, https://doi.org/10.1093/jmammal/gyv118

External links

Template:Sister project Template:Sister project

BBC Nature: Giant panda news, and video clips from BBC programmes past and present.
Panda Pioneer: the release of the first captive-bred panda 'Xiang Xiang' in 2006
WWF – environmental conservation organization
Pandas International – panda conservation group
National Zoo Live Panda Cams – Baby Panda Tai Shan and mother Mei Xiang
Information from Animal Diversity
NPR News 2007/08/20 – Panda Romance Stems From Bamboo
View the panda genome on Ensembl.
Texts and pictures of the Panda exhibition at the Museum für Naturkunde Berlin Template:Webarchive
iPanda-50: annotated image dataset for fine-grained panda identification on Github

Template:Carnivora Template:Famous giant pandas Template:Taxonbar Template:Authority control

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[113] Erya, Chapter "釋獸" ("About animals") Template:Webarchive: "貘，白豹" (Mo, white leopard).

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@@ Line 1: / Line 1: @@
 {{short description|Species of bear}}
+{{redirect-multi|3|Panda|Pandas|Panda bear|the red panda|Red panda|other uses|Panda (disambiguation)|and|Pandas (disambiguation)|and|Giant panda (disambiguation)}}
 {{good article}}
-{{pp-protected|small=yes}}
+{{protection padlock|small=yes}}
-{{redirect-multi|3|Panda|Pandas|Panda bear|the red panda|Red panda|other uses|Panda (disambiguation)|and|Pandas (disambiguation)|and|Giant panda (disambiguation)}}
+{{Use dmy dates|date=December 2020}}
-{{Use dmy dates|date=December 2020}}
 {{Speciesbox
 | name = Giant panda
@@ Line 10: / Line 10: @@
 | status = VU
 | status_system = IUCN3.1
-| status_ref =<ref name="iucn">{{cite iucn |author=Swaisgood, R. |author2=Wang, D. |author3=Wei, F. |year=2016 |errata=2017 |title=''Ailuropoda melanoleuca'' |page=e.T712A121745669 |doi=10.2305/IUCN.UK.2016-2.RLTS.T712A45033386.en}}</ref>
+| status_ref =<ref name="iucn">{{cite iucn |author=Swaisgood, R. |author2=Wang, D. |author3=Wei, F. |year=2016 |errata=2017 |title=''Ailuropoda melanoleuca'' |article-number=e.T712A121745669 |doi=10.2305/IUCN.UK.2016-2.RLTS.T712A45033386.en}}</ref>
   | status2 = CITES_A1
   | status2_system = CITES
@@ Line 27: / Line 27: @@
 The '''giant panda''' ('''''Ailuropoda melanoleuca'''''), also known as the '''panda bear''' or simply '''panda''', is a [[bear]] species [[endemic]] to [[China]]. It is characterised by its white [[animal coat|coat]] with black patches around the eyes, ears, legs and shoulders. Its body is rotund; adult individuals weigh {{cvt|100|to|115|kg}} and are typically {{cvt|1.2|to|1.9|m}} long. It is [[sexually dimorphic]], with males being typically 10 to 20% larger than females. A [[thumb]] is visible on its forepaw, which helps in holding [[bamboo]] in place for feeding. It has large [[molar teeth]] and expanded [[temporal fossa]] to meet its dietary requirements. It can digest [[starch]] and is mostly [[herbivorous]] with a diet consisting almost entirely of bamboo and [[bamboo shoot]]s.
-The giant panda lives exclusively in six montane regions in a few Chinese provinces at elevations of up to {{cvt|3000|m}}. It is solitary and gathers only in mating seasons. It relies on [[olfactory communication]] to communicate and uses [[scent mark]]s as chemical cues and on landmarks like rocks or trees. Females rear cubs for an average of 18 to 24 months. The oldest known giant panda was 38 years old.
+The giant panda lives exclusively in six [[montane ecosystem|montane]] regions in a few Chinese provinces at elevations of up to {{cvt|3000|m}}. It is solitary and gathers only in mating seasons. It relies on [[olfactory communication]] to communicate and uses [[scent mark]]s as chemical cues and on landmarks like rocks or trees. Females rear cubs for an average of 18 to 24 months. The oldest known giant panda was 38 years old.
-As a result of farming, [[deforestation]] and infrastructural development, the giant panda has been driven out of the lowland areas where it once lived. The Fourth National Survey (2011–2014), published in 2015, estimated that the wild population of giant pandas aged over 1.5 years (i.e. excluding dependent young) has increased to 1,864 individuals, based on this number and using the available estimated percentage of cubs in the population (9.6%) the [[IUCN]] estimated the total number of Pandas to be approximately 2,060.<ref name="iucn" /><ref name="Swaisgood-2018">{{cite journal |last1=Swaisgood |first1=Ronald R. |last2=Wang |first2=Dajun |last3=Wei |first3=Fuwen |title=Panda Downlisted but not Out of the Woods |journal=[[Conservation Letters]] |date=2018 |volume=11 |issue=1 |pages=e12355 |doi=10.1111/conl.12355 |url=https://conbio.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/conl.12355 |access-date=22 March 2025 |publisher=[[Wiley-Blackwell]] on behalf of the [[Society for Conservation Biology]]|doi-access=free }}</ref> Since 2016, it has been listed as [[Vulnerable species|Vulnerable]] on the [[IUCN Red List]]. In July 2021, Chinese authorities also classified the giant panda as vulnerable. It is a [[conservation-reliant species]]. By 2007, the captive population comprised 239 giant pandas in China and another 27 outside the country. It has often served as China's [[national symbol]], appeared on [[Chinese Gold Panda]] coins since 1982 and as one of the five [[Fuwa]] mascots of the [[2008 Summer Olympics]] held in [[Beijing]].
+As a result of farming, [[deforestation]] and infrastructural development, the giant panda has been driven out of the lowland areas where it once lived. The Fourth National Survey (2011–2014), published in 2015, estimated that the wild population of giant pandas aged over 1.5 years (i.e. excluding dependent young) had increased to 1,864 individuals; based on this number, and using the available estimated percentage of cubs in the population (9.6%), the [[IUCN]] estimated the total number of Pandas to be approximately 2,060.<ref name="iucn" /><ref name="Swaisgood-2018">{{cite journal |last1=Swaisgood |first1=Ronald R. |last2=Wang |first2=Dajun |last3=Wei |first3=Fuwen |title=Panda Downlisted but not Out of the Woods |journal=[[Conservation Letters]] |date=2018 |volume=11 |issue=1 |article-number=e12355 |doi=10.1111/conl.12355 |publisher=[[Wiley-Blackwell]] on behalf of the [[Society for Conservation Biology]]|bibcode=2018ConL...11E2355S |doi-access=free }}</ref> Since 2016, it has been listed as [[Vulnerable species|Vulnerable]] on the [[IUCN Red List]]. In July 2021, Chinese authorities also classified the giant panda as vulnerable. It is a [[conservation-reliant species]]. By 2007, the captive population comprised 239 giant pandas in China and another 27 outside the country. It has often served as China's [[national symbol]], appeared on [[Chinese Gold Panda]] coins since 1982 and as one of the five [[Fuwa]] mascots of the [[2008 Summer Olympics]] held in [[Beijing]].
 ==Etymology==
 The word ''panda'' was borrowed into English from French, but no conclusive explanation of the origin of the French word ''panda'' has been found.<ref>''Oxford English Dictionary'', s.v. ''panda'' n. 1.</ref> The closest candidate is the [[Nepali language|Nepali]] word ''ponya,'' possibly referring to the adapted wrist bone of the [[red panda]], which is native to Nepal. In many older sources, the name "panda" or "common panda" refers to the red panda (''Ailurus fulgens''),<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.animalinfo.org/species/carnivor/ailufulg.htm |title=Animal Info – Red Panda|access-date= 4 August 2009|archive-date= 1 September 2008|archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20080901161750/http://www.animalinfo.org/species/carnivor/ailufulg.htm|url-status= live}}</ref> which was described some 40 years earlier and over that period was the only animal known as a panda.<ref name=Introduction2022>{{cite book |last=Glatston |first=A. R. |year=2021 |chapter=Introduction |title=Red Panda: Biology and Conservation of the First Panda |editor-last=Glatston |editor-first=A. R. |pages=xix–xxix |edition=Second |publisher=Academic Press |place=London |isbn=978-0-12-823753-3}}</ref> The binomial name ''Ailuropoda melanoleuca'' means black and white (melanoleuca) cat-foot (ailuropoda).<ref>{{cite web |title=Giant panda |url=http://www.futura-sciences.us/dico/d/zoology-giant-panda-50002363/ |website=Futura - Sciences |access-date=12 September 2024}}</ref>
 Since the earliest collection of Chinese writings, the Chinese language has given the bear many different names, including ''[[Mo (Chinese zoology)|mò]]'' ({{lang|zh|貘}}, ancient Chinese name for giant panda),<ref>Harper, Donald (2013), "The Cultural History of the Giant Panda (Ailuropoda melanoleuca) in Early China", ''Early China'' 35/36: 185–224. ([https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/early-china/article/abs/cultural-history-of-the-giant-panda-ailuropoda-melanoleuca-in-early-china/2536F99928B934B6BCFE661EAAED7AED abstract] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220124210303/https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/early-china/article/abs/cultural-history-of-the-giant-panda-ailuropoda-melanoleuca-in-early-china/2536F99928B934B6BCFE661EAAED7AED |date=24 January 2022}})</ref> ''huāxióng'' ({{lang|zh|花熊}}; "spotted bear") and ''zhúxióng'' ({{lang|zh|竹熊}}; "bamboo bear").<ref name="huayuqiao.org">{{cite web |url=http://huayuqiao.org/articles/yaodehuai/yaodh08.htm |title=Discussion about the Chinese name for giant panda (in Chinese)|access-date=17 January 2008|archive-date=24 January 2008|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080124132354/http://huayuqiao.org/articles/yaodehuai/yaodh08.htm|url-status=live}}</ref> The most popular names in China today are ''dàxióngmāo'' ({{lang|zh|大熊貓}}; {{lit|giant bear cat}}), or simply ''xióngmāo'' ({{lang|zh|熊貓}}; {{lit|bear cat}}). As with the word panda in English, ''xióngmāo'' ({{lang|zh|熊貓}}) was originally used to describe just the red panda, but ''dàxióngmāo'' ({{lang|zh|大熊貓}}) and ''xiǎoxióngmāo'' ({{lang|zh|小熊猫}}; {{lit|little bear cat}}) were coined to differentiate between the species.<ref name="huayuqiao.org"/>
 In [[Taiwan]], another popular name for panda is the inverted ''dàmāoxióng'' ({{lang|zh|大貓熊}}; {{lit|giant cat bear}}), though many encyclopedias and dictionaries in Taiwan still use the "bear cat" form as the correct name. Some linguists argue, in this construction, "bear" instead of "cat" is the base noun, making the name more grammatically and logically correct, which have led to the popular choice despite official writings.<ref name="huayuqiao.org"/> This name did not gain its popularity until 1988, when a private zoo in [[Tainan]] painted a [[sun bear]] black and white and created the [[Tainan fake panda incident]].<ref>{{cite news|title=Government Information Office will now use ''dàxióngmāo'' as the proper name (in Chinese)|url=http://udndata.com/ndapp/Story2007?no=31&page=4&udndbid=udndata&SearchString=v9%2B6tSu6tb%2FfK6TptME%2BPTE5NTEwMTAxK6TptME8PTIwMDAwMTAx&sharepage=10&select=0&kind=2&article_date=1990-08-09&news_id=100993201&showUserSearch=+%3Cstrong%3E%3Cfont+color%3D%23333333+class%3Dtitle03%3E%B1%7A%A5%48%3C%2Ffont%3E+%3Cfont+color%3D%23FF6600+class%3Dtitle04%3E%BF%DF%BA%B5%2B%BA%B5%BF%DF%2B%A4%E9%B4%C1%3E%3D19510101%2B%A4%E9%B4%C1%3C%3D20000101%3C%2Ffont%3E+%3Cfont+color%3D%23333333+class%3Dtitle03%3E%A6%40%B7%6A%B4%4D%A8%EC%3C%2Ffont%3E+%3Cfont+color%3D%23FF6600+class%3Dtitle04%3E68%3C%2Ffont%3E+%3Cfont+color%3D%23333333+class%3Dtitle03%3E%B5%A7%B8%EA%AE%C6%3C%2Ffont%3E%3C%2Fstrong%3E&firstFatherCateID=&collectCateNewsPage=1|date=9 August 1990|newspaper=聯合報|access-date=31 March 2015|archive-date=3 September 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150903225829/http://udndata.com/ndapp/Story2007?no=31&page=4&udndbid=udndata&SearchString=v9%2B6tSu6tb%2FfK6TptME%2BPTE5NTEwMTAxK6TptME8PTIwMDAwMTAx&sharepage=10&select=0&kind=2&article_date=1990-08-09&news_id=100993201&showUserSearch=+%3Cstrong%3E%3Cfont+color%3D%23333333+class%3Dtitle03%3E%B1%7A%A5%48%3C%2Ffont%3E+%3Cfont+color%3D%23FF6600+class%3Dtitle04%3E%BF%DF%BA%B5%2B%BA%B5%BF%DF%2B%A4%E9%B4%C1%3E%3D19510101%2B%A4%E9%B4%C1%3C%3D20000101%3C%2Ffont%3E+%3Cfont+color%3D%23333333+class%3Dtitle03%3E%A6%40%B7%6A%B4%4D%A8%EC%3C%2Ffont%3E+%3Cfont+color%3D%23FF6600+class%3Dtitle04%3E68%3C%2Ffont%3E+%3Cfont+color%3D%23333333+class%3Dtitle03%3E%B5%A7%B8%EA%AE%C6%3C%2Ffont%3E%3C%2Fstrong%3E&firstFatherCateID=&collectCateNewsPage=1|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|title="bear cat" or "cat bear" (in Chinese)|url=http://udndata.com/ndapp/Story2007?no=307&page=31&udndbid=udndata&SearchString=tsKl1bq1L7q1v98vv9%2B6tSuk6bTBPj0xOTg3MTIwMSuk6bTBPD0xOTg4MTIzMQ%3D%3D&sharepage=10&select=1&kind=2&article_date=1987-12-29&news_id=103310434&showUserSearch=+%3Cstrong%3E%3Cfont+color%3D%23333333+class%3Dtitle03%3E%B1%7A%A5%48%3C%2Ffont%3E+%3Cfont+color%3D%23FF6600+class%3Dtitle04%3E%B6%C2%A5%D5%BA%B5%2F%BA%B5%BF%DF%2F%BF%DF%BA%B5%2B%A4%E9%B4%C1%3E%3D19871201%2B%A4%E9%B4%C1%3C%3D19881231%3C%2Ffont%3E+%3Cfont+color%3D%23333333+class%3Dtitle03%3E%A6%40%B7%6A%B4%4D%A8%EC%3C%2Ffont%3E+%3Cfont+color%3D%23FF6600+class%3Dtitle04%3E317%3C%2Ffont%3E+%3Cfont+color%3D%23333333+class%3Dtitle03%3E%B5%A7%B8%EA%AE%C6%3C%2Ffont%3E%3C%2Fstrong%3E&firstFatherCateID=&collectCateNewsPage=1|date=29 December 1987|newspaper=聯合報|access-date=31 March 2015|archive-date=3 September 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150903225829/http://udndata.com/ndapp/Story2007?no=307&page=31&udndbid=udndata&SearchString=tsKl1bq1L7q1v98vv9%2B6tSuk6bTBPj0xOTg3MTIwMSuk6bTBPD0xOTg4MTIzMQ%3D%3D&sharepage=10&select=1&kind=2&article_date=1987-12-29&news_id=103310434&showUserSearch=+%3Cstrong%3E%3Cfont+color%3D%23333333+class%3Dtitle03%3E%B1%7A%A5%48%3C%2Ffont%3E+%3Cfont+color%3D%23FF6600+class%3Dtitle04%3E%B6%C2%A5%D5%BA%B5%2F%BA%B5%BF%DF%2F%BF%DF%BA%B5%2B%A4%E9%B4%C1%3E%3D19871201%2B%A4%E9%B4%C1%3C%3D19881231%3C%2Ffont%3E+%3Cfont+color%3D%23333333+class%3Dtitle03%3E%A6%40%B7%6A%B4%4D%A8%EC%3C%2Ffont%3E+%3Cfont+color%3D%23FF6600+class%3Dtitle04%3E317%3C%2Ffont%3E+%3Cfont+color%3D%23333333+class%3Dtitle03%3E%B5%A7%B8%EA%AE%C6%3C%2Ffont%3E%3C%2Fstrong%3E&firstFatherCateID=&collectCateNewsPage=1|url-status=live}}</ref>
@@ Line 44: / Line 44: @@
 [[File:Quinlingpandabearr.jpg|thumb|The [[Qinling panda]] has a light brown-and-white pattern]]
 Two subspecies of giant panda have been recognized on the basis of distinct cranial measurements, colour patterns, and [[population genetics]].{{sfn|Wan|Wu|Fang|2005}}
-* The [[nominate subspecies]], ''A. m. melanoleuca'', consists of most extant populations of the giant panda. These animals are principally found in [[Sichuan]] and display the typical stark black and white contrasting colours.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Zhao |first1=Y. |last2=Chen |first2=Y. |last3=Zheng |first3=Y. |last4=Ma |first4=Q. |last5=Jiang |first5=Y. |date=2020 |title=Quantifying the heavy metal risks from anthropogenic contributions in Sichuan panda (''Ailuropoda melanoleuca melanoleuca'') habitat |journal=Science of the Total Environment |volume=745 |pages=140941 |doi=10.1016/j.scitotenv.2020.140941 |pmid=32731070 |bibcode=2020ScTEn.74540941Z}}</ref>
+* The [[nominate subspecies]], ''A. m. melanoleuca'', consists of most extant populations of the giant panda. These animals are principally found in [[Sichuan]] and display the typical stark black and white contrasting colours.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Zhao |first1=Y. |last2=Chen |first2=Y. |last3=Zheng |first3=Y. |last4=Ma |first4=Q. |last5=Jiang |first5=Y. |date=2020 |title=Quantifying the heavy metal risks from anthropogenic contributions in Sichuan panda (''Ailuropoda melanoleuca melanoleuca'') habitat |journal=Science of the Total Environment |volume=745 |article-number=140941 |doi=10.1016/j.scitotenv.2020.140941 |pmid=32731070 |bibcode=2020ScTEn.74540941Z}}</ref>
 * The [[Qinling panda]], ''A. m. qinlingensis'',<ref>{{cite book|last=Hammond|first=P. |title=The Atlas of Endangered Animals: Wildlife Under Threat Around the World|year=2010|publisher=Marshall Cavendish |isbn=978-0-7614-7872-0 |page=58 |url=https://archive.org/details/atlasofendangere0000hamm/page/58}}</ref> is restricted to the [[Qinling Mountains]] in Shaanxi at elevations of {{cvt|1300|–|3000|m}}. The typical black and white pattern of Sichuan giant pandas is replaced with a light brown and white pattern.{{sfn|Wan|Wu|Fang|2005}} The skull of ''A. m. qinlingensis'' is smaller than its relatives, and it has larger molars.<ref name=Wan>{{cite journal |author1=Wan, Q.H. |author2=Hua Wu|author3=Fang, S.-G. |year=2005 |title=A new subspecies of giant panda (''Ailuropoda melanoleuca'') from Shaanxi, China |journal=[[Journal of Mammalogy]] |volume=86 |issue=2 |pages=397–402 |jstor=4094359 |doi=10.1644/BRB-226.1 |doi-access=free}}</ref>
@@ Line 50: / Line 50: @@
 ===Phylogeny===
-Of the eight extant species in the bear family Ursidae, the giant panda's lineage branched off the earliest.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Yu |first1=L. |last2=Li |first2=Y.-W. |last3=Ryder |first3=O. A. |last4=Zhang |first4=Y.-P. |title=Analysis of complete mitochondrial genome sequences increases phylogenetic resolution of bears (Ursidae), a mammalian family that experienced rapid speciation |journal=BMC Evolutionary Biology |date=2007 |volume=7 |issue=198 |page=198 |doi=10.1186/1471-2148-7-198 |pmid=17956639 |pmc=2151078 |doi-access=free |bibcode=2007BMCEE...7..198Y}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Kumar |first1=V. |last2=Lammers |first2=F. |last3=Bidon |first3=T. |last4=Pfenninger |first4=M. |last5=Kolter |first5=L. |last6=Nilsson |first6=M. A. |last7=Janke |first7=A. |year=2017 |title=The evolutionary history of bears is characterized by gene flow across species |journal=Scientific Reports |volume=7 |page=46487 |doi=10.1038/srep46487 |pmid=28422140 |pmc=5395953 |bibcode=2017NatSR...746487K}}</ref>
+Of the eight extant species in the bear family Ursidae, the giant panda's lineage branched off the earliest.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Yu |first1=L. |last2=Li |first2=Y.-W. |last3=Ryder |first3=O. A. |last4=Zhang |first4=Y.-P. |title=Analysis of complete mitochondrial genome sequences increases phylogenetic resolution of bears (Ursidae), a mammalian family that experienced rapid speciation |journal=BMC Evolutionary Biology |date=2007 |volume=7 |issue=198 |page=198 |doi=10.1186/1471-2148-7-198 |pmid=17956639 |pmc=2151078 |doi-access=free |bibcode=2007BMCEE...7..198Y}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Kumar |first1=V. |last2=Lammers |first2=F. |last3=Bidon |first3=T. |last4=Pfenninger |first4=M. |last5=Kolter |first5=L. |last6=Nilsson |first6=M. A. |last7=Janke |first7=A. |year=2017 |title=The evolutionary history of bears is characterized by gene flow across species |journal=Scientific Reports |volume=7 |article-number=46487 |doi=10.1038/srep46487 |pmid=28422140 |pmc=5395953 |bibcode=2017NatSR...746487K}}</ref>
 {{clade
 |label1=[[Ursidae]]
 |1={{clade
-    |1=[[Giant panda]] (''Ailuropoda melanoleuca'') [[File:Recherches pour servir à l'histoire naturelle des mammifères (Pl. 50) (white background).jpg|75px]]
+    |1=Giant panda (''Ailuropoda melanoleuca'') [[File:Recherches pour servir à l'histoire naturelle des mammifères (Pl. 50) (white background).jpg|75px]]
     |2={{clade
       |1=[[Spectacled bear]] (''Tremarctos ornatus'') [[File:Spectacled bear (1829).jpg|75px]]
@@ Line 64: / Line 64: @@
 == Distribution and habitat ==
-The giant panda is endemic to [[China]]. It is found in small, fragmented populations in six mountainous regions in the country, mainly in [[Sichuan]], and also in neighbouring [[Shaanxi]] and [[Gansu]].<ref>{{cite book |last=Scheff |first=D. |title=Giant Pandas |publisher=Heinemann-Raintree Library |year=2002 |isbn=0-7398-5529-8 |edition=illustrated |series=Animals of the rain forest |pages=7–8}}</ref> Successful habitat preservation has seen a rise in panda numbers, though [[Habitat loss|loss of habitat]] due to human activities remains its biggest threat. In areas with a high concentration of medium-to-large-sized mammals{{emdash}}such as [[domestic cattle]], a species known to degrade the landscape{{emdash}}the giant panda population is generally low. This is mainly attributed to the panda's avoidance of [[interspecific competition]].<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Liu |first1=Z.-X. |last2=Dayananda |first2=B. |last3=Jeffree |first3=R. A. |last4=Tian |first4=C. |last5=Zhang |first5=Y.-Y. |last6=Yu |first6=B. |last7=Zheng |first7=Y. |last8=Jing |first8=Y. |last9=Si |first9=P.-Y. |last10=Li |first10=J.-Q. |date=2020 |title=Giant panda distribution and habitat preference: The influence of sympatric large mammals |journal=Global Ecology and Conservation |volume=24 |pages=e01221 |doi=10.1016/j.gecco.2020.e01221 |doi-access=free |bibcode=2020GEcoC..2401221L}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Bai |first1=W. |last2=Connor |first2=T. |last3=Zhang |first3=J. |last4=Yang |first4=H. |last5=Dong |first5=X. |last6=Gu |first6=X. |last7=Zhou |first7=C. |date=2018 |title=Long-term distribution and habitat changes of protected wildlife: giant pandas in Wolong Nature Reserve, China |journal=Environmental Science and Pollution Research |volume=25 |issue=12 |pages=11400–11408 |doi=10.1007/s11356-018-1407-6 |pmid=29423692 |bibcode=2018ESPR...2511400B}}</ref>
+The giant panda is endemic to [[China]]. It is found in small, fragmented populations in six mountainous regions in the country, mainly in [[Sichuan]], and also in neighbouring [[Shaanxi]] and [[Gansu]].<ref>{{cite book |last=Scheff |first=D. |title=Giant Pandas |publisher=Heinemann-Raintree Library |year=2002 |isbn=0-7398-5529-8 |edition=illustrated |series=Animals of the rain forest |pages=7–8}}</ref> Successful habitat preservation has seen a rise in panda numbers, though [[Habitat loss|loss of habitat]] due to human activities remains its biggest threat. In areas with a high concentration of medium-to-large-sized mammals{{emdash}}such as [[domestic cattle]], a species known to degrade the landscape{{emdash}}the giant panda population is generally low. This is mainly attributed to the panda's avoidance of [[interspecific competition]].<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Liu |first1=Z.-X. |last2=Dayananda |first2=B. |last3=Jeffree |first3=R. A. |last4=Tian |first4=C. |last5=Zhang |first5=Y.-Y. |last6=Yu |first6=B. |last7=Zheng |first7=Y. |last8=Jing |first8=Y. |last9=Si |first9=P.-Y. |last10=Li |first10=J.-Q. |date=2020 |title=Giant panda distribution and habitat preference: The influence of sympatric large mammals |journal=Global Ecology and Conservation |volume=24 |article-number=e01221 |doi=10.1016/j.gecco.2020.e01221 |doi-access=free |bibcode=2020GEcoC..2401221L}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Bai |first1=W. |last2=Connor |first2=T. |last3=Zhang |first3=J. |last4=Yang |first4=H. |last5=Dong |first5=X. |last6=Gu |first6=X. |last7=Zhou |first7=C. |date=2018 |title=Long-term distribution and habitat changes of protected wildlife: giant pandas in Wolong Nature Reserve, China |journal=Environmental Science and Pollution Research |volume=25 |issue=12 |pages=11400–11408 |doi=10.1007/s11356-018-1407-6 |pmid=29423692 |bibcode=2018ESPR...2511400B}}</ref>
-The species has been located at elevations of {{cvt|2400|to|3000|m}} above sea level.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Yang |first1=Z. |last2=Wang |first2=X. |last3=Kang |first3=D. |date=2023 |title=Characteristics and Roles of Large Trees in Giant Panda Habitat of Wanglang Nature Reserve |journal=Forests |volume=14 |issue=10 |pages=1993 |doi=10.3390/f14101993 |doi-access=free}}</ref> They frequent habitats with a healthy concentration of bamboos, typically [[old-growth forest]]s, but may also venture into [[secondary forest]] habitats.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Hull |first1=V. |last2=Roloff |first2=G. |last3=Zhang |first3=J. |last4=Liu |first4=W. |last5=Zhou |first5=S. |last6=Huang |first6=J. |last7=Xu |first7=W. |last8=Ouyang |first8=Z. |last9=Zhang |first9=H. |last10=Liu |first10=J. |date=2014 |title=A synthesis of giant panda habitat selection |journal=Ursus |volume=25 |issue=2 |pages=148–162 |doi=10.2192/URSUS-D-13-00011.1 |jstor=24643781}}</ref> The Daxiangling Mountain population inhabits both coniferous and broadleaf forests.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Zhang |first1=Y. |last2=Wu |first2=Y. |last3=Zhang |first3=Q. |last4=Ran |first4=J. |last5=Price |first5=M. |date=2018 |title=Distribution of a giant panda population influenced by land cover |url=|journal=The Journal of Wildlife Management |volume=82 |issue=6 |pages=1199–1209 |doi=10.1002/jwmg.21477 |bibcode=2018JWMan..82.1199Z}}</ref> Additionally, the Qinling population often selects evergreen broadleaf and conifer forests, while pandas in the Qionglai mountainous region exclusively select upland conifer forests. The remaining two populations, namely those occurring in the Liangshan and Xiaoxiangling mountains, predominantly occur in broadleaf evergreen and conifer forests.<ref name="Lindburg, Donald G.; Baragona, Karen 2004" />{{Rp|137-148}}
+The species has been located at elevations of {{cvt|2400|to|3000|m}} above sea level.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Yang |first1=Z. |last2=Wang |first2=X. |last3=Kang |first3=D. |date=2023 |title=Characteristics and Roles of Large Trees in Giant Panda Habitat of Wanglang Nature Reserve |journal=Forests |volume=14 |issue=10 |page=1993 |doi=10.3390/f14101993 |bibcode=2023Fore...14.1993Y |doi-access=free}}</ref> They frequent habitats with a healthy concentration of bamboos, typically [[old-growth forest]]s, but may also venture into [[secondary forest]] habitats.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Hull |first1=V. |last2=Roloff |first2=G. |last3=Zhang |first3=J. |last4=Liu |first4=W. |last5=Zhou |first5=S. |last6=Huang |first6=J. |last7=Xu |first7=W. |last8=Ouyang |first8=Z. |last9=Zhang |first9=H. |last10=Liu |first10=J. |date=2014 |title=A synthesis of giant panda habitat selection |journal=Ursus |volume=25 |issue=2 |pages=148–162 |doi=10.2192/URSUS-D-13-00011.1 |jstor=24643781}}</ref> The Daxiangling Mountain population inhabits both coniferous and broadleaf forests.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Zhang |first1=Y. |last2=Wu |first2=Y. |last3=Zhang |first3=Q. |last4=Ran |first4=J. |last5=Price |first5=M. |date=2018 |title=Distribution of a giant panda population influenced by land cover |url=|journal=The Journal of Wildlife Management |volume=82 |issue=6 |pages=1199–1209 |doi=10.1002/jwmg.21477 |bibcode=2018JWMan..82.1199Z}}</ref> Additionally, the Qinling population often selects evergreen broadleaf and conifer forests, while pandas in the Qionglai mountainous region exclusively select upland conifer forests. The remaining two populations, namely those occurring in the Liangshan and Xiaoxiangling mountains, predominantly occur in broadleaf evergreen and conifer forests.<ref name="Lindburg, Donald G.; Baragona, Karen 2004" />{{Rp|137–148}}
-Giant pandas once roamed across [[Southeast Asia]] from [[Myanmar]] to northern [[Vietnam]]. Their range in China spanned much of the southeast region. By the [[Pleistocene]], climate change affected panda populations, and the subsequent domination of [[modern human]]s led to large-scale habitat loss.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Songer |first1=M. |last2=Delion |first2=M. |last3=Biggs |first3=A. |last4=Huang |first4=Q. |date=2012 |title=Modeling Impacts of Climate Change on Giant Panda Habitat |journal=International Journal of Ecology |volume=2012 |page=e108752 |doi=10.1155/2012/108752 |doi-access=free}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=He |first1=K. |last2=Dai |first2=Qiang |last3=Gu |first3=Xianghui |last4=Zhang |first4=Zejun |last5=Zhou |first5=Jiang |last6=Qi |first6=D. |last7=Gu |first7=X. |last8=Yang |first8=X. |last9=Zhang |first9=W. |last10=Yang |first10=B. |last11=Yang |first11=Z. |date=2019 |title=Effects of roads on giant panda distribution: a mountain range scale evaluation |journal=Scientific Reports |volume=9 |issue=1 |page=1110 |doi=10.1038/s41598-018-37447-0 |pmid=30710093 |pmc=6358623 |bibcode=2019NatSR...9.1110H}}</ref> In 2001, it was estimated that the range of the giant panda had declined by about 99% of its range in earlier millenniums.<ref name=climate-change>{{Cite journal |last1=Li |first1=R. |last2=Xu |first2=M. |last3=Wong |first3=M. H. G. |last4=Qiu |first4=S. |last5=Li |first5=X. |last6=Ehrenfeld |first6=Davis |last7=Li |first7=Dianmo |date=2015 |title=Climate change threatens giant panda protection in the 21st century |journal=Biological Conservation |volume=182 |pages=93–101 |doi=10.1016/j.biocon.2014.11.037 |bibcode=2015BCons.182...93L}}</ref>
+Giant pandas once roamed across [[Southeast Asia]] from [[Myanmar]] to northern [[Vietnam]]. Their range in China spanned much of the southeast region. By the [[Pleistocene]], climate change affected panda populations, and the subsequent domination of [[modern human]]s led to large-scale habitat loss.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Songer |first1=M. |last2=Delion |first2=M. |last3=Biggs |first3=A. |last4=Huang |first4=Q. |date=2012 |title=Modeling Impacts of Climate Change on Giant Panda Habitat |journal=International Journal of Ecology |volume=2012 |article-number=e108752 |doi=10.1155/2012/108752 |doi-access=free}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=He |first1=K. |last2=Dai |first2=Qiang |last3=Gu |first3=Xianghui |last4=Zhang |first4=Zejun |last5=Zhou |first5=Jiang |last6=Qi |first6=D. |last7=Gu |first7=X. |last8=Yang |first8=X. |last9=Zhang |first9=W. |last10=Yang |first10=B. |last11=Yang |first11=Z. |date=2019 |title=Effects of roads on giant panda distribution: a mountain range scale evaluation |journal=Scientific Reports |volume=9 |issue=1 |page=1110 |doi=10.1038/s41598-018-37447-0 |pmid=30710093 |pmc=6358623 |bibcode=2019NatSR...9.1110H}}</ref> In 2001, it was estimated that the range of the giant panda had declined by about 99% of its range in earlier millenniums.<ref name=climate-change>{{Cite journal |last1=Li |first1=R. |last2=Xu |first2=M. |last3=Wong |first3=M. H. G. |last4=Qiu |first4=S. |last5=Li |first5=X. |last6=Ehrenfeld |first6=Davis |last7=Li |first7=Dianmo |date=2015 |title=Climate change threatens giant panda protection in the 21st century |journal=Biological Conservation |volume=182 |pages=93–101 |doi=10.1016/j.biocon.2014.11.037 |bibcode=2015BCons.182...93L |doi-access=free }}</ref>
 ==Description==
 {{Multiple image |direction=vertical |image1=Giant Panda Skull.JPG |caption1=The skull of a giant panda at the [[Smithsonian Museum of Natural History]] |image2=Panda géant - tête (Ailuropoda melanoleuca) (2).jpg |caption2=Close-up of giant panda at ZooParc in Beauval, France}}
-The giant panda has a body shape typical of bears. It has black fur on its ears, limbs, shoulders and around the eyes. The rest of the animal's coat is white.<ref name="Dudley 9">{{cite book |last=Dudley |first=K. |title=Giant Pandas |publisher=[[Weigl Educational Publishers Limited]] |year=1997 |isbn=0-919879-87-X |edition=Illustrated |series=Untamed world |pages=9–26}}</ref> The bear's distinctive coloration appears to serve as [[camouflage]] in both winter and summer environments as they do not [[hibernate]]. The white areas serve as camouflage in snow, while the black shoulders and legs conceal them in shade.<ref name="Caro"/> Studies in the wild have found that when viewed from a distance, the panda displays [[disruptive coloration]], while up close, they rely more on [[Camouflage#Resemblance to surroundings|blending in]].<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Nokelainen |first1=O. |last2=Scott-Samuel |first2=N. E. |last3=Nie |first3=Y. |last4=Wei |first4=F. |last5=Caro |first5=T. |year=2021 |title=The giant panda is cryptic|journal=Scientific Reports |volume=11 |issue=21287 |page=21287 |doi=10.1038/s41598-021-00742-4 |pmid=34711890 |pmc=8553760 |bibcode=2021NatSR..1121287N }}</ref> The black ears may be used to display aggression,<ref name=Caro>{{cite journal |last1=Caro |first1=T. |last2=Walker |first2=H. |last3=Rossman |first3=Z. |last4=Hendrix |first4=M. |last5=Stankowich |first5=T. |year=2017|title=Why is the giant panda black and white?|journal=Behavioral Ecology |volume=28 |issue=3 |pages=657–667 |doi=10.1093/beheco/arx008 |doi-access=free}}</ref> while the eye patches might facilitate them identifying one another.<ref name=Caro/><ref name="Morell p.">{{cite journal |last=Morell |first=V. |title=How pandas got their patches |journal=Science |date=2017 |doi=10.1126/science.aal0840 |page=}}</ref> The giant panda's thick, woolly coat keeps it warm in the cool forests of its habitat.<ref name="Dudley 9"/>
+The giant panda has a body shape typical of bears. It has black fur on its ears, limbs, shoulders and around the eyes. The rest of the animal's coat is white.<ref name="Dudley 9">{{cite book |last=Dudley |first=K. |title=Giant Pandas |publisher=[[Weigl Educational Publishers Limited]] |year=1997 |isbn=0-919879-87-X |edition=Illustrated |series=Untamed world |pages=9–26}}</ref> The giant panda's distinctive coloration appears to serve as [[camouflage]] in both winter and summer environments as they do not [[hibernate]]. The white areas serve as camouflage in snow, while the black shoulders and legs conceal them in shade.<ref name="Caro"/> Studies in the wild have found that when viewed from a distance, the panda displays [[disruptive coloration]], while up close, they rely more on [[Camouflage#Resemblance to surroundings|blending in]].<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Nokelainen |first1=O. |last2=Scott-Samuel |first2=N. E. |last3=Nie |first3=Y. |last4=Wei |first4=F. |last5=Caro |first5=T. |year=2021 |title=The giant panda is cryptic |journal=Scientific Reports |volume=11 |issue=21287 |page=21287 |doi=10.1038/s41598-021-00742-4 |pmid=34711890 |pmc=8553760 |bibcode=2021NatSR..1121287N}}</ref> The black ears may be used to display aggression,<ref name=Caro>{{cite journal |last1=Caro |first1=T. |last2=Walker |first2=H. |last3=Rossman |first3=Z. |last4=Hendrix |first4=M. |last5=Stankowich |first5=T. |year=2017|title=Why is the giant panda black and white? |journal=Behavioral Ecology |volume=28 |issue=3 |pages=657–667 |doi=10.1093/beheco/arx008 |doi-access=free}}</ref> while the eye patches might facilitate them identifying one another.<ref name=Caro/><ref name="Morell p.">{{cite journal |last=Morell |first=V. |title=How pandas got their patches |journal=Science |date=2017 |doi=10.1126/science.aal0840 |page=}}</ref> The giant panda's thick, woolly coat keeps it warm in the cool forests of its habitat.<ref name="Dudley 9"/>
-The panda's skull shape is typical of [[durophagous]] carnivorans. It has evolved from previous ancestors to exhibit larger molars with increased complexity and expanded temporal fossa.<ref>{{cite book |last=Ellis |first=R. |title=No turning back: the life and death of animal species |edition=illustrated |year=2004 |publisher=HarperCollins |isbn=0-06-055803-2 |page=315 |url=https://archive.org/details/noturningbacklif00elli/page/315}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Figueirido |first1=B. |author2=Tseng, Z. J. |author3=Martín-Serra, A. |title=Skull shape evolution in durophagous carnivorans |journal=Evolution; International Journal of Organic Evolution |date=2013 |volume=67 |issue=7 |pages=1975–93 |doi=10.1111/evo.12059 |pmid=23815654 |s2cid=23918004 |doi-access=free|hdl=10630/32909 |hdl-access=free }}</ref> A study revealed that a {{cvt|117.5|kg}} giant panda had a bite force of 1298.9 [[Newton (unit)|Newton]] (BFQ 151.4) at canine teeth and 1815.9 Newton (BFQ 141.8) at carnassial teeth.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Christiansen |first1=P. |last2=Wroe |first2=S. |title=Bite forces and evolutionary adaptations to feeding ecology in carnivores |journal=Ecology |year=2007 |volume=88 |issue=2 |pages=347–358 |pmid=17479753 |doi=10.1890/0012-9658(2007)88[347:BFAEAT]2.0.CO;2 |url=https://www.academia.edu/239888 |access-date=3 November 2017 |archive-date=4 December 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211204024321/https://www.academia.edu/239888 |url-status=live}}</ref>
+The panda's skull shape is typical of [[durophagous]] carnivorans. It has evolved from previous ancestors to exhibit larger molars with increased complexity and expanded temporal fossa.<ref>{{cite book |last=Ellis |first=R. |title=No turning back: the life and death of animal species |edition=illustrated |year=2004 |publisher=HarperCollins |isbn=0-06-055803-2 |page=315 |url=https://archive.org/details/noturningbacklif00elli/page/315}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Figueirido |first1=B. |author2=Tseng, Z. J. |author3=Martín-Serra, A. |title=Skull shape evolution in durophagous carnivorans |journal=Evolution; International Journal of Organic Evolution |date=2013 |volume=67 |issue=7 |pages=1975–1993 |doi=10.1111/evo.12059 |pmid=23815654 |s2cid=23918004 |doi-access=free |hdl=10630/32909 |hdl-access=free}}</ref> A study revealed that a {{cvt|117.5|kg}} giant panda had a bite force of 1298.9 [[Newton (unit)|Newton]] (BFQ 151.4) at canine teeth and 1815.9 Newton (BFQ 141.8) at carnassial teeth.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Christiansen |first1=P. |last2=Wroe |first2=S. |title=Bite forces and evolutionary adaptations to feeding ecology in carnivores |journal=Ecology |year=2007 |volume=88 |issue=2 |pages=347–358 |pmid=17479753 |doi=10.1890/0012-9658(2007)88[347:BFAEAT]2.0.CO;2 |url=https://www.academia.edu/239888 |access-date=3 November 2017 |archive-date=4 December 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211204024321/https://www.academia.edu/239888 |url-status=live}}</ref> [[Finite element method|Finite element analysis]] has found that pandas have the highest bite force relative to their body size among ursids.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Oldfield |first=C. C. |last2=McHenry |first2=C. R. |last3=Clausen |first3=P. D. |last4=Chamoli |first4=U. |last5=Parr |first5=W. C. H. |last6=Stynder |first6=D. D. |last7=Wroe |first7=S. |date=2012 |title=Finite element analysis of ursid cranial mechanics and the prediction of feeding behaviour in the extinct giant Agriotherium africanum |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/224630206_Finite_Element_Analysis_of_ursid_cranial_mechanics_and_the_prediction_of_feeding_behaviour_in_the_extinct_giant_Agriotherium_africanum_the_bare_facts |journal=Journal of Zoology |language=en |volume=286 |issue=2 |pages=171–171 |doi=10.1111/j.1469-7998.2011.00862.x |issn=1469-7998}}</ref> The giant panda has the largest [[Muscles of mastication|masticatory muscles]] among bears, being more than twice as large as those of the [[American black bear]] with an equivalent brain weight; [[digastric muscle]] is equal to 30% of brain weight in giant panda compared to 10% in black bear.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Davis |first=D. D. |date=1964 |title=The giant panda: a morphological study of evolutionary mechanisms. |url=https://archive.org/details/giantpandamorpho03davi/mode/1up |journal=Fieldiana Zoology Memoirs |volume=3 |page=154}}</ref>
-Adults measure around {{cvt|1.2|to|1.9|m}} long, including a tail of about {{cvt|10|-|15|cm}}, and {{cvt|60|to|90|cm}} tall at the [[shoulder]].<ref name=Arkive>{{citation |url=http://www.arkive.org/giant-panda/ailuropoda-melanoleuca/#text=Facts |title=Giant Panda |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141223123307/http://www.arkive.org/giant-panda/ailuropoda-melanoleuca/#text=Facts |archive-date=23 December 2014 |publisher=Arkive}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.giantpandaonline.org/naturalhistory/description.htm |title=Physical Description |publisher=Giant Panda Species Survival Plan |access-date=26 October 2011 |archive-date=4 December 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111204035805/http://www.giantpandaonline.org/naturalhistory/description.htm}}</ref> Males can weigh up to {{cvt|160|kg}}.<ref>{{cite book |last=Boitani |first=L. |title=Simon & Schuster's Guide to Mammals |publisher=[[Simon & Schuster]] / [[Touchstone Books]] |year=1984 |isbn=978-0-671-42805-1 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=GcOaQgAACAAJ |access-date=27 September 2020 |archive-date=4 December 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211204024424/https://books.google.com/books?id=GcOaQgAACAAJ |url-status=live}}</ref> Females are generally 10–20% smaller than males.<ref name="Bearalmanac">{{cite book |author=Brown, Gary |title=Great Bear Almanac |year=1996 |page=340 |publisher=[[The Lyons Press]] |isbn=1-55821-474-7 |url=https://archive.org/details/greatbearalmanac00gary |url-access=registration}}</ref> They weigh between {{cvt|70|kg}} and {{cvt|125|kg}}.<ref name=wwf1>{{cite web |url=http://panda.org/about_wwf/what_we_do/species/our_solutions/endangered_species/giant_panda/index.cfm |title=Global Species Programme&nbsp;– Giant panda |publisher=World Wildlife Fund |date=2007 |access-date=22 July 2008 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080704204350/http://www.panda.org/about_wwf/what_we_do/species/our_solutions/endangered_species/giant_panda/index.cfm |archive-date=4 July 2008}}</ref><ref name=Arkive/><ref>{{cite journal |url=http://www.science.smith.edu/msi/pdf/i0076-3519-110-01-0001.pdf |journal=Mammalian Species |issue=110 |pages=1–6 |title=''Ailuropoda melanoleuca'' |author1=Chorn, J. |author2=Hoffmann, R. S. |date=1978 |access-date=5 February 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150924121859/http://www.science.smith.edu/msi/pdf/i0076-3519-110-01-0001.pdf |archive-date=24 September 2015}}</ref> The average weight for adults is {{cvt|100|to|115|kg}}.<ref>{{cite web |website=Animal Fact Guide |url=http://www.animalfactguide.com/animalfacts/giant-panda/ |title=Giant panda Ailuropoda melanoleuca |year=2011 |access-date=19 September 2011 |archive-date=14 September 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110914163019/http://www.animalfactguide.com/animalfacts/giant-panda/ |url-status=live}}</ref>
+Adults measure around {{cvt|1.2|to|1.9|m}} long, including a tail of about {{cvt|10|-|15|cm}} and {{cvt|60|to|90|cm}} tall at the [[shoulder]].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.giantpandaonline.org/naturalhistory/description.htm |title=Physical Description |publisher=Giant Panda Species Survival Plan |access-date=26 October 2011 |archive-date=4 December 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111204035805/http://www.giantpandaonline.org/naturalhistory/description.htm}}</ref> Males can weigh up to {{cvt|160|kg}}.<ref>{{cite book |last=Boitani |first=L. |title=Simon & Schuster's Guide to Mammals |publisher=[[Simon & Schuster]], [[Touchstone Books]] |year=1984 |isbn=978-0-671-42805-1 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=GcOaQgAACAAJ |access-date=27 September 2020 |archive-date=4 December 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211204024424/https://books.google.com/books?id=GcOaQgAACAAJ |url-status=live}}</ref> Females are generally 10–20% smaller than males.<ref name="Bearalmanac">{{cite book |author=Brown, G. |title=Great Bear Almanac |year=1996 |page=340 |publisher=[[The Lyons Press]] |isbn=1-55821-474-7 |url=https://archive.org/details/greatbearalmanac00gary |url-access=registration}}</ref> They weigh between {{cvt|70|kg}} and {{cvt|125|kg}}.<ref>{{cite journal |url=http://www.science.smith.edu/msi/pdf/i0076-3519-110-01-0001.pdf |journal=Mammalian Species |issue=110 |pages=1–6 |title=''Ailuropoda melanoleuca'' |author1=Chorn, J. |author2=Hoffmann, R. S. |date=1978 |doi=10.2307/3503982 |jstor=3503982 |access-date=5 February 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150924121859/http://www.science.smith.edu/msi/pdf/i0076-3519-110-01-0001.pdf |archive-date=24 September 2015}}</ref><ref name=wwf1>{{cite web |url=http://panda.org/about_wwf/what_we_do/species/our_solutions/endangered_species/giant_panda/index.cfm |title=Global Species Programme&nbsp;– Giant panda |publisher=World Wildlife Fund |date=2007 |access-date=22 July 2008 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080704204350/http://www.panda.org/about_wwf/what_we_do/species/our_solutions/endangered_species/giant_panda/index.cfm |archive-date=4 July 2008}}</ref> The average weight for adults is {{cvt|100|to|115|kg}}.<ref>{{cite web |website=Animal Fact Guide |url=http://www.animalfactguide.com/animalfacts/giant-panda/ |title=Giant panda ''Ailuropoda melanoleuca'' |year=2011 |access-date=19 September 2011 |archive-date=14 September 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110914163019/http://www.animalfactguide.com/animalfacts/giant-panda/ |url-status=live}}</ref>
-The giant panda's [[paw]] has [[Sesamoid bone#Other animals|a digit similar to a thumb and five fingers]]; the thumb-like digit – actually a modified [[sesamoid bone]] – helps it to hold bamboo while eating.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Abella |first1=J. |last2=Pérez-Ramos |first2=A. |last3=Valenciano |first3=A. |last4=Alba |first4=D. M. |last5=Ercoli |first5=Marcos D. |last6=Hontecillas |first6=Daniel |last7=Montoya |first7=P. |last8=Morales |first8=J. |date=2015 |title=Tracing the origin of the panda's thumb |journal=The Science of Nature |volume=102 |issue=5 |pages=35 |doi=10.1007/s00114-015-1286-3 |pmid=26036823 |bibcode=2015SciNa.102...35A |hdl=11336/41623 |hdl-access=free}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Wang |first1=X. |last2=Su |first2=D. F. |last3=Jablonski |first3=N. G. |last4=Ji |first4=X. |last5=Kelley |first5=J. |last6=Flynn |first6=L. J. |last7=Deng |first7=T. |date=2022 |title=Earliest giant panda false thumb suggests conflicting demands for locomotion and feeding |journal=Scientific Reports |volume=12 |issue=1 |pages=10538 |doi=10.1038/s41598-022-13402-y |pmid=35773284 |pmc=9246853 |bibcode=2022NatSR..1210538W}}</ref> The giant panda's tail, measuring {{cvt|10|to|15|cm}}, is the second-longest in the bear family, behind the [[sloth bear]].<ref name=Bearalmanac/>
+The giant panda's [[paw]] has [[Sesamoid bone#Other animals|a digit similar to a thumb and five fingers]]; the thumb-like digit is actually a modified [[sesamoid bone]] that helps it to hold bamboo while eating.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Abella |first1=J. |last2=Pérez-Ramos |first2=A. |last3=Valenciano |first3=A. |last4=Alba |first4=D. M. |last5=Ercoli |first5=Marcos D. |last6=Hontecillas |first6=Daniel |last7=Montoya |first7=P. |last8=Morales |first8=J. |date=2015 |title=Tracing the origin of the panda's thumb |journal=The Science of Nature |volume=102 |issue=5 |page=35 |doi=10.1007/s00114-015-1286-3 |pmid=26036823 |bibcode=2015SciNa.102...35A |hdl=11336/41623 |hdl-access=free}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Wang |first1=X. |last2=Su |first2=D. F. |last3=Jablonski |first3=N. G. |last4=Ji |first4=X. |last5=Kelley |first5=J. |last6=Flynn |first6=L. J. |last7=Deng |first7=T. |date=2022 |title=Earliest giant panda false thumb suggests conflicting demands for locomotion and feeding |journal=Scientific Reports |volume=12 |issue=1 |page=10538 |doi=10.1038/s41598-022-13402-y |pmid=35773284 |pmc=9246853 |bibcode=2022NatSR..1210538W}}</ref> The evolution of the panda's pseudo-thumb may have occurred because the first digit of its forepaws, equivalent to the thumb in primates, is not opposable and is aligned with the rest of the digits.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Antón |first=M. |last2=Salesa |first2=M. J. |last3=Pastor |first3=J. F. |last4=Peigné |first4=S. |last5=Morales |first5=J. |date=2006 |title=Implications of the functional anatomy of the hand and forearm of Ailurus fulgens (Carnivora, Ailuridae) for the evolution of the ‘false-thumb’ in pandas |url=https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC2049003/ |journal=Journal of Anatomy |language=en |volume=209 |issue=6 |pages=757–764 |doi=10.1111/j.1469-7580.2006.00649.x |issn=1469-7580 |pmc=2049003 |pmid=17118063}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Gould |first=S. J. |url=https://books.google.com.ec/books?id=z0XY7Rg_lOwC&lpg=PA11&dq=info:nWlPIntGqVsJ:scholar.google.com/&lr&hl=es&pg=PA24#v=onepage&q&f=false |title=The panda's thumb: More reflections in natural history |date=1980 |publisher=W. W. Norton & Company |isbn=978-0-393-34083-9 |page=24 |language=en}}</ref> The giant panda's tail, measuring {{cvt|10|to|15|cm}}, is the second-longest in the bear family after the [[sloth bear]].<ref name=Bearalmanac/>
 ==Ecology==
 ===Diet===
-[[File:Giant Pandas having a snack.jpg|thumb|Pandas eating bamboo]]
+[[File:Giant Pandas having a snack.jpg|thumb|Giant pandas eating bamboo]]
 [[File:Pandas playing 640x480.ogv|thumb|Pandas eating, standing, and playing]]
-Despite its [[taxonomy (biology)|taxonomic]] classification as a [[carnivora]]n, the giant panda's [[diet (nutrition)|diet]] is primarily [[herbivory|herbivorous]], with approximately 99% of its diet consisting of bamboo.<ref name="Britannica Earth">{{cite book|title=Earth's Changing Environment |series=Learn & Explore |publisher=Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc |year=2010 |isbn=978-1-61535-339-2 |page=[https://archive.org/details/earthschangingen0000comp/page/49 49] |url=https://archive.org/details/earthschangingen0000comp |url-access=registration}}</ref> However, the giant panda still has the digestive system of a carnivore, as well as carnivore-specific genes,<ref name=nature08696>{{Cite journal |last1=Li |first1=R. |last2=Fan |first2=W. |last3=Tian |first3=G. |last4=Zhu |first4=H. |last5=He |first5=L. |last6=Cai |first6=J. |last7=Huang |first7=Q. |last8=Cai |first8=Q. |last9=Li |first9=B. |last10=Bai |first10=Y. |last11=Zhang |first11=Z. |last12=Zhang |first12=Y. |last13= Wang |first13=W. |last14=Li |first14=J. |last15=Wei |first15=F. |last16=Li |first16 =H. |last17=Jian |first17=M. |last18=Li |first18=J. |last19=Zhang |first19=Z. |last20=Nielsen |first20=R. |last21=Li |first21=D. |last22=Gu |first22=W. |last23=Yang |first23 =Z. |last24=Xuan |first24=Z. |last25=Ryder |first25=O. A. |last26=Leung |first26=F. C. C. |last27=Zhou |last29=Sun |first29=X. |last30=Fu |first30=Y. |last28=Cao |first28 =J. |display-authors=1 |title=The sequence and de novo assembly of the giant panda genome |journal=Nature |volume=463 |issue=21 |pages=311–317 |year=2010 |pmid=20010809 |pmc=3951497 |doi=10.1038/nature08696 |doi-access=free |bibcode=2010Natur.463..311L}}</ref> and thus derives little energy and little protein from the consumption of bamboo. The ability to break down cellulose and [[lignin]] is very weak, and their main source of nutrients comes from starch and [[hemicellulose]]s. The most important part of their bamboo diet is the shoots, that are rich in starch and have up to 32% protein content. Accordingly, pandas have evolved a higher capability to digest starches than strict carnivores.<ref>{{cite journal |year=2018 |doi=10.1038/s41396-018-0051-y |title=Age-associated microbiome shows the giant panda lives on hemicelluloses, not on cellulose |last1=Zhang |first1=W. |last2=Liu |first2=W. |last3=Hou |first3=R. |last4=Zhang |first4=L. |last5=Schmitz-Esser |first5=S. |last6=Sun |first6=H. |last7=Xie |first7=J. |last8=Zhang |first8=Y. |last9=Wang |first9=C. |last10=Li |first10=L. |last11=Yue |first11=B. |last12=Huang |first12=H. |last13=Wang |first13=H. |last14=Shen |first14=F. |last15=Zhang |first15=Z. |journal=The ISME Journal |volume=12 |issue=5 |pages=1319–1328 |pmid=29391488 |pmc=5931968|bibcode=2018ISMEJ..12.1319Z}}</ref> Raw bamboo is toxic, containing cyanide compounds. Pandas' body tissues are less able than herbivores to detoxify cyanide, but their gut [[microbiome]]s are significantly enriched in putative genes coding for enzymes related to cyanide degradation, suggesting that they have cyanide-digesting gut microbes.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Zhu |first1=L. |last2=Yang |first2=Z. |last3=Yao |first3=Ran |last4=Xu |first4=L. |last5=Chen |first5=H. |last6=Gu |first6=X. |last7=Wu |first7=T. |last8=Yang |first8=X. |title=Potential mechanism of detoxification of cyanide compounds by gut microbiomes of bamboo-eating Pandas |journal=mSphere |volume=3 |issue=3 |date=2018 |pmid=29898983 |pmc=6001608 |doi=10.1128/mSphere.00229-18}}</ref> It has been estimated that an adult panda absorbs {{cvt|54.8|–|66.1|mg}} of [[cyanide]] a day through its diet. To prevent poisoning, they have evolved anti-toxic mechanisms to protect themselves. About 80% of the cyanide is metabolized to less toxic thiocyanate and discharged in urine, while the remaining 20% is detoxified by other minor pathways.<ref>{{cite journal |doi=10.1038/srep34700 |title=Dietary resources shape the adaptive changes of cyanide detoxification function in giant panda (''Ailuropoda melanoleuca'') |year=2016 |last1=Huang |first1=H. |last2=Yie |first2=S. |last3=Liu |first3=Y. |last4=Wang |first4=C. |last5=Cai |first5=Z. |last6=Zhang |first6=W. |last7=Lan |first7=J. |last8=Huang |first8=X. |last9=Luo |first9=L. |last10=Cai |first10=Ka. |last11=Hou |first11=R. |last12=Zhang |first12=Z. |journal=Scientific Reports |volume=6 |page=34700 |pmid=27703267 |pmc=5050549 |bibcode=2016NatSR...634700H}}</ref>
+Despite its [[taxonomy (biology)|taxonomic]] classification as a [[carnivora]]n, the giant panda's [[diet (nutrition)|diet]] is primarily [[herbivory|herbivorous]], with approximately 99% of its diet consisting of bamboo.<ref name="Britannica Earth">{{cite book|title=Earth's Changing Environment |series=Learn & Explore |publisher=Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc |year=2010 |isbn=978-1-61535-339-2 |page=[https://archive.org/details/earthschangingen0000comp/page/49 49] |url=https://archive.org/details/earthschangingen0000comp |url-access=registration}}</ref> However, the giant panda still has the digestive system of a carnivore, as well as carnivore-specific genes,<ref name=nature08696>{{Cite journal |last1=Li |first1=R. |last2=Fan |first2=W. |last3=Tian |first3=G. |last4=Zhu |first4=H. |last5=He |first5=L. |last6=Cai |first6=J. |last7=Huang |first7=Q. |last8=Cai |first8=Q. |last9=Li |first9=B. |last10=Bai |first10=Y. |last11=Zhang |first11=Z. |last12=Zhang |first12=Y. |last13= Wang |first13=W. |last14=Li |first14=J. |last15=Wei |first15=F. |last16=Li |first16 =H. |last17=Jian |first17=M. |last18=Li |first18=J. |last19=Zhang |first19=Z. |last20=Nielsen |first20=R. |last21=Li |first21=D. |last22=Gu |first22=W. |last23=Yang |first23 =Z. |last24=Xuan |first24=Z. |last25=Ryder |first25=O. A. |last26=Leung |first26=F. C. C. |last27=Zhou |last29=Sun |first29=X. |last30=Fu |first30=Y. |last28=Cao |first28=J. |display-authors=1 |title=The sequence and de novo assembly of the giant panda genome |journal=Nature |volume=463 |issue=21 |pages=311–317 |year=2010 |pmid=20010809 |pmc=3951497 |doi=10.1038/nature08696 |doi-access=free |bibcode=2010Natur.463..311L}}</ref> and thus derives little energy and little protein from the consumption of bamboo. The ability to break down cellulose and [[lignin]] is very weak, and their main source of nutrients comes from starch and [[hemicellulose]]s. The most important part of their bamboo diet is the shoots, that are rich in starch and have up to 32% protein content. Accordingly, pandas have evolved a higher capability to digest starches than strict carnivores.<ref>{{cite journal |year=2018 |doi=10.1038/s41396-018-0051-y |title=Age-associated microbiome shows the giant panda lives on hemicelluloses, not on cellulose |last1=Zhang |first1=W. |last2=Liu |first2=W. |last3=Hou |first3=R. |last4=Zhang |first4=L. |last5=Schmitz-Esser |first5=S. |last6=Sun |first6=H. |last7=Xie |first7=J. |last8=Zhang |first8=Y. |last9=Wang |first9=C. |last10=Li |first10=L. |last11=Yue |first11=B. |last12=Huang |first12=H. |last13=Wang |first13=H. |last14=Shen |first14=F. |last15=Zhang |first15=Z. |journal=The ISME Journal |volume=12 |issue=5 |pages=1319–1328 |pmid=29391488 |pmc=5931968|bibcode=2018ISMEJ..12.1319Z}}</ref> Raw bamboo is toxic, containing cyanide compounds. Pandas' body tissues are less able than herbivores to detoxify cyanide, but their gut [[microbiome]]s are significantly enriched in putative genes coding for enzymes related to cyanide degradation, suggesting that they have cyanide-digesting gut microbes.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Zhu |first1=L. |last2=Yang |first2=Z. |last3=Yao |first3=Ran |last4=Xu |first4=L. |last5=Chen |first5=H. |last6=Gu |first6=X. |last7=Wu |first7=T. |last8=Yang |first8=X. |title=Potential mechanism of detoxification of cyanide compounds by gut microbiomes of bamboo-eating Pandas |journal=mSphere |volume=3 |issue=3 |date=2018 |article-number=e00229-18 |pmid=29898983 |pmc=6001608 |doi=10.1128/mSphere.00229-18}}</ref> It has been estimated that an adult panda absorbs {{cvt|54.8|–|66.1|mg}} of [[cyanide]] a day through its diet. To prevent poisoning, they have evolved anti-toxic mechanisms to protect themselves. About 80% of the cyanide is metabolized to less toxic thiocyanate and discharged in urine, while the remaining 20% is detoxified by other minor pathways.<ref>{{cite journal |doi=10.1038/srep34700 |title=Dietary resources shape the adaptive changes of cyanide detoxification function in giant panda (''Ailuropoda melanoleuca'') |year=2016 |last1=Huang |first1=H. |last2=Yie |first2=S. |last3=Liu |first3=Y. |last4=Wang |first4=C. |last5=Cai |first5=Z. |last6=Zhang |first6=W. |last7=Lan |first7=J. |last8=Huang |first8=X. |last9=Luo |first9=L. |last10=Cai |first10=Ka. |last11=Hou |first11=R. |last12=Zhang |first12=Z. |journal=Scientific Reports |volume=6 |article-number=34700 |pmid=27703267 |pmc=5050549 |bibcode=2016NatSR...634700H}}</ref>
+[[File:Giant Panda Eating.jpg|thumb|A giant panda feeding on bamboo]]
+During the shoot season from April to August, the giant panda stores a large amount of food in preparation for the months succeeding this seasonal period, in which it lives off a diet of bamboo leaves.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Huang |first1=Guangping |last2=Wang |first2=Le |last3=Li |first3=Jian |last4=Hou |first4=Rong |last5=Wang |first5=Meng |last6=Wang |first6=Zhilin |last7=Qu |first7=Qingyue |last8=Zhou |first8=Wenliang |last9=Nie |first9=Yonggang |last10=Hu |first10=Yibo |last11=Ma |first11=Yingjie |last12=Yan |first12=Li |last13=Wei |first13=Hong |last14=Wei |first14=Fuwen |date=2022 |title=Seasonal shift of the gut microbiome synchronizes host peripheral circadian rhythm for physiological adaptation to a low-fat diet in the giant panda |journal=Cell Reports |volume=38 |issue=3 |article-number=110203 |doi=10.1016/j.celrep.2021.110203 |pmid=35045306 |doi-access=free}}</ref>
+The average giant panda eats {{cvt|9|to|14|kg}} of bamboo shoots per day to compensate for the limited energy content of its diet. Ingestion of such a large quantity of material is possible and necessary because of the rapid passage of large amounts of indigestible plant material through the short, straight digestive tract.<ref name=":0">{{Cite journal |last1=Zeng |first1=Ying |last2=Han |first2=Han |last3=Gong |first3=Yihua |last4=Qubi |first4=Shibu |last5=Chen |first5=Minghua |last6=Qiu |first6=Lan |last7=Huang |first7=Youyou |last8=Zhou |first8=Hong |last9=Wei |first9=Wei |date=2023-04-01 |title=Feeding habits and foraging patch selection strategy of the giant panda in the Meigu Dafengding National Nature Reserve, Sichuan Province, China |journal=Environmental Science and Pollution Research |volume=30 |issue=17 |pages=49125–49135 |doi=10.1007/s11356-023-25769-0 |pmid=36773257 |bibcode=2023ESPR...3049125Z}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Finley |first1=T. G.|last2=Sikes |first2=R. S.|last3=Parsons |first3=J. L. |last4=Rude |first4=B. J. |last5=Bissell |first5=H. A. |last6=Ouellette |first6=J. R. |title=Energy digestibility of giant pandas on bamboo-only and on supplemented diet |journal=Zoo Biology |date=2011 |volume=30 |issue=2 |pages=121–133 |doi=10.1002/zoo.20340 |pmid=20814990}}</ref> Such rapid passage of digesta limits the potential of microbial digestion in the gastrointestinal tract,<ref name=":0" /> limiting alternative forms of digestion. Given this voluminous diet, the giant panda defecates up to 40 times a day.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Jin |first1=Lei |last2=Huang |first2=Yan |last3=Yang |first3=Shengzhi |last4=Wu |first4=Daifu |last5=Li |first5=Caiwu |last6=Deng |first6=Wenwen |last7=Zhao |first7=Ke |last8=He |first8=Yongguo |last9=Li |first9=Bei |last10=Zhang |first10=Guiquan |last11=Xiong |first11=Yaowu |last12=Wei |first12=Rongping |last13=Li |first13=Guo |last14=Wu |first14=Hongning |last15=Zhang |first15=Hemin |date=2021 |title=Diet, habitat environment and lifestyle conversion affect the gut microbiomes of giant pandas |journal=Science of the Total Environment |volume=770 |article-number=145316 |doi=10.1016/j.scitotenv.2021.145316 |pmid=33517011 |bibcode=2021ScTEn.77045316J}}</ref>
-During the shoot season (April{{endash}}August), pandas store a large amount of food in preparation for the months succeeding this seasonal period, in which pandas live off a diet of bamboo leaves.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Huang |first1=Guangping |last2=Wang |first2=Le |last3=Li |first3=Jian |last4=Hou |first4=Rong |last5=Wang |first5=Meng |last6=Wang |first6=Zhilin |last7=Qu |first7=Qingyue |last8=Zhou |first8=Wenliang |last9=Nie |first9=Yonggang |last10=Hu |first10=Yibo |last11=Ma |first11=Yingjie |last12=Yan |first12=Li |last13=Wei |first13=Hong |last14=Wei |first14=Fuwen |date=January 2022 |title=Seasonal shift of the gut microbiome synchronizes host peripheral circadian rhythm for physiological adaptation to a low-fat diet in the giant panda |journal=Cell Reports |volume=38 |issue=3 |pages=110203 |doi=10.1016/j.celrep.2021.110203 |pmid=35045306 |issn=2211-1247|doi-access=free }}</ref> The giant panda is a highly specialised animal with unique adaptations, and has lived in bamboo forests for millions of years.<ref name=si>{{cite web |title=Giant Panda Facts |url=http://nationalzoo.si.edu/animals/giantpandas/pandafacts/default.cfm |publisher=National Zoological Park |access-date=8 June 2012 |archive-date=23 June 2012 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120623163015/http://nationalzoo.si.edu/Animals/GiantPandas/PandaFacts/default.cfm}}</ref>
+The limited energy input imposed on it by its diet has affected the giant panda's behaviour. It tends to limit its social interactions and avoids steeply sloping terrain to limit its energy expenditures.<ref name=Johnson>{{Cite news|last1=Ciochon |first1=R. L. |author-link=Russell Ciochon |last2=Eaves-Johnson |first2=K. L. |date=2007 |title=Bamboozled! The Curious Natural History of the Giant Panda Family |url=http://scitizen.com/screens/blogPage/viewBlog/sw_viewBlog.php?idTheme=27&idContribution=855 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070721092645/http://www.scitizen.com/screens/blogPage/viewBlog/sw_viewBlog.php?idTheme=27&idContribution=855 |archive-date=21 July 2007 |access-date=22 July 2008 |periodical=Scitizen}}</ref> Their field metabolic rate, the amount of energy used by an animal in its daily life, is one of the lowest reported among mammals, comparable to that of sloths.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Pauli |first=J. N. |last2=Peery |first2=M. Z. |last3=Fountain |first3=E. D. |last4=Karasov |first4=W. H. |date=2016 |title=Arboreal Folivores Limit Their Energetic Output, All the Way to Slothfulness |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/303532258_Arboreal_Folivores_Limit_Their_Energetic_Output_All_the_Way_to_Slothfulness |journal=The American Naturalist |volume=188 |issue=2 |pages=196–204 |doi=10.1086/687032 |issn=0003-0147}}</ref>
-The average giant panda eats as much as {{cvt|9|to|14|kg}} of bamboo shoots a day to compensate for the limited energy content of its diet. Ingestion of such a large quantity of material is possible and necessary because of the rapid passage of large amounts of indigestible plant material through the short, straight digestive tract.<ref name=":0">{{Cite journal |last1=Zeng |first1=Ying |last2=Han |first2=Han |last3=Gong |first3=Yihua |last4=Qubi |first4=Shibu |last5=Chen |first5=Minghua |last6=Qiu |first6=Lan |last7=Huang |first7=Youyou |last8=Zhou |first8=Hong |last9=Wei |first9=Wei |date=2023-04-01 |title=Feeding habits and foraging patch selection strategy of the giant panda in the Meigu Dafengding National Nature Reserve, Sichuan Province, China |url=https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-023-25769-0 |journal=Environmental Science and Pollution Research |language=en |volume=30 |issue=17 |pages=49125–49135 |doi=10.1007/s11356-023-25769-0 |pmid=36773257 |bibcode=2023ESPR...3049125Z |issn=1614-7499|url-access=subscription }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Finley |first1=T. G.|last2=Sikes |first2=Robert S.|last3=Parsons |first3=Jennifer L. |last4=Rude |first4=Brian J. |last5=Bissell |first5=Heidi A. |last6=Ouellette |first6=John R. |title=Energy digestibility of giant pandas on bamboo-only and on supplemented diet |journal=Zoo Biology |date=2011 |volume=30 |issue=2 |pages=121–133 |doi=10.1002/zoo.20340 |pmid=20814990}}</ref> It is also noted, however, that such rapid passage of digesta limits the potential of microbial digestion in the gastrointestinal tract,<ref name=":0" /> limiting alternative forms of digestion. Given this voluminous diet, the giant panda defecates up to 40 times a day.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Jin |first1=Lei |last2=Huang |first2=Yan |last3=Yang |first3=Shengzhi |last4=Wu |first4=Daifu |last5=Li |first5=Caiwu |last6=Deng |first6=Wenwen |last7=Zhao |first7=Ke |last8=He |first8=Yongguo |last9=Li |first9=Bei |last10=Zhang |first10=Guiquan |last11=Xiong |first11=Yaowu |last12=Wei |first12=Rongping |last13=Li |first13=Guo |last14=Wu |first14=Hongning |last15=Zhang |first15=Hemin |date=2021-05-20 |title=Diet, habitat environment and lifestyle conversion affect the gut microbiomes of giant pandas |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0048969721003831 |journal=Science of the Total Environment |volume=770 |pages=145316 |doi=10.1016/j.scitotenv.2021.145316 |pmid=33517011 |bibcode=2021ScTEn.77045316J |issn=0048-9697|url-access=subscription }}</ref> The limited energy input imposed on it by its diet has affected the panda's behavior. The giant panda tends to limit its social interactions and avoids steeply sloping terrain to limit its energy expenditures.<ref name=Johnson>{{Cite news|last1=Ciochon |first1=R. L. |author-link=Russell Ciochon |last2=Eaves-Johnson |first2=K. L. |date=2007 |title=Bamboozled! The Curious Natural History of the Giant Panda Family |url=http://scitizen.com/screens/blogPage/viewBlog/sw_viewBlog.php?idTheme=27&idContribution=855 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070721092645/http://www.scitizen.com/screens/blogPage/viewBlog/sw_viewBlog.php?idTheme=27&idContribution=855 |archive-date=21 July 2007 |access-date=22 July 2008 |periodical=Scitizen}}</ref>
 Two of the panda's most distinctive features, its large size and round face, are [[adaptation]]s to its bamboo diet. Anthropologist [[Russell Ciochon]] observed: "[much] like the vegetarian gorilla, the low body surface area to body volume [of the giant panda] is indicative of a lower metabolic rate. This lower metabolic rate and a more sedentary lifestyle allows the giant panda to subsist on nutrient poor resources such as bamboo."<ref name = Johnson/> The giant panda's round face is the result of powerful jaw muscles, which attach from the top of the head to the jaw.<ref name = Johnson/> Large molars crush and grind fibrous plant material.<ref name="ng.2494">{{cite journal |vauthors=Zhao S, Zheng P, Dong S, Zhan X, Wu Q, Guo X, Hu Y, He W, Zhang S, Fan W, Zhu L, Li D, Zhang X, Chen Q, Zhang H, Zhang Z, Jin X, Zhang J, Yang H, Wang J, Wang J, Wei F |date=January 2013 |title=Whole-genome sequencing of giant pandas provides insights into demographic history and local adaptation |journal=Nature Genetics |volume=45 |issue=1 |pages=67–71 |doi=10.1038/ng.2494 |pmid=23242367 |s2cid=1261505}}</ref>
-[[File:Giant Panda Eating.jpg|thumb|A panda feeding on bamboo]]
+The enzyme [[Alanine—glyoxylate transaminase]] is also expressed in the [[peroxisome]] of giant panda cells instead of only in the [[Mitochondrion|mitochondria]] like carnivorous mammals, which would enable [[Glyoxylic acid|glyoxylate]] to be metabolised from [[Glycolic acid|glycolate]] in plant matter.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Birdsey |first=G. M. |date=2004 |title=Differential enzyme targeting as an evolutionary adaptation to herbivory in Carnivora |journal=Molecular Biology and Evolution |volume=21 |issue=4 |pages=632–646 |doi=10.1093/molbev/msh054}}</ref> Proteins make up 50% of the macronutrients absorbed, similar to proportion of carnivorous mammals at 52–54%; the nutritional contribution of protein from bamboo is 61% when only the leaves and shoots are considered, and 48% when the digestible parts of cellulose and hemicellulose are included. This indicates that the transition to herbivory was not as extreme in this species as it might appear.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Nie |first=Y. |last2=Wei |first2=F. |last3=Zhou |first3=W. |last4=Hu |first4=Y. |last5=Senior |first5=A. M. |last6=Wu |first6=Q. |last7=Yan |first7=L. |last8=Raubenheimer |first8=D. |date=2019 |title=Giant Pandas Are Macronutritional Carnivores |journal=Current Biology |volume=29 |issue=10 |pages=1677–1682.e2 |doi=10.1016/j.cub.2019.03.067 |pmid=31056385}}</ref>
-The morphological characteristics of extinct relatives of the giant panda suggest that while the ancient giant panda was omnivorous 7 million years ago (mya), it only became herbivorous some 2–2.4 mya with the emergence of ''[[Ailuropoda microta|A. microta]]''.<ref name="ng.2494"/><ref name="ReferenceB">{{cite journal |last1=Jin |first1=C. |last2=Ciochon |first2=R. L. |last3=Dong |first3=W. |last4=Hunt Jr |first4=R. M. |last5=Liu |first5=J. |last6=Jaeger |first6=M. |last7=Zhu |first7=Q. |title=The first skull of the earliest giant panda |journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America |date=2007 |volume=104 |issue=26 |pages=10932–10937 |pmid=17578912 |doi=10.1073/pnas.0704198104 |pmc=1904166 |bibcode=2007PNAS..10410932J |doi-access=free}}</ref> Genome sequencing of the giant panda suggests that the dietary switch could have initiated from the loss of the sole [[umami]] taste receptor, encoded by the genes [[TAS1R1]] and [[TAS1R3]] (also known as T1R1 and T1R3), resulting from two [[frameshift mutation]]s within the T1R1 exons.<ref name=nature08696/> Umami taste corresponds to high levels of [[glutamate]] as found in meat and may have thus altered the food choice of the giant panda.<ref name="pone.0022602">{{cite journal |last1=Jin |first1=K. |last2=Xue |first2=C. |last3=Wu |first3=X. |last4=Qian |first4=J. |last5=Zhu |first5=Y. |last6=Yang |first6=Z. |last7=Yonezawa |first7=T. |last8=Crabbe |first8=M. J. C. |last9=Cao |first9=Y. |last10=Hasegawa |first10=M. |last11=Zhong |first11=Y. |last12=Zheng |first12=Y. |title=Why does the giant panda eat bamboo? A comparative analysis of appetite-reward-related genes among mammals|journal=PLOS ONE |date=2011 |volume=6 |issue=7 |page=22602 |bibcode=2011PLoSO...622602J |doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0022602 |pmid=21818345 |pmc=3144909 |doi-access=free}}</ref> Although the pseudogenisation (conversion into a [[pseudogene]]) of the umami taste receptor in ''Ailuropoda'' coincides with the dietary switch to herbivory, it is likely a result of, and not the reason for, the dietary change.<ref name="ng.2494"/><ref name=nature08696/><ref name="pone.0022602"/> The mutation time for the T1R1 gene in the giant panda is estimated to 4.2 mya<ref name="ng.2494"/> while fossil evidence indicates bamboo consumption in the giant panda species at least 7 mya,<ref name="ReferenceB"/> signifying that although complete herbivory occurred around 2 mya, the dietary switch was initiated prior to T1R1 loss-of-function.<ref name=chinaflora/>
-Pandas eat any of 25 bamboo species in the wild, with the most common including ''[[Fargesia dracocephala]]''<ref name=chinaflora>{{Cite book |last1=Li| first1=D.-Z. |last2=Guo |first2=Z. |last3=Stapleton |first3=C. |contribution=Fargesia dracocephala |year=2007| title=Flora of China |editor-last=Wu |editor-first=Z. Y. |editor2=Raven, P.H. |editor3=Hong, D.Y. |volume=22 |page=93 |place=Beijing |publisher=Science Press; St. Louis: Missouri Botanical Garden Press |contribution-url=http://www.efloras.org/florataxon.aspx?flora_id=2&taxon_id=200025413| access-date=7 November 2007 |archive-date=9 January 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120109002236/http://efloras.org/florataxon.aspx?flora_id=2&taxon_id=200025413|url-status=live}}</ref> and ''[[Fargesia rufa]]''.<ref name=chinaflora2>{{Cite book |last1=Li| first1=D.-Z. |last2=Guo |first2=Z. |last3=Stapleton |first3=C. |contribution=Fargesia rufa |year=2007|title=Flora of China|editor-last=Wu |editor-first=Z. Y. |editor2=Raven, P.H. |editor3=Hong, D.Y. |volume=22 |page=81|place=Beijing |publisher=Science Press; St. Louis: Missouri Botanical Garden Press |contribution-url=http://www.efloras.org/florataxon.aspx?flora_id=2&taxon_id=200025444| access-date =7 November 2007| archive-date =10 November 2016| archive-url =https://web.archive.org/web/20161110092337/http://www.efloras.org/florataxon.aspx?flora_id=2&taxon_id=200025444| url-status =live}}</ref> Only a few bamboo species are widespread at the high altitudes pandas now inhabit. Bamboo leaves contain the highest protein levels; stems have less.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://lrrd.cipav.org.co/lrrd4/2/dolberg.htm|title=Progress in the utilization of urea-ammonia treated crop residues: biological and socio-economic aspects of animal production and application of the technology on small farms |last=Dolberg |first=F. |date=1992 |publisher=University of Arhus|access-date=10 August 2010|archive-date=7 July 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110707053325/http://lrrd.cipav.org.co/lrrd4/2/dolberg.htm|url-status=live}}</ref> Because of the synchronous flowering, death, and regeneration of all bamboo within a species, the giant panda must have at least two different species available in its range to avoid starvation. While primarily herbivorous, the giant panda still retains decidedly ursine teeth and will eat meat, fish, and eggs when available. In captivity, zoos typically maintain the giant panda's bamboo diet, though some will provide specially formulated biscuits or other dietary supplements.<ref>{{harvnb|Lumpkin|Seidensticker|2007|pp=63–64}} (page numbers as per the 2002 edition)</ref>
+The morphological characteristics of extinct relatives of the giant panda suggest that while the ancient giant panda was omnivorous 7 million years ago (mya), it only became herbivorous some 2–2.4 mya with the emergence of ''[[Ailuropoda microta|A. microta]]''.<ref name="ng.2494"/><ref name="ReferenceB">{{cite journal |last1=Jin |first1=C. |last2=Ciochon |first2=R. L. |last3=Dong |first3=W. |last4=Hunt Jr |first4=R. M. |last5=Liu |first5=J. |last6=Jaeger |first6=M. |last7=Zhu |first7=Q. |title=The first skull of the earliest giant panda |journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America |date=2007 |volume=104 |issue=26 |pages=10932–10937 |pmid=17578912 |doi=10.1073/pnas.0704198104 |pmc=1904166 |bibcode=2007PNAS..10410932J |doi-access=free}}</ref> Genome sequencing of the giant panda suggests that the dietary switch could have initiated from the loss of the sole [[umami]] taste receptor, encoded by the genes [[TAS1R1]] and [[TAS1R3]] (also known as T1R1 and T1R3), resulting from two [[frameshift mutation]]s within the T1R1 exons.<ref name=nature08696/> Umami taste corresponds to high levels of [[glutamate]] as found in meat and may have thus altered the food choice of the giant panda.<ref name="pone.0022602">{{cite journal |last1=Jin |first1=K. |last2=Xue |first2=C. |last3=Wu |first3=X. |last4=Qian |first4=J. |last5=Zhu |first5=Y. |last6=Yang |first6=Z. |last7=Yonezawa |first7=T. |last8=Crabbe |first8=M. J. C. |last9=Cao |first9=Y. |last10=Hasegawa |first10=M. |last11=Zhong |first11=Y. |last12=Zheng |first12=Y. |title=Why does the giant panda eat bamboo? A comparative analysis of appetite-reward-related genes among mammals|journal=PLOS ONE |date=2011 |volume=6 |issue=7 |article-number=22602 |bibcode=2011PLoSO...622602J |doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0022602 |pmid=21818345 |pmc=3144909 |doi-access=free}}</ref> Although the pseudogenisation (conversion into a [[pseudogene]]) of the umami taste receptor in ''Ailuropoda'' coincides with the dietary switch to herbivory, it is likely a result of, and not the reason for, the dietary change.<ref name="ng.2494"/><ref name=nature08696/><ref name="pone.0022602"/> The mutation time for the T1R1 gene in the giant panda is estimated to 4.2 mya<ref name="ng.2494"/> while fossil evidence indicates bamboo consumption in the giant panda species at least 7 mya,<ref name="ReferenceB"/> signifying that although complete herbivory occurred around 2 mya, the dietary switch was initiated prior to T1R1 loss-of-function.<ref name=chinaflora/>
-Pandas will travel between different habitats if they need to, so they can get the nutrients that they need and to balance their diet for reproduction.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Ma |first1=Ying-Jie |last2=Wang |first2=Meng |last3=Hu |first3=Xiao-Yu |last4=Gu |first4=Xiao-Dong |last5=Li |first5=Yu-Mei |last6=Wei |first6=Fu-Wen |last7=Nie |first7=Yong-Gang |date=2023 |title=Identifying priority protection areas of key food resources of the giant panda |url=https://www.zoores.ac.cn/en/article/doi/10.24272/j.issn.2095-8137.2022.526.pdf |journal=Zoological Research |language=en |volume=44 |issue=5 |pages=860–866 |doi=10.24272/j.issn.2095-8137.2022.526 |issn=2095-8137 |pmc=10559099 |pmid=37537140}}</ref>
+Giant pandas eat any of 25 bamboo species in the wild, with the most common including ''[[Fargesia dracocephala]]''<ref name=chinaflora>{{Cite book |last1=Li| first1=D.-Z. |last2=Guo |first2=Z. |last3=Stapleton |first3=C. |contribution=Fargesia dracocephala |year=2007| title=Flora of China |editor-last=Wu |editor-first=Z. Y. |editor2=Raven, P.H. |editor3=Hong, D.Y. |volume=22 |page=93 |place=Beijing |publisher=Science Press; St. Louis: Missouri Botanical Garden Press |contribution-url=http://www.efloras.org/florataxon.aspx?flora_id=2&taxon_id=200025413| access-date=7 November 2007 |archive-date=9 January 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120109002236/http://efloras.org/florataxon.aspx?flora_id=2&taxon_id=200025413|url-status=live}}</ref> and ''[[Fargesia rufa]]''.<ref name=chinaflora2>{{Cite book |last1=Li| first1=D.-Z. |last2=Guo |first2=Z. |last3=Stapleton |first3=C. |contribution=Fargesia rufa |year=2007|title=Flora of China|editor-last=Wu |editor-first=Z. Y. |editor2=Raven, P.H. |editor3=Hong, D.Y. |volume=22 |page=81|place=Beijing |publisher=Science Press; St. Louis: Missouri Botanical Garden Press |contribution-url=http://www.efloras.org/florataxon.aspx?flora_id=2&taxon_id=200025444| access-date=7 November 2007| archive-date=10 November 2016 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161110092337/http://www.efloras.org/florataxon.aspx?flora_id=2&taxon_id=200025444| url-status=live}}</ref> Only a few bamboo species are widespread at the high altitudes pandas now inhabit. Bamboo leaves contain the highest protein levels; stems have less.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://lrrd.cipav.org.co/lrrd4/2/dolberg.htm|title=Progress in the utilization of urea-ammonia treated crop residues: biological and socio-economic aspects of animal production and application of the technology on small farms |last=Dolberg |first=F. |date=1992 |publisher=University of Arhus |access-date=10 August 2010|archive-date=7 July 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110707053325/http://lrrd.cipav.org.co/lrrd4/2/dolberg.htm|url-status=live}}</ref> Because of the synchronous flowering, death, and regeneration of all bamboo within a species, the giant panda must have at least two different species available in its range to avoid starvation. While primarily herbivorous, the giant panda still retains decidedly ursine teeth and will eat meat, fish, and eggs when available. In captivity, zoos typically maintain the giant panda's bamboo diet, though some will provide specially formulated biscuits or other dietary supplements.<ref>{{harvnb|Lumpkin|Seidensticker|2007|pp=63–64}} (page numbers as per the 2002 edition)</ref>
+Giant pandas will travel between different habitats if they need to, so they can get the nutrients that they need and to balance their diet for reproduction.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Ma |first1=Ying-Jie |last2=Wang |first2=Meng |last3=Hu |first3=Xiao-Yu |last4=Gu |first4=Xiao-Dong |last5=Li |first5=Yu-Mei |last6=Wei |first6=Fu-Wen |last7=Nie |first7=Yong-Gang |date=2023 |title=Identifying priority protection areas of key food resources of the giant panda |url=https://www.zoores.ac.cn/en/article/doi/10.24272/j.issn.2095-8137.2022.526.pdf |journal=Zoological Research |volume=44 |issue=5 |pages=860–866 |doi=10.24272/j.issn.2095-8137.2022.526 |pmc=10559099 |pmid=37537140}}</ref>
 ===Interspecific interactions===
+Although adult giant pandas have few natural predators other than humans, young cubs are vulnerable to attacks by [[snow leopard]]s, [[yellow-throated marten]]s,<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Li Sheng |last2=McShea |first2=W. J. |last3=Wang |first3=Dajun |last4=Gu |first4=Xiaodong |last5=Zhang |first5=Xiaofeng |last6=Zhang |first6=Li |last7=Shen |first7=Xiaoli |date=2020 |title=Retreat of large carnivores across the giant panda distribution range |url=https://www.nature.com/articles/s41559-020-1260-0 |journal=Nature Ecology & Evolution |volume=4 |issue=10 |pages=1327–1331 |doi=10.1038/s41559-020-1260-0 |pmid=32747773 |bibcode=2020NatEE...4.1327L |url-access=subscription}}</ref> eagles, feral dogs, and the [[Asian black bear]]. Sub-adults weighing up to {{cvt|50|kg}} may be vulnerable to predation by [[leopard]]s.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Lai |first1=Xin-Lei |last2=Zhou |first2=Wen-Liang |last3=Gao |first3=Hua-Lei |last4=Wang |first4=Meng |last5=Gao |first5=Kai |last6=Zhang |first6=Bao-Wei |last7=Wei |first7=Fu-Wen |last8=Nie |first8=Yong-Gang |date=2020 |title=Impact of sympatric carnivores on den selection of wild giant pandas |journal=Zoological Research |volume=41 |issue=3 |pages=273–280 |doi=10.24272/j.issn.2095-8137.2020.027 |pmc=7231472 |pmid=32279465}}</ref>
-Although adult giant pandas have few natural predators other than humans, young cubs are vulnerable to attacks by [[snow leopard]]s, [[yellow-throated marten]]s,<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Li |first1=Sheng |last2=McShea |first2=William J. |last3=Wang |first3=Dajun |last4=Gu |first4=Xiaodong |last5=Zhang |first5=Xiaofeng |last6=Zhang |first6=Li |last7=Shen |first7=Xiaoli |date=October 2020 |title=Retreat of large carnivores across the giant panda distribution range |url=https://www.nature.com/articles/s41559-020-1260-0 |journal=Nature Ecology & Evolution |language=en |volume=4 |issue=10 |pages=1327–1331 |doi=10.1038/s41559-020-1260-0 |pmid=32747773 |bibcode=2020NatEE...4.1327L |issn=2397-334X|url-access=subscription }}</ref> eagles, feral dogs, and the [[Asian black bear]]. Sub-adults weighing up to {{cvt|50|kg}} may be vulnerable to predation by [[Chinese leopard|leopard]]s.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Lai |first1=Xin-Lei |last2=Zhou |first2=Wen-Liang |last3=Gao |first3=Hua-Lei |last4=Wang |first4=Meng |last5=Gao |first5=Kai |last6=Zhang |first6=Bao-Wei |last7=Wei |first7=Fu-Wen |last8=Nie |first8=Yong-Gang |date=2020-05-18 |title=Impact of sympatric carnivores on den selection of wild giant pandas |journal=Zoological Research |volume=41 |issue=3 |pages=273–280 |doi=10.24272/j.issn.2095-8137.2020.027 |issn=2095-8137 |pmc=7231472 |pmid=32279465}}</ref>
+Giant pandas are [[Sympatry|sympatric]] with other large mammals and bamboo feeders, such as the [[takin]] (''Budorcas taxicolor''). The takin and giant panda share a similar [[ecological niche]], and they consume the same resources. When competition for food is fierce, pandas disperse to the outskirts of takin distribution. Other possible competitors include but is not limited to, the [[wild boar]] (''Sus scrofa''), [[Chinese goral]] (''Naemorhedus griseus'') and the [[Asian black bear]] (''Ursus thibetanus''). Giant pandas avoid areas with a mid-to-high density of livestock, as they depress the vegetation.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Wang |first1=Fang |last2=McShea |first2=W. J. |last3=Wang |first3=Dajun |last4=Li |first4=Sheng |date=2015 |title=Shared resources between giant panda and sympatric wild and domestic mammals |journal=Biological Conservation |volume=186 |pages=319–325 |doi=10.1016/j.biocon.2015.03.032 |bibcode=2015BCons.186..319W}}</ref> The [[Tibetan Plateau]] is the only known area where both giant and [[red panda]]s occur. Although sharing near-identical ecological niches, competition between the two species has rarely been observed. Nearly 50% of their respective distribution overlaps, and successful [[Coexistence theory|coexistence]] is achieved through distinct habitat selection.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Feng |first1=Bin |last2=Bai |first2=Wenke |last3=Fan |first3=Xueyang |last4=Fu |first4=Mingxia |last5=Song |first5=Xinqiang |last6=Liu |first6=Jingyi |last7=Qin |first7=Weirui |last8=Zhang |first8=Jindong |last9=Qi |first9=Dunwu |last10=Hou |first10=Rong |date=2023 |title=Species coexistence and niche interaction between sympatric giant panda and Chinese red panda: A spatiotemporal approach |journal=Ecology and Evolution |volume=13 |issue=4 |article-number=e9937 |doi=10.1002/ece3.9937 |pmc=10121233 |pmid=37091556 |bibcode=2023EcoEv..13E9937F}}</ref>
-Giant pandas are [[Sympatry|sympatric]] with other large mammals and bamboo feeders, such as the [[takin]] (''Budorcas taxicolor''). The takin and giant panda share a similar [[ecological niche]], and they consume the same resources. When competition for food is fierce, pandas disperse to the outskirts of takin distribution. Other possible competitors include but is not limited to, the [[Wild boar|Eurasian wild pig]] (''Sus scrofa''), [[Chinese goral]] (''Naemorhedus griseus'') and the [[Asian black bear]] (''Ursus thibetanus''). Giant pandas avoid areas with a mid-to-high density of livestock, as they depress the vegetation.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Wang |first1=Fang |last2=McShea |first2=William J. |last3=Wang |first3=Dajun |last4=Li |first4=Sheng |date=June 2015 |title=Shared resources between giant panda and sympatric wild and domestic mammals |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.biocon.2015.03.032 |journal=Biological Conservation |volume=186 |pages=319–325 |doi=10.1016/j.biocon.2015.03.032 |bibcode=2015BCons.186..319W |issn=0006-3207|url-access=subscription }}</ref> The [[Qinghai-Tibet plateau|Tibetan Plateau]] is the only known area where both giant and [[red panda]]s can be found. Although sharing near-identical ecological niches, competition between the two species has rarely been observed. Nearly 50% of their respective distribution overlaps, and successful [[Coexistence theory|coexistence]] is achieved through distinct habitat selection.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Feng |first1=Bin |last2=Bai |first2=Wenke |last3=Fan |first3=Xueyang |last4=Fu |first4=Mingxia |last5=Song |first5=Xinqiang |last6=Liu |first6=Jingyi |last7=Qin |first7=Weirui |last8=Zhang |first8=Jindong |last9=Qi |first9=Dunwu |last10=Hou |first10=Rong |date=April 2023 |title=Species coexistence and niche interaction between sympatric giant panda and Chinese red panda: A spatiotemporal approach |journal=Ecology and Evolution |language=en |volume=13 |issue=4 |pages=e9937 |doi=10.1002/ece3.9937 |issn=2045-7758 |pmc=10121233 |pmid=37091556|bibcode=2023EcoEv..13E9937F }}</ref>
 ===Pathogens and parasites===
+A captive female died from [[toxoplasmosis]], a disease caused by ''[[Toxoplasma gondii]]'' that infects most warm-blooded animals.<ref name="MaWang2015">{{cite journal |last1=Ma |first1=Hongyu |last2=Wang |first2=Zedong |last3=Wang |first3=Chengdong |last4=Li |first4=Caiwu |last5=Wei |first5=Feng |last6=Liu |first6=Quan |year=2015 |title=Fatal ''Toxoplasma gondii'' infection in the giant panda |journal=Parasite |volume=22 |page=30 |doi=10.1051/parasite/2015030 |doi-access=free |pmid=26514595 |pmc=4626621}}</ref> They are likely susceptible to diseases from ''[[Baylisascaris schroederi]]'', a parasitic nematode known to infect giant panda intestines. This nematode species is known to cause ''baylisascariasis'', a deadly disease that kills more wild giant pandas than any other cause.<ref name="Chang2025">{{Cite journal |last1=Chang |first1=Lingling |last2=Zhang |first2=Danhui |last3=Wang |first3=Yashi |last4=Ren |first4=Zun |last5=Wu |first5=Yaping |last6=Zhang |first6=Qiang |last7=Zhao |first7=Guanghui |last8=Pan |first8=Guanglin |last9=Wang |first9=Xinglong |last10=Zhao |first10=Xiaomin |last11=Tong |first11=Dewen |date=2025 |title=Pathology of fatal ''Baylisascaris schroederi'' infection in a wild giant panda |journal=Parasite |volume=32 |page=34 |doi=10.1051/parasite/2025026 |pmid=40498991 |pmc=12158236}}</ref> Additionally, the giant panda is susceptible to [[canine distemper]] virus, [[canine parvovirus]], [[rotavirus]], [[canine adenovirus]], and [[canine coronavirus]]. Bacteria, such as ''[[Clostridium welchii]]'', ''[[Proteus mirabilis]]'', ''[[Klebsiella pneumoniae]]'', and ''[[Escherichia coli]]'', may also be lethal.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Wang |first1=Tao |title=Parasites of the Giant Panda: A Risk Factor in the Conservation of a Species |date=2018 |pages=1–33 |doi=10.1016/bs.apar.2017.12.003 |pmc=7103118 |pmid=29530307 |last2=Xie |first2=Yue |last3=Zheng |first3=Youle |last4=Wang |first4=Chengdong |last5=Li |first5=Desheng |last6=Koehler |first6=A. V. |last7=Gasser |first7=R. B. |journal=Advances in Parasitology |volume=99}}</ref>
-A captive female died from [[toxoplasmosis]], a disease caused by an [[Obligate intracellular parasite|obligate intracellular parasitic]] [[protozoa]]n known as ''[[Toxoplasma gondii]]'' that infects most warm-blooded animals, including humans.<ref name="MaWang2015">{{cite journal |last1=Ma |first1=Hongyu |last2=Wang |first2=Zedong |last3=Wang |first3=Chengdong |last4=Li |first4=Caiwu |last5=Wei |first5=Feng |last6=Liu |first6=Quan |year=2015 |title=Fatal ''Toxoplasma gondii'' infection in the giant panda |journal=Parasite |volume=22 |page=30 |issn=1776-1042 |doi=10.1051/parasite/2015030 |doi-access=free |pmid=26514595 |pmc=4626621}}</ref> They are likely susceptible to diseases from ''[[Baylisascaris schroederi]]'', a parasitic nematode known to infect giant panda intestines. This nematode species is known to give pandas ''baylisascariasis'', a deadly disease that kills more wild pandas than any other cause.<ref name="Chang2025">{{Cite journal |last=Chang |first=Lingling |last2=Zhang |first2=Danhui |last3=Wang |first3=Yashi |last4=Ren |first4=Zun |last5=Wu |first5=Yaping |last6=Zhang |first6=Qiang |last7=Zhao |first7=Guanghui |last8=Pan |first8=Guanglin |last9=Wang |first9=Xinglong |last10=Zhao |first10=Xiaomin |last11=Tong |first11=Dewen |date=2025 |title=Pathology of fatal ''Baylisascaris schroederi'' infection in a wild giant panda |url=https://www.parasite-journal.org/10.1051/parasite/2025026 |journal=Parasite |volume=32 |pages=34 |doi=10.1051/parasite/2025026 |issn=1776-1042 |pmc=12158236}}</ref> Additionally, the population is threatened by [[Canine distemper|canine distemper virus (CDV)]], [[canine parvovirus]], [[rotavirus]], [[canine adenovirus]], and [[canine coronavirus]]. Bacteria, such as ''[[Clostridium welchii]]'', ''[[Proteus mirabilis]]'', ''[[Klebsiella pneumoniae]]'', and ''[[Escherichia coli]]'', may also be lethal.<ref>{{Citation |last1=Wang |first1=Tao |title=Parasites of the Giant Panda: A Risk Factor in the Conservation of a Species |date=2018 |pages=1–33 |url=|publisher=Elsevier |doi=10.1016/bs.apar.2017.12.003 |pmc=7103118 |pmid=29530307 |last2=Xie |first2=Yue |last3=Zheng |first3=Youle |last4=Wang |first4=Chengdong |last5=Li |first5=Desheng |last6=Koehler |first6=Anson V. |last7=Gasser |first7=Robin B.|series=Advances in Parasitology |volume=99 |isbn=978-0-12-815192-1 }}</ref>
 ==Behavior==
-The giant panda is a [[terrestrial animal]] and primarily spends its life roaming and feeding in the bamboo forests of the [[Qin Mountains|Qinling Mountains]] and in the hilly province of [[Sichuan]].<ref name="WWF">{{cite web |url=http://www.wwfchina.org/english/pandacentral/htm/learn_about_giant_panda/panda_q_a/panda_behavior_habitat.htm |title=Panda behavior & habitat |publisher=World Wildlife Federation China |access-date=16 June 2008 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080607110445/http://www.wwfchina.org/english/pandacentral/htm/learn_about_giant_panda/panda_q_a/panda_behavior_habitat.htm |archive-date=7 June 2008 }}</ref> Giant pandas are generally solitary.<ref name=si/> Each adult has a defined territory and a female is not tolerant of other females in her range. Social encounters occur primarily during the brief breeding season in which pandas in proximity to one another will gather.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://nationalzoo.si.edu/Animals/GiantPandas/PandaFacts/default.cfm|title=Giant Panda |publisher=National Zoological Park|access-date=17 July 2008|archive-date=17 July 2008|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080717035422/http://nationalzoo.si.edu/Animals/GiantPandas/PandaFacts/default.cfm|url-status=live}}</ref> After mating, the male leaves the female alone to raise the cub.<ref name="Dudley 9" /> Pandas were thought to fall into the [[crepuscular]] category, those who are active twice a day, at dawn and dusk; however, pandas may belong to a category all of their own, with activity peaks in the morning, afternoon and midnight. The low nutrition quality of bamboo means pandas need to eat more frequently, and due to their lack of major predators they can be active at any time of the day.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Zhang |first1=Jindong |last2=Hull |first2=Vanessa |last3=Huang |first3=Jinyan |last4=Zhou |first4=Shiqiang |last5=Xu |first5=Weihua |last6=Yang |first6=Hongbo |last7=McConnell |first7=William J. |last8=Li |first8=Rengui |last9=Liu |first9=Dian |last10=Huang |first10=Yan |last11=Ouyang |first11=Zhiyun |last12=Zhang |first12=Hemin |last13=Liu |first13=Jianguo |date=2015-11-24 |title=Activity patterns of the giant panda ( Ailuropoda melanoleuca ) |url=https://academic.oup.com/jmammal/article-lookup/doi/10.1093/jmammal/gyv118 |journal=Journal of Mammalogy |language=en |volume=96 |issue=6 |pages=1116–1127 |doi=10.1093/jmammal/gyv118 |issn=0022-2372|url-access=subscription }}</ref> Activity is highest in June and decreases in late summer to autumn with an increase from November through the following March.<ref name="Zhang">{{cite journal |last1=Zhang |first1=Jindong |last2=Hull |first2=Vanessa |last3=Huang |first3=Jinyang |last4=Zhou |first4=Shiqiang |title=Activity patterns of the giant panda (Ailuropoda melanoleuca) |journal=Journal of Mammalogy |date=24 November 2015 |volume=96 |issue=6 |pages=1116–1127 |doi=10.1093/jmammal/gyv118 |url=https://academic.oup.com/jmammal/article/96/6/1116/1167424 |access-date=8 March 2020 |doi-access=free |archive-date=29 March 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200329222657/https://academic.oup.com/jmammal/article/96/6/1116/1167424 |url-status=live |url-access=subscription }}</ref> Activity is also directly related to the amount of sunlight during colder days.<ref name="Zhang" /> There is a significant interaction of solar radiation, such that solar radiation has a stronger positive effect on activity levels of panda bears.<ref name="Zhang" />
+The giant panda is a [[terrestrial animal]] and primarily spends its life roaming and feeding in the bamboo forests of the [[Qin Mountains|Qinling Mountains]] and in the hilly province of [[Sichuan]].<ref name="WWF">{{cite web |url=http://www.wwfchina.org/english/pandacentral/htm/learn_about_giant_panda/panda_q_a/panda_behavior_habitat.htm |title=Panda behavior & habitat |publisher=World Wildlife Federation China |access-date=16 June 2008 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080607110445/http://www.wwfchina.org/english/pandacentral/htm/learn_about_giant_panda/panda_q_a/panda_behavior_habitat.htm |archive-date=7 June 2008 }}</ref> Giant pandas are generally solitary.<ref name=si>{{cite web |title=Giant Panda Facts |url=http://nationalzoo.si.edu/animals/giantpandas/pandafacts/default.cfm |publisher=National Zoological Park |access-date=8 June 2012 |archive-date=23 June 2012 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120623163015/http://nationalzoo.si.edu/Animals/GiantPandas/PandaFacts/default.cfm}}</ref> Each adult has a defined territory and a female is not tolerant of other females in her range. Social encounters occur primarily during the brief breeding season in which pandas in proximity to one another will gather.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://nationalzoo.si.edu/Animals/GiantPandas/PandaFacts/default.cfm|title=Giant Panda |publisher=National Zoological Park|access-date=17 July 2008|archive-date=17 July 2008|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080717035422/http://nationalzoo.si.edu/Animals/GiantPandas/PandaFacts/default.cfm|url-status=live}}</ref> After mating, the male leaves the female alone to raise the cub.<ref name="Dudley 9" /> Pandas were thought to fall into the [[crepuscular]] category, those who are active twice a day, at dawn and dusk; however, pandas may belong to a category all of their own, with activity peaks in the morning, afternoon and midnight. The low nutrition quality of bamboo means pandas need to eat more frequently, and due to their lack of major predators they can be active at any time of the day.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Zhang |first1=Jindong |last2=Hull |first2=Vanessa |last3=Huang |first3=Jinyan |last4=Zhou |first4=Shiqiang |last5=Xu |first5=Weihua |last6=Yang |first6=Hongbo |last7=McConnell |first7=William J. |last8=Li |first8=Rengui |last9=Liu |first9=Dian |last10=Huang |first10=Yan |last11=Ouyang |first11=Zhiyun |last12=Zhang |first12=Hemin |last13=Liu |first13=Jianguo |date=2015-11-24 |title=Activity patterns of the giant panda ( Ailuropoda melanoleuca ) |url=https://academic.oup.com/jmammal/article-lookup/doi/10.1093/jmammal/gyv118 |journal=Journal of Mammalogy |language=en |volume=96 |issue=6 |pages=1116–1127 |doi=10.1093/jmammal/gyv118 |issn=0022-2372|url-access=subscription }}</ref> Activity is highest in June and decreases in late summer to autumn with an increase from November through the following March.<ref name="Zhang">{{cite journal |last1=Zhang |first1=Jindong |last2=Hull |first2=Vanessa |last3=Huang |first3=Jinyang |last4=Zhou |first4=Shiqiang |title=Activity patterns of the giant panda (Ailuropoda melanoleuca) |journal=Journal of Mammalogy |date=24 November 2015 |volume=96 |issue=6 |pages=1116–1127 |doi=10.1093/jmammal/gyv118 |url=https://academic.oup.com/jmammal/article/96/6/1116/1167424 |access-date=8 March 2020 |doi-access=free |archive-date=29 March 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200329222657/https://academic.oup.com/jmammal/article/96/6/1116/1167424 |url-status=live |url-access=subscription }}</ref> Activity is also directly related to the amount of sunlight during colder days.<ref name="Zhang" /> There is a significant interaction of solar radiation, such that solar radiation has a stronger positive effect on activity levels of panda bears.<ref name="Zhang" />
-Pandas communicate through vocalisation and scent marking such as clawing trees or [[spraying (animal behavior)|spraying urine]].<ref name=wwf1/> They are able to climb and take shelter in hollow trees or rock crevices, but do not establish permanent dens. For this reason, pandas do not [[hibernation|hibernate]], which is similar to other subtropical mammals, and will instead move to elevations with warmer temperatures.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Bi |first1=Wenlei |last2=Hou |first2=Rong |last3=Owens |first3=Jacob R. |last4=Spotila |first4=James R. |last5=Valitutto |first5=Marc |last6=Yin |first6=Guan |last7=Paladino |first7=Frank V. |last8=Wu |first8=Fanqi |last9=Qi |first9=Dunwu |last10=Zhang |first10=Zhihe |date=2021-11-17 |title=Field metabolic rates of giant pandas reveal energetic adaptations |journal=Scientific Reports |language=en |volume=11 |issue=1 |pages=22391 |doi=10.1038/s41598-021-01872-5 |pmid=34789821 |pmc=8599739 |bibcode=2021NatSR..1122391B |issn=2045-2322}}</ref> Pandas rely primarily on [[spatial memory]] rather than [[visual memory]].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.apa.org/monitor/jan04/pandas.html |title=Understanding the giant panda |author=Deborah Smith Bailey |volume=35 |issue=1 |date=January 2004 |publisher=American Psychological Association |access-date=17 June 2008 |archive-date=14 June 2008 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080614044017/http://www.apa.org/monitor/jan04/pandas.html |url-status=live }}</ref> Though the panda is often assumed to be docile, it has been known to attack humans on rare occasions.<ref name=attack>{{cite news|title=Teenager hospitalized after panda attack in Chinese zoo|url=http://www.foxnews.com/story/0,2933,304249,00.html|publisher=Fox News/Associated Press|date=23 October 2007|access-date=29 July 2008|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090609063304/http://www.foxnews.com/story/0,2933,304249,00.html |archive-date=9 June 2009}}</ref><ref name=attack2>{{cite news |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/asia-pacific/7743748.stm |title=Panda attacks man in Chinese zoo |work=BBC News |date=22 November 2008 |access-date=3 September 2009 |archive-date=27 June 2009 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090627203825/http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/asia-pacific/7743748.stm |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name=attack3>{{cite news|title=Giant panda in China bites third victim |publisher=CNN News |date=10 January 2009 |url=http://www.cnn.com/2009/WORLD/asiapcf/01/09/panda.attack/index.html |access-date=10 January 2009 |archive-date=18 January 2009|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090118015131/http://www.cnn.com/2009/WORLD/asiapcf/01/09/panda.attack/index.html|url-status=live}}</ref> Pandas have been known to cover themselves in horse manure to protect themselves against cold temperatures.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Zhou |first1=Wenliang |last2=Yang |first2=Shilong |last3=Li |first3=Bowen |last4=Nie |first4=Yonggang |last5=Luo |first5=Anna |last6=Huang |first6=Guangping |last7=Liu |first7=Xuefeng |last8=Lai |first8=Ren |last9=Wei |first9=Fuwen |date=2 December 2020 |title=Why wild giant pandas frequently roll in horse manure |journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences |volume=117 |issue=51 |pages=32493–32498 |language=en |doi=10.1073/pnas.2004640117 |issn=0027-8424 |pmid=33288697 |pmc=7768701 |bibcode=2020PNAS..11732493Z |doi-access=free}}</ref>
+Pandas communicate through vocalisation and scent marking such as clawing trees or [[spraying (animal behavior)|spraying urine]].<ref name=wwf1/> They are able to climb and take shelter in hollow trees or rock crevices, but do not establish permanent dens. For this reason, pandas do not [[hibernation|hibernate]], which is similar to other subtropical mammals, and will instead move to elevations with warmer temperatures.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Bi |first1=Wenlei |last2=Hou |first2=Rong |last3=Owens |first3=Jacob R. |last4=Spotila |first4=James R. |last5=Valitutto |first5=Marc |last6=Yin |first6=Guan |last7=Paladino |first7=Frank V. |last8=Wu |first8=Fanqi |last9=Qi |first9=Dunwu |last10=Zhang |first10=Zhihe |date=2021-11-17 |title=Field metabolic rates of giant pandas reveal energetic adaptations |journal=Scientific Reports |language=en |volume=11 |issue=1 |page=22391 |doi=10.1038/s41598-021-01872-5 |pmid=34789821 |pmc=8599739 |bibcode=2021NatSR..1122391B |issn=2045-2322}}</ref> Pandas rely primarily on [[spatial memory]] rather than [[visual memory]].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.apa.org/monitor/jan04/pandas.html |title=Understanding the giant panda |author=Deborah Smith Bailey |volume=35 |issue=1 |date=January 2004 |publisher=American Psychological Association |access-date=17 June 2008 |archive-date=14 June 2008 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080614044017/http://www.apa.org/monitor/jan04/pandas.html |url-status=live }}</ref> Though the panda is often assumed to be docile, it has been known to attack humans on rare occasions.<ref name=attack>{{cite news|title=Teenager hospitalized after panda attack in Chinese zoo|url=http://www.foxnews.com/story/0,2933,304249,00.html|publisher=Fox News/Associated Press|date=23 October 2007|access-date=29 July 2008|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090609063304/http://www.foxnews.com/story/0,2933,304249,00.html |archive-date=9 June 2009}}</ref><ref name=attack2>{{cite news |url=https://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/asia-pacific/7743748.stm |title=Panda attacks man in Chinese zoo |work=BBC News |date=22 November 2008 |access-date=3 September 2009 |archive-date=27 June 2009 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090627203825/http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/asia-pacific/7743748.stm |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name=attack3>{{cite news|title=Giant panda in China bites third victim |publisher=CNN News |date=10 January 2009 |url=http://www.cnn.com/2009/WORLD/asiapcf/01/09/panda.attack/index.html |access-date=10 January 2009 |archive-date=18 January 2009|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090118015131/http://www.cnn.com/2009/WORLD/asiapcf/01/09/panda.attack/index.html|url-status=live}}</ref> Pandas have been known to cover themselves in horse manure to protect themselves against cold temperatures.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Zhou |first1=Wenliang |last2=Yang |first2=Shilong |last3=Li |first3=Bowen |last4=Nie |first4=Yonggang |last5=Luo |first5=Anna |last6=Huang |first6=Guangping |last7=Liu |first7=Xuefeng |last8=Lai |first8=Ren |last9=Wei |first9=Fuwen |date=2 December 2020 |title=Why wild giant pandas frequently roll in horse manure |journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences |volume=117 |issue=51 |pages=32493–32498 |language=en |doi=10.1073/pnas.2004640117 |issn=0027-8424 |pmid=33288697 |pmc=7768701 |bibcode=2020PNAS..11732493Z |doi-access=free}}</ref>
-The species communicates foremost through a blatting sound; they achieve peaceful interactions through the emission of this sound. When in oestrus, a female emits a chirp. In hostile confrontations or during fights, the giant panda emits vocalizations such as a roar or growl. On the other hand, squeals typically indicate inferiority and submission in a dispute. Other vocalizations include honks and moans.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Charlton |first1=Benjamin D. |last2=Martin-Wintle |first2=Meghan S. |last3=Owen |first3=Megan A. |last4=Zhang |first4=Hemin |last5=Swaisgood |first5=Ronald R. |date=October 2018 |title=Vocal behaviour predicts mating success in giant pandas |journal=Royal Society Open Science |language=en |volume=5 |issue=10 |pages=181323 |doi=10.1098/rsos.181323 |issn=2054-5703 |pmc=6227945 |pmid=30473861}}</ref>
+The species communicates foremost through a blatting sound; they achieve peaceful interactions through the emission of this sound. When in oestrus, a female emits a chirp. In hostile confrontations or during fights, the giant panda emits vocalizations such as a roar or growl. On the other hand, squeals typically indicate inferiority and submission in a dispute. Other vocalizations include honks and moans.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Charlton |first1=Benjamin D. |last2=Martin-Wintle |first2=Meghan S. |last3=Owen |first3=Megan A. |last4=Zhang |first4=Hemin |last5=Swaisgood |first5=Ronald R. |date=October 2018 |title=Vocal behaviour predicts mating success in giant pandas |journal=Royal Society Open Science |language=en |volume=5 |issue=10 |article-number=181323 |doi=10.1098/rsos.181323 |issn=2054-5703 |pmc=6227945 |pmid=30473861 |bibcode=2018RSOS....581323C }}</ref>
 === Olfactory communication ===
-Giant pandas heavily rely on [[Olfactic communication|olfactory communication]] to communicate with one another. [[Scent marking|Scent marks]] are used to spread these chemical cues and are placed on landmarks like rocks or trees.<ref name="Hagey-2003">{{Cite journal |last1=Hagey |first1=Lee |last2=MacDonald |first2=Edith |date=2003 |title=Chemical cues identify gender and individuality in giant pandas (Ailuropoda melanoleuca) |journal=Journal of Chemical Ecology |volume=29 |issue=3 |pages=1479–1488 |doi=10.1023/A:1024225806263 |pmid=12918929 |s2cid=22335820 |via=SpringerLink}}</ref> Chemical communication in giant pandas plays many roles in their social situations. Scent marks and odors are used to spread information about sexual status, whether a female is in [[Estrous cycle|estrus]] or not, age, gender, individuality, dominance over territory, and choice of settlement.<ref name="Hagey-2003" /> Giant pandas communicate by excreting volatile compounds, or scent marks, through the anogenital gland.<ref name="Hagey-2003" /><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Zhu |first1=Jiao |last2=Arena |first2=Simona |last3=Spinelli |first3=Silvia |last4=Liu |first4=Dingzhen |last5=Zhang |first5=Guiquan |last6=Wei |first6=Rongping |last7=Cambillau |first7=Christian |last8=Scaloni |first8=Andrea |last9=Wang |first9=Guirong |last10=Pelosi |first10=Paolo |date=2017-11-14 |title=Reverse chemical ecology: Olfactory proteins from the giant panda and their interactions with putative pheromones and bamboo volatiles |journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America |volume=114 |issue=46 |pages=E9802–E9810 |doi=10.1073/pnas.1711437114 |issn=0027-8424 |pmc=5699065 |pmid=29078359|bibcode=2017PNAS..114E9802Z |doi-access=free }}</ref> Giant pandas have unique positions in which they will scent mark. Males deposit scent marks or urine by lifting their hind leg, [[scent rubbing|rubbing]] their backside, or standing in order to rub the anogenital gland onto a landmark. Females, however, exercise squatting or simply rubbing their genitals onto a landmark.<ref name="Hagey-2003" /><ref name="White-2002">{{Cite journal |journal=Behavioral Ecology and Sociobiology |jstor=4602087 |language=en|title=The Highs and Lows of Chemical Communication in Giant Pandas (Ailuropoda melanoleuca): Effect of Scent Deposition Height on Signal Discrimination |last1=White |first1=Angela M. |last2=Swaisgood |first2=Ronald R. |last3=Zhang |first3=Hemin |year=2002 |volume=51 |issue=6 |pages=519–529 |doi=10.1007/s00265-002-0473-3 |s2cid=42122274 }}</ref>
+Giant pandas heavily rely on [[Olfactic communication|olfactory communication]] to communicate with one another. [[Scent marking|Scent marks]] are used to spread these chemical cues and are placed on landmarks like rocks or trees.<ref name="Hagey-2003">{{Cite journal |last1=Hagey |first1=Lee |last2=MacDonald |first2=Edith |date=2003 |title=Chemical cues identify gender and individuality in giant pandas (Ailuropoda melanoleuca) |journal=Journal of Chemical Ecology |volume=29 |issue=3 |pages=1479–1488 |doi=10.1023/A:1024225806263 |pmid=12918929 |bibcode=2003JCEco..29.1479H |s2cid=22335820 |via=SpringerLink}}</ref> Chemical communication in giant pandas plays many roles in their social situations. Scent marks and odors are used to spread information about sexual status, whether a female is in [[Estrous cycle|estrus]] or not, age, gender, individuality, dominance over territory, and choice of settlement.<ref name="Hagey-2003" /> Giant pandas communicate by excreting volatile compounds, or scent marks, through the anogenital gland.<ref name="Hagey-2003" /><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Zhu |first1=Jiao |last2=Arena |first2=Simona |last3=Spinelli |first3=Silvia |last4=Liu |first4=Dingzhen |last5=Zhang |first5=Guiquan |last6=Wei |first6=Rongping |last7=Cambillau |first7=Christian |last8=Scaloni |first8=Andrea |last9=Wang |first9=Guirong |last10=Pelosi |first10=Paolo |date=2017-11-14 |title=Reverse chemical ecology: Olfactory proteins from the giant panda and their interactions with putative pheromones and bamboo volatiles |journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America |volume=114 |issue=46 |pages=E9802–E9810 |doi=10.1073/pnas.1711437114 |issn=0027-8424 |pmc=5699065 |pmid=29078359|bibcode=2017PNAS..114E9802Z |doi-access=free }}</ref> Giant pandas have unique positions in which they will scent mark. Males deposit scent marks or urine by lifting their hind leg, [[scent rubbing|rubbing]] their backside, or standing in order to rub the anogenital gland onto a landmark. Females, however, exercise squatting or simply rubbing their genitals onto a landmark.<ref name="Hagey-2003" /><ref name="White-2002">{{Cite journal |journal=Behavioral Ecology and Sociobiology |jstor=4602087 |language=en|title=The Highs and Lows of Chemical Communication in Giant Pandas (Ailuropoda melanoleuca): Effect of Scent Deposition Height on Signal Discrimination |last1=White |first1=Angela M. |last2=Swaisgood |first2=Ronald R. |last3=Zhang |first3=Hemin |year=2002 |volume=51 |issue=6 |pages=519–529 |doi=10.1007/s00265-002-0473-3 |bibcode=2002BEcoS..51..519W |s2cid=42122274 }}</ref>
 The season plays a major role in mediating chemical communication.<ref name="White-2004" /> Depending on the season, mainly whether it is breeding season or not, may influence which odors are prioritized. Chemical signals can have different functions in different seasons. During the non-breeding season, females prefer the odors of other females because reproduction is not their primary motivation. However, during breeding season, odors from the opposite sex will be more attractive.<ref name="White-2004" /><ref name="Wilson-2020" /> Because they are solitary mammals and their breeding season is so brief, female pandas secrete chemical cues in order to let males know their sexual status.<ref name="Wilson-2020" /> The chemical cues female pandas secrete can be considered to be [[pheromone]]s for sexual reproduction.<ref name="Wilson-2020">{{Cite journal |last1=Wilson |first1=A.E. |last2=Sparks |first2=D.L. |last3=Knott |first3=K.K. |last4=Willard |first4=S. |last5=Brown |first5=A. |date=2020 |title=Simultaneous choice bioassays accompanied by physiological changes identify civetone and decanoic acid as pheromone candidates for giant pandas |journal=Zoo Biology |volume=39 |issue=3 |pages=176–185 |doi=10.1002/zoo.21532 |pmid=31919913 |s2cid=210133833}}</ref> Females deposit scent marks through their urine which induces an increase in [[androgen]] levels in males.<ref name="Wilson-2020" /> Androgen is a sex hormone found in both males and females; [[testosterone]] is the major androgen produced by males. [[Civetone]] and [[decanoic acid]] are chemicals found in female urine which promote behavioral responses in males; both chemicals are considered giant panda pheromones.<ref name="Wilson-2020" /> Male pandas also secrete chemical signals that include information about their sexual reproductivity and age, which is beneficial for a female when choosing a mate.<ref name="Hagey-2003"/><ref name="White-2004"/> For example, age can be useful for a female to determine sexual maturity and sperm quality.<ref name="Swaisgood-2019">{{cite book |last1=Swaisgood |first1=Ronald R. |chapter=7. Chemical Communication in Giant Pandas |date=2019-12-31 |title=Giant Pandas |pages=106–120 |publisher=University of California Press |last2=Lindburg |first2=Donald |last3=White |first3=Angela M. |last4=Zhang |first4=Hemin |last5=Zhou |first5=Xiaoping |doi=10.1525/9780520930162-015 |isbn=978-0-520-93016-2 |s2cid=226766316}}</ref> Pandas are also able to determine when the signal was placed, further aiding in the quest to find a potential mate.<ref name="Swaisgood-2019" /> However, chemical cues are not just used for communication between males and females, pandas can determine individuality from chemical signals. This allows them to be able to differentiate between a potential partner or someone of the same sex, which could be a potential competitor.<ref name="Swaisgood-2019"/>
@@ Line 127: / Line 129: @@
 Giant pandas reach sexual maturity between the ages of four and eight, and may be reproductive until age 20.<ref>{{cite web |title=Giant Panda Reproduction |work=National Zoological Park| url=http://newsdesk.si.edu/kits/pandas/nzp_panda_reproduction.pdf |access-date=13 April 2008 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080527204441/http://newsdesk.si.edu/kits/pandas/nzp_panda_reproduction.pdf |archive-date=27 May 2008}}</ref> The mating season is between March and May, when a female goes into [[estrus]], which lasts for two or three days and only occurs once a year.<ref name=reproduction>{{cite web |url=http://www.4panda.com/panda/pandatips/reproduction.htm |title=Giant Panda Reproduction |access-date=14 April 2008 |last=Kleiman |first=Devra G |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080807161537/http://www.4panda.com/panda/pandatips/reproduction.htm |archive-date=7 August 2008}}</ref> When mating, the female is in a crouching, head-down position as the male mounts her from behind. [[copulation (zoology)|Copulation]] time ranges from 30 seconds to five minutes, but the male may mount her repeatedly to ensure successful fertilisation. The [[gestation]] period is somewhere between 95 and 160 days - the variability is due to the fact that the fertilized egg may linger in the reproductive system for a while before implanting on the uterine wall.<ref name=reproduction/> Giant pandas give birth to twins in about half of pregnancies.<ref name=Ruane23Aug>{{cite news |url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/local/giant-panda-preparing-to-give-birth-national-zoo-says/2015/08/22/bba0fd2c-4804-11e5-8ab4-c73967a143d3_story.html |title=National Zoo's giant panda Mei Xiang gives birth to two cubs hours apart |first1=Michael E. |last1=Ruane |first2=Elizabeth |last2=Koh |first3=Martin |last3=Weil |newspaper=The Washington Post |date=23 August 2015 |access-date=24 August 2015 |archive-date=24 August 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150824004041/http://www.washingtonpost.com/local/giant-panda-preparing-to-give-birth-national-zoo-says/2015/08/22/bba0fd2c-4804-11e5-8ab4-c73967a143d3_story.html |url-status=live }}</ref> If twins are born, usually only one survives in the wild. The mother will select the stronger of the cubs, and the weaker cub will die due to starvation. The mother is thought to be unable to produce enough milk for two cubs since she does not store fat.<ref name="Panda Facts">{{cite web |url=http://www.pandasinternational.org/wptemp/education-2/panda-facts/|title=Panda Facts|publisher=Pandas International|access-date=26 August 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150924063658/http://www.pandasinternational.org/wptemp/education-2/panda-facts/ |archive-date=24 September 2015}}</ref> The father has no part in helping raise the cub.<ref name="Dudley 9" />
-When the cub is first born, it is pink, blind, and toothless,<ref name="Dudley 9" /> weighing only {{cvt|90|to|130|g}}, or about {{sfrac|1|800}} of the mother's weight,<ref name="Encyclopædia Britannica Online"/> proportionally the smallest baby of any placental mammal.<ref>''Guinness World Records 2013'', Page 050, hardcover edition. {{ISBN|978-1-904994-87-9}}</ref> It nurses from its mother's breast six to 14 times a day for up to 30 minutes at a time. For three to four hours, the mother may leave the den to feed, which leaves the cub defenseless. One to two weeks after birth, the cub's skin turns grey where its hair will eventually become black. Slight pink colour may appear on the cub's fur, as a result of a [[chemical reaction]] between the fur and its mother's [[saliva]]. A month after birth, the colour pattern of the cub's fur is fully developed. Its fur is very soft and coarsens with age. The cub begins to crawl at 75 to 80 days;<ref name="Encyclopædia Britannica Online"/> mothers play with their cubs by rolling and wrestling with them. The cubs can eat small quantities of bamboo after six months, though mother's milk remains the primary food source for most of the first year. Giant panda cubs weigh {{cvt|45|kg}} at one year and live with their mothers until they are 18 months to two years old. The interval between births in the wild is generally two years.<ref name="Sept Exam">{{cite web |url=http://animal.discovery.com/videos/panda-update-september-cub-exam.html|title=Panda Update: September Cub Exam |date=4 May 2006 |publisher=Discovery Communications, LLC|access-date=9 August 2010|archive-date=7 November 2010|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101107220300/http://animal.discovery.com/videos/panda-update-september-cub-exam.html|url-status=live}}</ref>
+When the cub is first born, it is pink, blind, and toothless,<ref name="Dudley 9" /> weighing only {{cvt|90|to|130|g}}, or about {{sfrac|1|800}} of the mother's weight,<ref name="Encyclopædia Britannica Online"/> proportionally the smallest baby of any placental mammal.<ref>''Guinness World Records 2013'', Page 050, hardcover edition. {{ISBN|978-1-904994-87-9}}</ref> It nurses from its mother's breast six to 14 times a day for up to 30 minutes at a time. For three to four hours, the mother may leave the den to feed, which leaves the cub defenseless. One to two weeks after birth, the cub's skin turns grey where its hair will eventually become black. A slight pink colour may appear on the cub's fur, as a result of a [[chemical reaction]] between the fur and its mother's [[saliva]]. A month after birth, the colour pattern of the cub's fur is fully developed. Its fur is very soft and coarsens with age. The cub begins to crawl at 75 to 80 days;<ref name="Encyclopædia Britannica Online"/> mothers play with their cubs by rolling and wrestling with them. The cubs can eat small quantities of bamboo after six months, though mother's milk remains the primary food source for most of the first year. Giant panda cubs weigh {{cvt|45|kg}} at one year and live with their mothers until they are 18 months to two years old. The interval between births in the wild is generally two years.<ref name="Sept Exam">{{cite web |url=http://animal.discovery.com/videos/panda-update-september-cub-exam.html|title=Panda Update: September Cub Exam |work=Animal Planet |date=4 May 2006 |publisher=Discovery Communications, LLC|access-date=9 August 2010|archive-date=7 November 2010|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101107220300/http://animal.discovery.com/videos/panda-update-september-cub-exam.html|url-status=live}}</ref>
-Initially, the primary method of breeding giant pandas in captivity was by [[artificial insemination]], as they seemed to lose their interest in [[mating]] once they were captured.<ref>{{cite news |title=National Zoo's Giant Panda Undergoes Artificial Insemination |url=http://www.nbc4.com/news/15643501/detail.html |work=[[NBC]] |agency=Associated Press |date=19 March 2008 |access-date=13 April 2008 }}{{Dead link|date=December 2019 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref> This led some scientists to trying methods such as showing them [[Panda pornography|videos of giant pandas mating]]<ref>{{cite news |first=Narunart |last=Prapanya |title='Panda porn' to encourage mating |url=http://edition.cnn.com/2006/WORLD/asiapcf/01/25/panda.passion/index.html |publisher=[[Time Warner]] |date=25 January 2006 |access-date=13 April 2008 |archive-date=5 April 2008 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080405191046/http://edition.cnn.com/2006/WORLD/asiapcf/01/25/panda.passion/index.html |url-status=live}}</ref> and giving the males [[sildenafil]] (commonly known as Viagra).<ref>{{cite news |title=Pandas unexcited by Viagra |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/asia-pacific/2246588.stm |work=BBC News |date=9 September 2002 |access-date=13 April 2008 |archive-date=5 October 2007 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071005065008/http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/asia-pacific/2246588.stm |url-status=live}}</ref> In the 2000s, researchers started having success with captive breeding programs, and they have now determined giant pandas have comparable breeding to some populations of the [[American black bear]], a thriving bear species.<ref name="pandasinc">{{cite magazine |first=Lynne |last=W. |title=Pandas, Inc. |url=https://www.nationalgeographic.com/magazine/?fs=animals-panther.nationalgeographic.com |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150903225830/http://ngm.nationalgeographic.com/2006/07/panda/warren-text?fs=animals-panther.nationalgeographic.com |archive-date=3 September 2015 |magazine=[[National Geographic Magazine]] |date=July 2006 |access-date=10 April 2008 }}</ref><ref name="WWF"/>
+Initially, the primary method of breeding giant pandas in captivity was by [[artificial insemination]], as they seemed to lose their interest in [[mating]] once they were captured.<ref>{{cite news |title=National Zoo's Giant Panda Undergoes Artificial Insemination |url=http://www.nbc4.com/news/15643501/detail.html |work=[[NBC]] |agency=Associated Press |date=19 March 2008 |access-date=13 April 2008 }}{{Dead link|date=December 2019 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref> This led some scientists to trying methods such as showing them [[Panda pornography|videos of giant pandas mating]]<ref>{{cite news |first=Narunart |last=Prapanya |title='Panda porn' to encourage mating |url=http://edition.cnn.com/2006/WORLD/asiapcf/01/25/panda.passion/index.html |publisher=[[Time Warner]] |date=25 January 2006 |access-date=13 April 2008 |archive-date=5 April 2008 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080405191046/http://edition.cnn.com/2006/WORLD/asiapcf/01/25/panda.passion/index.html |url-status=live}}</ref> and giving the males [[sildenafil]] (commonly known as Viagra).<ref>{{cite news |title=Pandas unexcited by Viagra |url=https://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/asia-pacific/2246588.stm |work=BBC News |date=9 September 2002 |access-date=13 April 2008 |archive-date=5 October 2007 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071005065008/http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/asia-pacific/2246588.stm |url-status=live}}</ref> In the 2000s, researchers started having success with captive breeding programs, and they have now determined giant pandas have comparable breeding to some populations of the [[American black bear]], a thriving bear species.<ref name="pandasinc">{{cite magazine |first=Lynne |last=W. |title=Pandas, Inc. |url=https://www.nationalgeographic.com/magazine/?fs=animals-panther.nationalgeographic.com |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150903225830/http://ngm.nationalgeographic.com/2006/07/panda/warren-text?fs=animals-panther.nationalgeographic.com |archive-date=3 September 2015 |magazine=[[National Geographic Magazine]] |date=July 2006 |access-date=10 April 2008 }}</ref><ref name="WWF"/>
-In July 2009, Chinese scientists confirmed the birth of the first cub to be successfully conceived through artificial insemination using frozen sperm.<ref name="Baby panda born from frozen sperm"/> The technique for freezing the sperm in [[liquid nitrogen]] was first developed in 1980 and the first birth was hailed as a solution to the dwindling availability of giant panda semen, which had led to inbreeding.<ref name="First panda cub born using frozen sperm">{{cite news |title=First panda cub born using frozen sperm|date=25 July 2009 |url=http://www.irishtimes.com/newspaper/world/2009/0725/1224251307368.html |access-date=26 July 2009|newspaper=The Irish Times |archive-date=16 October 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111016052058/http://www.irishtimes.com/newspaper/world/2009/0725/1224251307368.html |url-status=live}}</ref><ref name="China announces first panda from frozen sperm"/> Panda semen, which can be frozen for decades, could be shared between different zoos to save the species.<ref name="Baby panda born from frozen sperm">{{cite news |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/asia-pacific/8168491.stm |title=Baby panda born from frozen sperm|date=25 July 2009|access-date=26 July 2009|publisher=BBC|archive-date=26 July 2009|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090726144209/http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/asia-pacific/8168491.stm|url-status=live}}</ref><ref name="World's 1st giant panda born from frozen sperm in SW China">{{cite web|url=http://news.xinhuanet.com/english/2009-07/24/content_11766726.htm |title=World's 1st giant panda born from frozen sperm in SW China|date=24 July 2009|access-date=26 July 2009|publisher=Xinhua News Agency|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20091226013440/http://news.xinhuanet.com/english/2009-07/24/content_11766726.htm|archive-date=26 December 2009}}</ref> As of 2009, it is expected that zoos in destinations such as San Diego in the United States and [[Mexico City]] will be able to provide their own semen to inseminate more giant pandas.<ref name="China announces first panda from frozen sperm">{{cite news |url=https://www.usatoday.com/tech/science/2009-07-24-panda_N.htm|title=China announces first panda from frozen sperm|date=24 July 2009 |access-date=24 January 2011|work=USA TODAY|first=Tini|last=Tran|archive-date=23 June 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110623190258/http://www.usatoday.com/tech/science/2009-07-24-panda_N.htm|url-status=live}}</ref>
+In July 2009, Chinese scientists confirmed the birth of the first cub to be successfully conceived through artificial insemination using frozen sperm.<ref name="Baby panda born from frozen sperm"/> The technique for freezing the sperm in [[liquid nitrogen]] was first developed in 1980 and the first birth was hailed as a solution to the dwindling availability of giant panda semen, which had led to inbreeding.<ref name="First panda cub born using frozen sperm">{{cite news |title=First panda cub born using frozen sperm|date=25 July 2009 |url=http://www.irishtimes.com/newspaper/world/2009/0725/1224251307368.html |access-date=26 July 2009|newspaper=The Irish Times |archive-date=16 October 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111016052058/http://www.irishtimes.com/newspaper/world/2009/0725/1224251307368.html |url-status=live}}</ref><ref name="China announces first panda from frozen sperm"/> Panda semen, which can be frozen for decades, could be shared between different zoos to save the species.<ref name="Baby panda born from frozen sperm">{{cite news |url=https://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/asia-pacific/8168491.stm |title=Baby panda born from frozen sperm|date=25 July 2009|access-date=26 July 2009|publisher=BBC|archive-date=26 July 2009|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090726144209/http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/asia-pacific/8168491.stm|url-status=live}}</ref><ref name="World's 1st giant panda born from frozen sperm in SW China">{{cite web|url=http://news.xinhuanet.com/english/2009-07/24/content_11766726.htm |title=World's 1st giant panda born from frozen sperm in SW China|date=24 July 2009|access-date=26 July 2009|publisher=Xinhua News Agency|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20091226013440/http://news.xinhuanet.com/english/2009-07/24/content_11766726.htm|archive-date=26 December 2009}}</ref> As of 2009, it is expected that zoos in destinations such as San Diego in the United States and [[Mexico City]] will be able to provide their own semen to inseminate more giant pandas.<ref name="China announces first panda from frozen sperm">{{cite news |url=https://www.usatoday.com/tech/science/2009-07-24-panda_N.htm|title=China announces first panda from frozen sperm|date=24 July 2009 |access-date=24 January 2011|work=USA TODAY|first=Tini|last=Tran|archive-date=23 June 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110623190258/http://www.usatoday.com/tech/science/2009-07-24-panda_N.htm|url-status=live}}</ref>
 Attempts have also been made to reproduce giant pandas by [[interspecific pregnancy]] where cloned panda embryos were implanted into the uterus of an animal of another species. This has resulted in panda fetuses, but no live births.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1 = Chen |first1 = D. Y. |last2 = Wen |first2 = D. C. |last3 = Zhang | first3 = Y. P. |last4 = Sun |first4 = Q. Y. |last5 = Han |first5 = Z. M. |last6 = Liu |first6 = Z. H. |last7 = Shi |first7 = P. |last8 = Li |first8 = J. S. |last9 = Xiangyu |first9 = J. G. |last10 = Lian |first10 = L. |last11 = Kou |first11 = Z. H. |last12 = Wu |first12 = Y. Q. |last13 = Chen |first13 = Y. C. |last14 = Wang |first14 = P. Y. |last15 = Zhang |first15 = H. M.| year=2002| title=Interspecies implantation and mitochondria fate of panda-rabbit cloned embryos| journal=Biology of Reproduction| volume=67| issue=2| pages=637–642| pmid=12135908| doi=10.1095/biolreprod67.2.637| doi-access=free}}</ref>
@@ Line 153: / Line 155: @@
 {{category see also|Individual giant pandas}}
-Pandas have been kept in zoos as early as the [[Western Han Dynasty]] in China, where the writer [[Sima Xiangru]] noted that the panda was the most treasured animal in the emperor's garden of exotic animals in the capital [[Chang'an]] (present [[Xi'an]]). Not until the 1950s were pandas again recorded to have been exhibited in China's zoos.{{sfn|Schaller|1993|p=62}} [[Chi Chi (giant panda)|Chi Chi]] at the [[London Zoo]] became very popular. This influenced the [[World Wildlife Fund]] to use a panda as its symbol.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.worldwildlife.org/species/finder/giantpanda/panda.html |access-date=26 October 2011 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120809023057/http://www.worldwildlife.org/species/finder/giantpanda/panda.html |archive-date=9 August 2012 |title=Giant Panda: Overview |publisher=World Wildlife Fund}}</ref> A 2006 ''[[New York Times]]'' article outlined the economics of keeping pandas,<ref name="nytimesgoodman">{{cite news |last=Goodman |first=Brenda |date=12 February 2006 |title=Eats Shoots, Leaves and Much of Zoos' Budgets |work=The New York Times |location=Atlanta |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2006/02/12/national/12panda.html |url-status=live |access-date=9 August 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110623023205/http://www.nytimes.com/2006/02/12/national/12panda.html |archive-date=23 June 2011}}</ref> which costs five times more than keeping the next most expensive animal, an elephant. American zoos generally pay the Chinese government $1&nbsp;million a year in fees, as part of a typical ten-year contract. San Diego's contract with China was to expire in 2008, but got a five-year extension at about half of the previous yearly cost.<ref>{{cite web |date=13 December 2008 |title=Zoo negotiates lower price to rent bears from China |url=http://www.signonsandiego.com/news/metro/20081213-9999-1n13panda.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090216084730/http://www.signonsandiego.com/news/metro/20081213-9999-1n13panda.html |archive-date=16 February 2009 |access-date=23 May 2009 |publisher=SignOnSanDiego.com}}</ref> The last contract, with the [[Memphis Zoo]] in [[Memphis, Tennessee]], ended in 2013.<ref name="nytimesgoodman" />
+Pandas have been kept in zoos as early as the [[Western Han Dynasty]] in China, where the writer [[Sima Xiangru]] noted that the panda was the most treasured animal in the emperor's garden of exotic animals in the capital [[Chang'an]] (present [[Xi'an]]). Not until the 1950s were pandas again recorded to have been exhibited in China's zoos.{{sfn|Schaller|1993|p=62}} [[Chi Chi (giant panda)|Chi Chi]] at the [[London Zoo]] became very popular. This influenced the [[World Wildlife Fund]] to use a panda as its symbol.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.worldwildlife.org/species/finder/giantpanda/panda.html |access-date=26 October 2011 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120809023057/http://www.worldwildlife.org/species/finder/giantpanda/panda.html |archive-date=9 August 2012 |title=Giant Panda: Overview |work=World Wildlife Fund}}</ref> A 2006 ''[[New York Times]]'' article outlined the economics of keeping pandas,<ref name="nytimesgoodman">{{cite news |last=Goodman |first=B. |date=2006 |title=Eats Shoots, Leaves and Much of Zoos' Budgets |work=The New York Times |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2006/02/12/national/12panda.html |url-status=live |access-date=9 August 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110623023205/http://www.nytimes.com/2006/02/12/national/12panda.html |archive-date=23 June 2011}}</ref> which costs five times more than keeping the next most expensive animal, an elephant. American zoos generally pay the Chinese government $1&nbsp;million a year in fees, as part of a typical ten-year contract. San Diego's contract with China was to expire in 2008, but got a five-year extension at about half of the previous yearly cost.<ref>{{cite web |date=2008 |title=Zoo negotiates lower price to rent bears from China |url=http://www.signonsandiego.com/news/metro/20081213-9999-1n13panda.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090216084730/http://www.signonsandiego.com/news/metro/20081213-9999-1n13panda.html |archive-date=16 February 2009 |access-date=23 May 2009 |publisher=SignOnSanDiego.com}}</ref> The last contract, with the [[Memphis Zoo]] in [[Memphis, Tennessee]], ended in 2013.<ref name="nytimesgoodman" />
-[[File:Lightmatter panda.jpg|thumb|right|Adult male giant panda at the San Diego Zoo in 2004]]In the 1970s, gifts of giant pandas to American and Japanese zoos formed an important part of the diplomacy of the People's Republic of China (PRC), as it marked some of the first cultural exchanges between China and the West. This practice has been termed "[[panda diplomacy]]".<ref name="buckingham">{{Cite journal|last1=Buckingham|first1=Kathleen Carmel |last2=David|first2=Jonathan Neil William|last3=Jepson|first3=Paul|date=September 2013|title=Environmental Reviews and Case Studies: Diplomats and Refugees: Panda Diplomacy, Soft "Cuddly" Power, and the New Trajectory in Panda Conservation |url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/environmental-practice/article/environmental-reviews-and-case-studies-diplomats-and-refugees-panda-diplomacy-soft-cuddly-power-and-the-new-trajectory-in-panda-conservation/A23238335C47C1717417060B7AAB05AF|journal=Environmental Practice|volume=15|issue=3|pages=262–270|doi=10.1017/S1466046613000185|s2cid=154378167|issn=1466-0466|access-date=18 January 2020|archive-date=11 April 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200411040351/https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/environmental-practice/article/environmental-reviews-and-case-studies-diplomats-and-refugees-panda-diplomacy-soft-cuddly-power-and-the-new-trajectory-in-panda-conservation/A23238335C47C1717417060B7AAB05AF|url-status=live|url-access=subscription}}</ref> By 1984, however, pandas were no longer given as gifts. Instead, China began to offer pandas to other nations only on 10-year loans for a fee of up to US$1,000,000 per year and with the provision that any cubs born during the loan are the property of China. As a result of this change in policy, nearly all the pandas in the world are owned by China, and pandas leased to foreign zoos and all cubs are eventually returned to China.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2017-09-16 |title=In memory of panda queen nicknamed "Granny Basi," five amazing things you may not know about pandas |url=https://www.newsweek.com/panda-trivia-basi-fun-facts-666169 |access-date=2022-06-03 |website=Newsweek |language=en |archive-date=3 June 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220603001052/https://www.newsweek.com/panda-trivia-basi-fun-facts-666169 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Fikes |first=Bradely |date=2019-03-25 |title=Last pandas at San Diego Zoo are leaving |url=https://www.sandiegouniontribune.com/business/tourism/sd-sdi-fi-zoo-pandas-20190325-story.html |access-date=2022-06-03 |website=San Diego Union-Tribune |language=en-US |archive-date=4 June 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220604195752/https://www.sandiegouniontribune.com/business/tourism/sd-sdi-fi-zoo-pandas-20190325-story.html |url-status=live }}</ref> As of 2022, [[Xin Xin (giant panda)|Xin Xin]] at the [[Chapultepec Zoo]] in Mexico City, was the last living descendant of the gifted pandas.<ref>{{cite web |title=The last panda in Latin America? Mexico to decide what happens next |url=https://www.nbcnews.com/news/latino/last-panda-latin-america-mexico-decide-happens-rcna57921 |website=NBC News |access-date=11 February 2024 |language=en |date=18 November 2022 |archive-date=24 February 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240224103243/https://www.nbcnews.com/news/latino/last-panda-latin-america-mexico-decide-happens-rcna57921 |url-status=live }}</ref>
+[[File:Lightmatter panda.jpg|thumb|right|Adult male giant panda at the San Diego Zoo in 2004]]
+In the 1970s, gifts of giant pandas to American and Japanese zoos formed an important part of the diplomacy of the People's Republic of China, as it marked some of the first cultural exchanges between China and the West. This practice has been termed "[[panda diplomacy]]".<ref name="buckingham">{{Cite journal |last1=Buckingham|first1=K. C. |last2=David |first2=J. N. W. |last3=Jepson |first3=P. |date=2013 |title=Environmental Reviews and Case Studies: Diplomats and Refugees: Panda Diplomacy, Soft "Cuddly" Power, and the New Trajectory in Panda Conservation |url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/environmental-practice/article/environmental-reviews-and-case-studies-diplomats-and-refugees-panda-diplomacy-soft-cuddly-power-and-the-new-trajectory-in-panda-conservation/A23238335C47C1717417060B7AAB05AF |journal=Environmental Practice |volume=15 |issue=3 |pages=262–270 |doi=10.1017/S1466046613000185 |s2cid=154378167 |access-date=18 January 2020 |archive-date=11 April 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200411040351/https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/environmental-practice/article/environmental-reviews-and-case-studies-diplomats-and-refugees-panda-diplomacy-soft-cuddly-power-and-the-new-trajectory-in-panda-conservation/A23238335C47C1717417060B7AAB05AF |url-status=live |url-access=subscription}}</ref> By 1984, however, giant pandas were no longer given as gifts. Instead, China began to offer giant pandas to other nations only on 10-year loans for a fee of up to US$1,000,000 per year and with the provision that any cubs born during the loan are the property of China. As a result of this change in policy, nearly all the giant pandas in the world are owned by China, and individuals and all cubs leased to foreign zoos are eventually returned to China.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2017 |title=In memory of panda queen nicknamed "Granny Basi," five amazing things you may not know about pandas |url=https://www.newsweek.com/panda-trivia-basi-fun-facts-666169 |access-date=2022-06-03 |work=Newsweek |archive-date=3 June 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220603001052/https://www.newsweek.com/panda-trivia-basi-fun-facts-666169 |url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Fikes |first=B. |date=2019 |title=Last pandas at San Diego Zoo are leaving |url=https://www.sandiegouniontribune.com/business/tourism/sd-sdi-fi-zoo-pandas-20190325-story.html |access-date=2022-06-03 |work=San Diego Union-Tribune |archive-date=4 June 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220604195752/https://www.sandiegouniontribune.com/business/tourism/sd-sdi-fi-zoo-pandas-20190325-story.html |url-status=live}}</ref> As of 2022, [[Xin Xin (giant panda)|Xin Xin]] at the [[Chapultepec Zoo]] in Mexico City, was the last living descendant of the gifted giant pandas.<ref>{{cite web |title=The last panda in Latin America? Mexico to decide what happens next |url=https://www.nbcnews.com/news/latino/last-panda-latin-america-mexico-decide-happens-rcna57921 |website=NBC News |access-date=11 February 2024 |date=2022 |archive-date=24 February 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240224103243/https://www.nbcnews.com/news/latino/last-panda-latin-america-mexico-decide-happens-rcna57921 |url-status=live}}</ref>
-Since 1998, because of a [[World Wide Fund for Nature|WWF]] [[lawsuit]], the [[United States Fish and Wildlife Service]] only allows US zoos to import a panda if the zoo can ensure China channels more than half of its loan fee into [[conservation movement|conservation]] efforts for giant pandas and their habitat.<ref>{{FedReg|63|45839}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=History of Panda Conservation |website=World Wildlife Fund |url=https://wwf.panda.org/discover/knowledge_hub/endangered_species/giant_panda/panda/panda_evolutionary_history/ |access-date=2023-07-06 |date=2020 |archive-date=7 July 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230707162027/https://wwf.panda.org/discover/knowledge_hub/endangered_species/giant_panda/panda/panda_evolutionary_history/ |url-status=live }}</ref> In May 2005, China offered a breeding pair to [[Taiwan]]. The issue became embroiled in [[cross-Strait relations]] – due to both the underlying symbolism and technical issues such as whether the transfer would be considered "domestic" or "international" or whether any true conservation purpose would be served by the exchange.<ref>[http://www.newsweek.com/id/45901/ China's Panda Politics]. [[Newsweek]]. 15 October 2007. Retrieved 23 May 2008. {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121010223523/http://www.newsweek.com/id/45901/ |date=10 October 2012 }}</ref> A contest in 2006 to name the pandas was held in the mainland, resulting in the politically charged names [[Tuan Tuan and Yuan Yuan]] (from {{lang-zh|hp=tuanyuan|s=团圆|t=團圓|l=reunion}}, implying [[Chinese unification|reunification]]). China's offer was initially rejected by [[Chen Shui-bian]], then President of Taiwan. However, when [[Ma Ying-jeou]] assumed the presidency in 2008, the offer was accepted and the pandas arrived in December of that year.<ref>[https://www.theguardian.com/world/2008/dec/23/china-taiwan-pandas China sends panda peace offering] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160927180947/https://www.theguardian.com/world/2008/dec/23/china-taiwan-pandas |date=27 September 2016 }}. [[The Guardian]]. 28 December 2008.</ref>
+Since 1998, because of a [[World Wide Fund for Nature|WWF]] [[lawsuit]], the [[United States Fish and Wildlife Service]] only allows US zoos to import a panda if the zoo can ensure China channels more than half of its loan fee into [[conservation movement|conservation]] efforts for giant pandas and their habitat.<ref>{{FedReg|63|45839}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=History of Panda Conservation |work=World Wildlife Fund |date=2020 |url=https://wwf.panda.org/discover/knowledge_hub/endangered_species/giant_panda/panda/panda_evolutionary_history/ |access-date=2023-07-06 |archive-date=7 July 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230707162027/https://wwf.panda.org/discover/knowledge_hub/endangered_species/giant_panda/panda/panda_evolutionary_history/ |url-status=live}}</ref> In May 2005, China offered a breeding pair to [[Taiwan]]. The issue became embroiled in [[cross-Strait relations]] – due to both the underlying symbolism and technical issues such as whether the transfer would be considered "domestic" or "international" or whether any true conservation purpose would be served by the exchange.<ref>[http://www.newsweek.com/id/45901/ China's Panda Politics]. [[Newsweek]]. 15 October 2007. Retrieved 23 May 2008. {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121010223523/http://www.newsweek.com/id/45901/ |date=2012}}</ref> A contest in 2006 to name the pandas was held in the mainland, resulting in the politically charged names [[Tuan Tuan and Yuan Yuan]] (from {{lang-zh|hp=tuanyuan|s=团圆|t=團圓|l=reunion}}, implying [[Chinese unification|reunification]]). China's offer was initially rejected by [[Chen Shui-bian]], then President of Taiwan. However, when [[Ma Ying-jeou]] assumed the presidency in 2008, the offer was accepted and the pandas arrived in December of that year.<ref>[https://www.theguardian.com/world/2008/dec/23/china-taiwan-pandas China sends panda peace offering] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160927180947/https://www.theguardian.com/world/2008/dec/23/china-taiwan-pandas |date=27 September 2016}}. [[The Guardian]]. 28 December 2008.</ref>
-In the 2020s, certain "celebrity pandas" have gained a cult following amongst internet users, with dedicated fan accounts existing to keep tabs on the animals. Known as "giant panda fever" or "panda-monium", individual pandas are known to get billions of views and engagements on social media, as well as product lines specifically emulating them.<ref name=":1">{{Cite web |last=America |first=Good Morning |title=Meet China's beloved celebrity pandas |url=https://www.goodmorningamerica.com/living/video/meet-chinas-beloved-celebrity-pandas-111541258 |access-date=2024-07-13 |website=Good Morning America |language=en}}</ref> At [[Chengdu Research Base of Giant Panda Breeding]], certain of these "celebrity pandas" are known to garner hours-long lines specifically to see them.<ref name=":1" /><ref>{{Cite web |date=2023-12-24 |title=Giant pandas at China base to shut out tourists every Monday from Christmas Day |url=https://www.scmp.com/news/china/politics/article/3246149/chinas-giant-pandas-chengdu-base-will-take-mondays-tourists-starting-christmas-day |access-date=2024-07-13 |website=South China Morning Post |language=en}}</ref>
+In the 2020s, certain "celebrity pandas" have gained a cult following amongst internet users, with dedicated fan accounts existing to keep tabs on the animals. Known as "giant panda fever" or "panda-monium", individual pandas are known to get billions of views and engagements on social media, as well as product lines specifically emulating them.<ref name=":1">{{Cite web |last=America |first=Good Morning |title=Meet China's beloved celebrity pandas |url=https://www.goodmorningamerica.com/living/video/meet-chinas-beloved-celebrity-pandas-111541258 |access-date=2024-07-13 |website=Good Morning America}}</ref> At [[Chengdu Research Base of Giant Panda Breeding]], certain of these "celebrity pandas" are known to garner hours-long lines specifically to see them.<ref name=":1" /><ref>{{Cite web |date=2023 |title=Giant pandas at China base to shut out tourists every Monday from Christmas Day |url=https://www.scmp.com/news/china/politics/article/3246149/chinas-giant-pandas-chengdu-base-will-take-mondays-tourists-starting-christmas-day |access-date=2024-07-13 |work=South China Morning Post}}</ref>
 ==Conservation==
-The giant panda is a [[vulnerable species]], threatened by continued [[habitat destruction|habitat loss]] and [[habitat fragmentation|fragmentation]],<ref name="climate-change"/><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Swaisgood |first1=Ronald R. |last2=Wei |first2=Fuwen |last3=Wildt |first3=David E. |last4=Kouba |first4=Andrew J. |last5=Zhang |first5=Zejun |date=2010-04-23 |title=Giant panda conservation science: how far we have come |journal=Biology Letters |language=en |volume=6 |issue=2 |pages=143–145 |doi=10.1098/rsbl.2009.0786 |pmid=19864275 |pmc=2865067 |issn=1744-9561}}</ref> and by a very low birthrate, both in the wild and in [[captivity (animal)|captivity]].<ref name="Britannica Earth"/> Its range is confined to a small portion on the western edge of its historical range, which stretched through southern and eastern China, northern [[Myanmar]], and northern [[Vietnam]]. The species is scattered into more than 30 subpopulations of relatively few animals. Building of roads and human settlement near panda habitat, result in population declines. Diseases from domesticated pets and livestock is another threat. By 2100, it is estimated that the distribution of giant pandas will shrink by up to 100%, mainly due to the effects of [[climate change]].<ref name="iucn" /> The giant panda is listed on [[CITES Appendix I]], meaning trade of their parts is prohibited and that they require this protection to avoid [[extinction]].<ref>{{Cite web |date=14 August 1983 |title=Giant panda |url=https://cites.org/eng/gallery/species/mammal/giant_panda.html |access-date=27 April 2024 |website=CITES}}</ref> They have been protected and placed in category 1, by the [[Wildlife Protection Act|1988 Wildlife Protection Act]].<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Reid |first=Donald G. |date=1994 |title=The Focus and Role of Biological Research in Giant Panda Conservation |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/3872681 |journal=Bears: Their Biology and Management |volume=9 |pages=23–33 |doi=10.2307/3872681 |jstor=3872681 |issn=1936-0614|url-access=subscription }}</ref>
+The giant panda is a [[vulnerable species]], threatened by continued [[habitat destruction]] and [[habitat fragmentation]],<ref name="climate-change"/><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Swaisgood |first1=R. R. |last2=Wei |first2=F. |last3=Wildt |first3=D. E. |last4=Kouba |first4=A. J. |last5=Zhang |first5=Z. |date=2010 |title=Giant panda conservation science: how far we have come |journal=Biology Letters |volume=6 |issue=2 |pages=143–145 |doi=10.1098/rsbl.2009.0786 |pmid=19864275 |pmc=2865067}}</ref> and by a very low birthrate, both in the wild and in [[captivity (animal)|captivity]].<ref name="Britannica Earth"/> Its range is confined to a small portion on the western edge of its historical range, which stretched through southern and eastern China, northern [[Myanmar]], and northern [[Vietnam]]. The species is scattered into more than 30 subpopulations of relatively few animals. Building of roads and human settlement near panda habitat, result in population declines. Diseases from domesticated pets and livestock is another threat. By 2100, it is estimated that the distribution of the giant panda will shrink by up to 100%, mainly due to the effects of [[climate change]].<ref name="iucn" /> The giant panda is listed on [[CITES Appendix I]], meaning trade of its parts is prohibited and that it requires this protection to avoid [[extinction]].<ref>{{Cite web |date=14 August 1983 |title=Giant panda |url=https://cites.org/eng/gallery/species/mammal/giant_panda.html |access-date=27 April 2024 |website=CITES}}</ref> It has been protected by China's 1988 Wildlife Conservation Law.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Reid |first=D. G. |date=1994 |title=The Focus and Role of Biological Research in Giant Panda Conservation |journal=Bears: Their Biology and Management |volume=9 |pages=23–33 |doi=10.2307/3872681 |jstor=3872681}}</ref>
 The giant panda has been a target of poaching by locals since ancient times and by foreigners since it was introduced to the West. Starting in the 1930s, foreigners were unable to poach giant pandas in China because of the [[Second Sino-Japanese War]] and the [[Chinese Civil War]], but pandas remained a source of soft furs for the locals. The population boom in China after 1949 created stress on the pandas' habitat and the subsequent famines led to the increased hunting of wildlife, including pandas. After the [[Chinese economic reform]], demand for panda skins from Hong Kong and Japan led to illegal poaching for the [[underground economy|black market]], acts generally ignored by the local officials at the time. In 1963, the PRC government set up [[Wolong National Nature Reserve]] to save the declining panda population.<ref name="about">{{cite web|url=http://www.chinawolong.com/doce/about.htm|title=About Wolong |publisher=Wolong National Natural Reserve|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20061201172138/https://www.chinawolong.com/doce/about.htm|archive-date=1 December 2006 |date=7 May 2005}}</ref>
 [[File:Panda Cub from Wolong, Sichuan, China.JPG|thumb|right|Close-up of a seven-month-old panda cub]]
+The giant panda is among the world's most adored and protected rare animals, and is one of the few in the world whose natural inhabitant status was able to gain a [[World Heritage Site|UNESCO World Heritage Site]] designation. The [[Sichuan Giant Panda Sanctuaries]], located in the southwest province of [[Sichuan]] and covering seven natural reserves, were inscribed onto the World Heritage List in 2006.<ref name="BBCheritage">{{cite news |title=Pandas gain world heritage status |url=https://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/asia-pacific/5174854.stm |access-date=17 January 2020 |publisher=BBC |date=12 July 2006 |archive-date=25 January 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200125064132/http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/asia-pacific/5174854.stm |url-status=live}}</ref><ref name="WWFheritage">{{cite news |last1=Benn |first1=J. |title=Panda sanctuary in China added to World Heritage list |url=https://wwf.panda.org/wwf_news/?76460/Panda-sanctuary-in-China-added-to-World-Heritage-list |access-date=17 January 2020 |publisher=WWF |date=13 July 2006 |archive-date=1 August 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200801013814/https://wwf.panda.org/wwf_news/?76460%2FPanda-sanctuary-in-China-added-to-World-Heritage-list |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name="unescowhc">{{cite web |title=Sichuan Giant Panda Sanctuaries – Wolong, Mt Siguniang and Jiajin Mountains |url=https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/1213/ |publisher=Unesco WHC |access-date=17 January 2020 |archive-date=29 January 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200129200315/https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/1213/ |url-status=live }}</ref> A 2015 paper found that the giant panda can serve as an [[umbrella species]] as the preservation of their habitat also helps other [[endemic species]] in China, including 70% of the country's forest birds, 70% of mammals and 31% of amphibians.<ref>{{cite journal|author1=Pimm, S. L. |author2=Li, B. V. |year=2015|title=China's endemic vertebrates sheltering under the protective umbrella of the giant panda |journal=Conservation Biology |doi=10.1111/cobi.12618 |pmid=26332026 |volume=30|issue=2 |pages=329–339 |s2cid=34750531}}</ref>
-The giant panda is among the world's most adored and protected rare animals, and is one of the few in the world whose natural inhabitant status was able to gain a [[World Heritage Site|UNESCO World Heritage Site]] designation. The [[Sichuan Giant Panda Sanctuaries]], located in the southwest province of [[Sichuan]] and covering seven natural reserves, were inscribed onto the World Heritage List in 2006.<ref name="BBCheritage">{{cite news |title=Pandas gain world heritage status |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/asia-pacific/5174854.stm |access-date=17 January 2020 |publisher=BBC |date=12 July 2006 |archive-date=25 January 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200125064132/http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/asia-pacific/5174854.stm |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name="WWFheritage">{{cite news |last1=Benn |first1=Joanna |title=Panda sanctuary in China added to World Heritage list |url=https://wwf.panda.org/wwf_news/?76460/Panda-sanctuary-in-China-added-to-World-Heritage-list |access-date=17 January 2020 |publisher=WWF |date=13 July 2006 |archive-date=1 August 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200801013814/https://wwf.panda.org/wwf_news/?76460%2FPanda-sanctuary-in-China-added-to-World-Heritage-list |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name="unescowhc">{{cite web |title=Sichuan Giant Panda Sanctuaries – Wolong, Mt Siguniang and Jiajin Mountains |url=https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/1213/ |publisher=Unesco WHC |access-date=17 January 2020 |archive-date=29 January 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200129200315/https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/1213/ |url-status=live }}</ref> A 2015 paper found that the giant panda can serve as an [[umbrella species]] as the preservation of their habitat also helps other [[endemic species]] in China, including 70% of the country's forest birds, 70% of mammals and 31% of amphibians.<ref>{{cite journal|author1=Pimm, Stuart L. |author2=Li, Binbin V. |year=2015|title=China's endemic vertebrates sheltering under the protective umbrella of the giant panda|journal=Conservation Biology|doi=10.1111/cobi.12618|pmid=26332026 |volume=30|issue=2 |pages=329–339|s2cid=34750531 }}</ref>
+In 2012, [[Earthwatch Institute]], a global nonprofit that teams volunteers with scientists to conduct important environmental research, launched a program called "On the Trail of Giant Panda". This program, based in the Wolong National Nature Reserve, allows volunteers to work up close with pandas cared for in captivity, and help them adapt to life in the wild, so that they may breed, and live longer and healthier lives.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.earthwatch.org/exped/zhang.html |title=Earthwatch: On the Trail of Giant Panda |access-date=24 February 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120301032825/http://www.earthwatch.org/exped/zhang.html |archive-date=1 March 2012}}</ref> Efforts to preserve the panda bear populations in China have come at the expense of other animals in the region, including snow leopards, wolves, and dholes.<ref>{{Cite web|author=Jessie Yeung|title=China's focus on panda conservation has come at the cost of other species: study|url=https://www.cnn.com/2020/08/04/asia/china-panda-conservation-study-intl-hnk-scli-scn/index.html|access-date=16 August 2020|website=CNN|date=4 August 2020 |archive-date=13 August 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200813225811/https://www.cnn.com/2020/08/04/asia/china-panda-conservation-study-intl-hnk-scli-scn/index.html|url-status=live}}</ref> In order to improve living and mating conditions for the fragmented populations of pandas, nearly 70 natural reserves have been combined to form the [[Giant Panda National Park]] in 2020. With a size of 10,500 square miles, the park is roughly three times as large as [[Yellowstone National Park]] and incorporates the [[Wolong National Nature Reserve]]. Small, isolated populations run the risk of inbreeding and smaller genetic variety makes the individuals more vulnerable to various defects and genetic [[mutation]].<ref>{{Cite web|title=China's National Panda Park Will Be Three Times the Size of Yellowstone|url=https://www.smithsonianmag.com/smart-news/chinas-national-panda-park-will-be-three-times-size-yellowstone-180972158/|access-date=2021-03-31|archive-date=19 April 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210419150208/https://www.smithsonianmag.com/smart-news/chinas-national-panda-park-will-be-three-times-size-yellowstone-180972158/|url-status=live}}</ref>
-In 2012, [[Earthwatch Institute]], a global nonprofit that teams volunteers with scientists to conduct important environmental research, launched a program called "On the Trail of Giant Panda". This program, based in the Wolong National Nature Reserve, allows volunteers to work up close with pandas cared for in captivity, and help them adapt to life in the wild, so that they may breed, and live longer and healthier lives.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.earthwatch.org/exped/zhang.html |title=Earthwatch: On the Trail of Giant Panda |access-date=24 February 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120301032825/http://www.earthwatch.org/exped/zhang.html |archive-date=1 March 2012 }}</ref> Efforts to preserve the panda bear populations in China have come at the expense of other animals in the region, including snow leopards, wolves, and dholes.<ref>{{Cite web|author=Jessie Yeung|title=China's focus on panda conservation has come at the cost of other species: study|url=https://www.cnn.com/2020/08/04/asia/china-panda-conservation-study-intl-hnk-scli-scn/index.html|access-date=16 August 2020|website=CNN|date=4 August 2020 |archive-date=13 August 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200813225811/https://www.cnn.com/2020/08/04/asia/china-panda-conservation-study-intl-hnk-scli-scn/index.html|url-status=live}}</ref> In order to improve living and mating conditions for the fragmented populations of pandas, nearly 70 natural reserves have been combined to form the [[Giant Panda National Park]] in 2020. With a size of 10,500 square miles, the park is roughly three times as large as [[Yellowstone National Park]] and incorporates the [[Wolong National Nature Reserve]]. Small, isolated populations run the risk of inbreeding and smaller genetic variety makes the individuals more vulnerable to various defects and genetic [[mutation]].<ref>{{Cite web|title=China's National Panda Park Will Be Three Times the Size of Yellowstone|url=https://www.smithsonianmag.com/smart-news/chinas-national-panda-park-will-be-three-times-size-yellowstone-180972158/|access-date=2021-03-31|archive-date=19 April 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210419150208/https://www.smithsonianmag.com/smart-news/chinas-national-panda-park-will-be-three-times-size-yellowstone-180972158/|url-status=live}}</ref>
 === Population ===
+In 2006, scientists reported that the number of giant pandas living in the wild may have been underestimated at about 1,000. Previous population surveys had used conventional methods to estimate the size of the wild giant panda population, but using a new method that analyzes [[DNA]] from giant panda [[Feces|droppings]], scientists believed the wild population were as large as 3,000.<ref name="Britannica Earth" /> In 2006, there were 40 panda reserves in China, but just 13 reserves in 1998.<ref name="BBC_06-07">{{cite news |url=https://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/sci/tech/5085006.stm |title=Hope for future of giant panda |work=BBC News |date=2006 |access-date=14 February 2007 |first=H. |last=Briggs |archive-date=27 January 2007 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070127095710/http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/science/nature/5085006.stm |url-status=live }}</ref> As the species has been reclassified from "endangered" to "vulnerable" in 2016, the conservation efforts are thought to be working. Furthermore, in response to this reclassification, the [[State Forestry Administration of the People's Republic of China]] announced that they would not accordingly lower the conservation level of the giant panda, and would instead reinforce the conservation efforts.<ref>[http://www.forestry.gov.cn/main/195/content-902929.html The Panda is still endangered species, and the conservation efforts still need to be reinforced] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160913153155/http://www.forestry.gov.cn/main/195/content-902929.html |date=13 September 2016}} ''State Forestry Administration of the People's Republic of China'' (in Chinese)</ref>
-In 2006, scientists reported that the number of pandas living in the wild may have been underestimated at about 1,000. Previous population surveys had used conventional methods to estimate the size of the wild panda population, but using a new method that analyzes [[DNA]] from panda [[Feces|droppings]], scientists believed the wild population were as large as 3,000.<ref name="Britannica Earth" /> In 2006, there were 40 panda reserves in China, compared to just 13 reserves in 1998.<ref name="BBC_06-07">{{cite news |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/science/nature/5085006.stm |title=Hope for future of giant panda |work=BBC News |date=20 June 2006 |access-date=14 February 2007 |first=Helen |last=Briggs |archive-date=27 January 2007 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070127095710/http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/science/nature/5085006.stm |url-status=live }}</ref> As the species has been reclassified from "endangered" to "vulnerable" since 2016, the conservation efforts are thought to be working. Furthermore, in response to this reclassification, the [[State Forestry Administration of the People's Republic of China|State Forestry Administration of China]] announced that they would not accordingly lower the conservation level for panda, and would instead reinforce the conservation efforts.<ref>[http://www.forestry.gov.cn/main/195/content-902929.html The Panda is still endangered species, and the conservation efforts still need to be reinforced] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160913153155/http://www.forestry.gov.cn/main/195/content-902929.html |date=13 September 2016 }} ''State Forestry Administration of the People's Republic of China'' (in Chinese)</ref>
+In 2020, the giant panda population of the new national park was already above 1,800 individuals, which is roughly 80 percent of the entire panda population in China. Establishing the new protected area in the [[Sichuan|Sichuan Province]] also gives various other endangered or threatened species, like the [[Siberian tiger]], the possibility to improve their living conditions by offering them a habitat.<ref>{{Cite web |title=China forges ahead with ambitious national park plan|website=[[National Geographic Society]]|date=27 August 2020 |url=https://www.nationalgeographic.com/animals/article/china-new-national-park-system|access-date=2021-03-31|archive-date=3 March 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210303001312/https://www.nationalgeographic.com/animals/article/china-new-national-park-system}}</ref> Other species who benefit from the protection of its habitat include the [[snow leopard]], the [[golden snub-nosed monkey]], the [[red panda]] and the [[complex-toothed flying squirrel]].<ref name="No longer endangered"/>
-In 2020, the panda population of the new national park was already above 1,800 individuals, which is roughly 80 percent of the entire panda population in China. Establishing the new protected area in the [[Sichuan|Sichuan Province]] also gives various other endangered or threatened species, like the [[Siberian tiger]], the possibility to improve their living conditions by offering them a habitat.<ref>{{Cite web|title=China forges ahead with ambitious national park plan|website=[[National Geographic Society]]|date=27 August 2020|url=https://www.nationalgeographic.com/animals/article/china-new-national-park-system|access-date=2021-03-31|archive-date=3 March 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210303001312/https://www.nationalgeographic.com/animals/article/china-new-national-park-system}}</ref> Other species who benefit from the protection of their habitat include the [[snow leopard]], the [[golden snub-nosed monkey]], the [[red panda]] and the [[complex-toothed flying squirrel]].<ref name="No longer endangered"/>
+In July 2021, Chinese conservation authorities announced that giant pandas are no longer endangered in the wild following years of conservation efforts, with a population in the wild exceeding 1,800.<ref name="No longer endangered">{{Cite web|title=Giant pandas no longer endangered in the wild, China announces |website=[[The Guardian]] |date=9 July 2021 |url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2021/jul/09/giant-pandas-no-longer-endangered-in-the-wild-china-announces|access-date=2021-07-11 |archive-date=11 July 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210711055255/https://www.theguardian.com/world/2021/jul/09/giant-pandas-no-longer-endangered-in-the-wild-china-announces|url-status=live}}</ref> China has received international praise for its conservation of the species, which has also helped the country establish itself as a leader in endangered species conservation.<ref>{{Cite book |title=Greening East Asia: The Rise of the Eco-Developmental State |date=2020 |publisher=[[University of Washington Press]] |isbn=978-0-295-74791-0 |editor-last=Esarey |editor-first=A. |location=Seattle |jstor=j.ctv19rs1b2 |editor-last2=Haddad |editor-first2=M. A. |editor-last3=Lewis |editor-first3=J. I. |editor-last4=Harrell |editor-first4=S.}}</ref>{{Rp|page=8}}
-In July 2021, Chinese conservation authorities announced that giant pandas are no longer endangered in the wild following years of conservation efforts, with a population in the wild exceeding 1,800.<ref name="No longer endangered">{{Cite web|title=Giant pandas no longer endangered in the wild, China announces|website=[[TheGuardian.com]]|date=9 July 2021|url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2021/jul/09/giant-pandas-no-longer-endangered-in-the-wild-china-announces|access-date=2021-07-11|archive-date=11 July 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210711055255/https://www.theguardian.com/world/2021/jul/09/giant-pandas-no-longer-endangered-in-the-wild-china-announces|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|title=Conservation efforts have saved China's giant pandas from the endangered species list|website=[[CBS News]]|date=10 July 2021 |url=https://www.cbsnews.com/news/giant-pandas-off-endangered-species-list-china/|access-date=2021-07-11|archive-date=11 July 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210711055254/https://www.cbsnews.com/news/giant-pandas-off-endangered-species-list-china/|url-status=live}}</ref> China has received international praise for its conservation of the species, which has also helped the country establish itself as a leader in endangered species conservation.<ref>{{Cite book |title=Greening East Asia: The Rise of the Eco-Developmental State |date=2020 |publisher=[[University of Washington Press]] |isbn=978-0-295-74791-0 |editor-last=Esarey |editor-first=Ashley |location=Seattle |jstor=j.ctv19rs1b2 |editor-last2=Haddad |editor-first2=Mary Alice |editor-last3=Lewis |editor-first3=Joanna I. |editor-last4=Harrell |editor-first4=Stevan}}</ref>{{Rp|page=8}}
+As of November 26, 2024, the global captive giant panda population had reached 757 individuals, while about 1,900 were estimated to live in the wild, bringing the total to approximately 2,657.<ref>{{cite news |title=Global captive giant panda population reaches 757 |url=https://english.news.cn/20241126/9bb1cd94e73b4386a4596a57da29bd6f/c.html |work=Xinhua |date=26 November 2024 |access-date=1 October 2025}}</ref>
 ==See also==
@@ Line 236: / Line 239: @@
 [[Category:Articles containing video clips]]
 [[Category:Species that are or were threatened by agricultural development]]
-[[Category:Species that are or were threatened by logging]]
+[[Category:Species that are or were threatened by deforestation]]
 [[Category:Mammals described in 1869]]
 [[Category:Taxa named by Armand David]]
 [[Category:Ailuropodinae]]
 [[Category:National symbols of China]]