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[[File:Trimyristin-3D-vdW.png|thumb|Idealized representation of a molecule of a typical [[triglyceride]], the main type of fat. Note the three fatty acid chains attached to the central glycerol portion of the molecule.|alt=A space-filling model of an unsaturated triglyceride.]] | [[File:Trimyristin-3D-vdW.png|thumb|Idealized representation of a molecule of a typical [[triglyceride]], the main type of fat. Note the three fatty acid chains attached to the central glycerol portion of the molecule.|alt=A space-filling model of an unsaturated triglyceride.]] | ||
[[File:Fat composition in foods.svg|thumb|Composition of fats from various foods, as percentage of their total fat]] | [[File:Fat composition in foods.svg|thumb|Composition of fats from various foods, as percentage of their total fat]] | ||
{{Fats}} | {{Fats}} | ||
In [[ | In [[Nutritional science|nutrition]], [[biology]], and [[chemistry]], '''fat''' usually means any [[ester]] of [[fatty acid]]s, or a mixture of such [[Chemical compound|compounds]], most commonly those that occur in living beings or in [[food]].<ref name="webster" /> | ||
The term often refers specifically to [[triglyceride]]s (triple esters of [[glycerol]]), that are the main components of [[vegetable oil]]s and of [[ | The term often refers specifically to [[triglyceride]]s (triple esters of [[glycerol]]), that are the main components of [[vegetable oil]]s and of [[fatty tissue]] in animals;<ref name="sand2016" /> or, even more narrowly, to triglycerides that are solid or semisolid at room temperature, thus excluding [[oil]]s. The term may also be used more broadly as a synonym of [[lipid]]—any substance of biological relevance, composed of [[carbon]], [[hydrogen]], or [[oxygen]], that is insoluble in water but soluble in [[non-polar solvent]]s.<ref name="webster" /> In this sense, besides the triglycerides, the term would include several other types of compounds like [[Monoglyceride|mono-]] and [[diglyceride]]s, [[phospholipid]]s (such as [[lecithin]]), [[sterol]]s (such as [[cholesterol]]), [[wax]]es (such as [[beeswax]]),<ref name="webster" /> and free fatty acids, which are usually present in human diet in smaller amounts.<ref name="sand2016" /> | ||
Fats are one of the three main [[macronutrient]] groups in human [[ | Fats are one of the three main [[macronutrient]] groups in human [[Diet (nutrition)|diet]], along with [[carbohydrate]]s and [[protein]]s,<ref name="webster" /><ref name="mckin2014" /> and the main components of common food products like [[milk]], [[butter]], [[tallow]], [[lard]], [[salt pork]], and [[cooking oil]]s. They are a major and dense source of [[food energy]] for many animals and play important structural and [[metabolic]] functions in most living beings, including energy storage, waterproofing, and [[thermal insulation]].<ref name="khan0000" /> The human body can produce the fat it requires from other food ingredients, except for a few [[essential fatty acid]]s that must be included in the diet. Dietary fats are also the carriers of some [[Flavoring|flavor]] and [[aroma]] ingredients and [[vitamin]]s that are [[Lipophilicity|not water-soluble]].<ref name="sand2016" /> | ||
{{Toclimit | {{Toclimit}} | ||
== Biological importance == | == Biological importance == | ||
In humans and many animals, fats serve both as energy sources and as stores for energy in excess of what the body needs immediately. Each gram of fat when burned or metabolized releases about nine [[ | In humans and many animals, fats serve both as energy sources and as stores for energy in excess of what the body needs immediately. Each gram of fat when burned or metabolized releases about nine [[food calorie]]s {{nowrap|1=(37 [[Joule|kJ]] = 8.8 [[kcal]])}}.<ref name="uksi1996" /> | ||
Fats are also sources of [[essential fatty acid]]s, an important dietary requirement. | Fats are also sources of [[essential fatty acid]]s, an important dietary requirement. Vitamins [[Vitamin A|A]], [[Vitamin D|D]], [[Vitamin E|E]], and [[Vitamin K|K]] are fat-soluble, meaning they can only be digested, absorbed, and transported in conjunction with fats. | ||
Fats play a vital role in maintaining healthy [[skin]] and [[hair]], insulating body organs against shock, maintaining body temperature, and promoting healthy cell function. Fat also serves as a useful buffer against a host of diseases. When a particular substance, whether chemical or biotic, reaches unsafe levels in the bloodstream, the body can effectively dilute—or at least maintain equilibrium of—the offending substances by storing it in new fat tissue.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Wu |first1=Yang |last2=Zhang |first2=Aijun |last3=Hamilton |first3=Dale J. |last4=Deng |first4=Tuo | | Fats play a vital role in maintaining healthy [[skin]] and [[hair]], insulating body organs against shock, maintaining body temperature, and promoting healthy cell function. Fat also serves as a useful buffer against a host of diseases. When a particular substance, whether chemical or biotic, reaches unsafe levels in the bloodstream, the body can effectively dilute—or at least maintain equilibrium of—the offending substances by storing it in new fat tissue.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Wu |first1=Yang |last2=Zhang |first2=Aijun |last3=Hamilton |first3=Dale J. |last4=Deng |first4=Tuo |year=2017 |title=Epicardial Fat in the Maintenance of Cardiovascular Health |journal=Methodist DeBakey Cardiovascular Journal |volume=13 |issue=1 |pages=20–24 |doi=10.14797/mdcj-13-1-20 |issn=1947-6094 |pmc=5385790 |pmid=28413578}}</ref> This helps to protect vital organs, until such time as the offending substances can be metabolized or removed from the body by such means as [[excretion]], [[urination]], accidental or intentional [[bloodletting]], [[sebum]] excretion, and hair growth. | ||
===Adipose tissue=== | ===Adipose tissue=== | ||
[[File:Fatmouse.jpg|thumb|The [[obese]] mouse | [[File:Fatmouse.jpg|thumb|The [[obese]] mouse (left) has large stores of adipose tissue. For comparison, a mouse with a normal amount of adipose tissue is also shown (right).]] | ||
In animals, [[adipose tissue]] | In animals, [[adipose tissue]] (fatty tissue) is the body's means of storing metabolic energy over extended periods of time. [[Adipocyte]]s (fat cells) store fat derived from the diet and from liver [[metabolism]]. Under energy stress these cells may degrade their stored fat to supply fatty acids and also glycerol to the [[Circulatory system|circulation]]. These metabolic activities are regulated by several hormones (e.g., [[insulin]], [[glucagon]] and [[epinephrine]]). Adipose tissue also secretes the hormone [[leptin]].<ref name="hprot0000" /> | ||
==Production and processing== | ==Production and processing== | ||
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* [[Oil pressing|Pressing]] to extract liquid fats from fruits, seeds, or [[alga]]e, e.g. [[olive oil]] from [[olive]]s | * [[Oil pressing|Pressing]] to extract liquid fats from fruits, seeds, or [[alga]]e, e.g. [[olive oil]] from [[olive]]s | ||
* [[Solvent extraction]] using solvents like [[hexane]] or [[supercritical carbon dioxide]] | * [[Solvent extraction]] using solvents like [[hexane]] or [[supercritical carbon dioxide]] | ||
* [[Rendering (animal products)|Rendering]] | * [[Rendering (animal products)|Rendering]] – the melting of fat in adipose tissue, e.g. to produce tallow, lard, [[fish oil]], and [[whale oil]] | ||
* [[Churning (butter)|Churning]] of milk to produce butter | * [[Churning (butter)|Churning]] of milk to produce butter | ||
* [[Fat hydrogenation|Hydrogenation]] to increase the degree of saturation of the fatty acids | * [[Fat hydrogenation|Hydrogenation]] to increase the degree of saturation of the fatty acids | ||
* [[ | * [[Interesterification]] – the rearrangement of fatty acids across different triglycerides | ||
* [[Winterization | * [[Winterization of oil|Winterization]] to remove oil components with higher melting points | ||
* [[Clarified butter|Clarification]] of butter | * [[Clarified butter|Clarification]] of butter | ||
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{{See also|Fatty acid metabolism}} | {{See also|Fatty acid metabolism}} | ||
{{main | Lipid metabolism}} | {{main | Lipid metabolism}} | ||
[[Image:Fat triglyceride shorthand formula.svg|class=skin-invert-image|thumb|300px|Example of an unsaturated fat triglyceride. Left part: [[glycerol]], right part from top to bottom: [[palmitic acid]], [[oleic acid]], [[alpha-linolenic acid]]. Chemical formula: C{{sub|55}}H{{sub|98}}O{{sub|6}}]] | |||
The [[pancreatic lipase]] acts at the ester bond, hydrolyzing the bond and "releasing" the fatty acid. In triglyceride form, lipids cannot be absorbed by the [[duodenum]]. Fatty acids, monoglycerides (one glycerol, one fatty acid), and some diglycerides are absorbed by the duodenum, once the triglycerides have been broken down. | The [[pancreatic lipase]] acts at the ester bond, hydrolyzing the bond and "releasing" the fatty acid. In triglyceride form, lipids cannot be absorbed by the [[duodenum]]. Fatty acids, monoglycerides (one glycerol, one fatty acid), and some diglycerides are absorbed by the duodenum, once the triglycerides have been broken down. | ||
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Triglycerides cannot pass through cell membranes freely. Special enzymes on the walls of blood vessels called [[lipoprotein lipase]]s must break down triglycerides into free fatty acids and glycerol. Fatty acids can then be taken up by cells via [[fatty acid transport proteins]] (FATPs). | Triglycerides cannot pass through cell membranes freely. Special enzymes on the walls of blood vessels called [[lipoprotein lipase]]s must break down triglycerides into free fatty acids and glycerol. Fatty acids can then be taken up by cells via [[fatty acid transport proteins]] (FATPs). | ||
Triglycerides, as major components of [[very-low-density lipoprotein]] (VLDL) and | Triglycerides, as major components of [[very-low-density lipoprotein]] (VLDL) and chylomicrons, play an important role in [[metabolism]] as energy sources and transporters of dietary fat. They contain more than twice as much energy (approximately 9{{nbs}}kcal/g or 38{{nbs}}[[Joule|kJ]]/g) as [[carbohydrate]]s (approximately 4{{nbs}}kcal/g or 17{{nbs}}kJ/g).<ref name="drummond">{{cite book|last1=Drummond|first1=K. E.|last2=Brefere|first2=L. M.|year=2014|title=Nutrition for Foodservice and Culinary Professionals|edition=8th|publisher=John Wiley & Sons|isbn=978-0-470-05242-6}}</ref> | ||
==Nutritional and health aspects== | ==Nutritional and health aspects== | ||
The most common type of fat, in human diet and most living beings, is a [[triglyceride]], an ester of the triple [[ | The most common type of fat, in human diet and most living beings, is a [[triglyceride]], an ester of the triple [[Alcohol (chemistry)|alcohol]] [[glycerol]] {{chem|H(–CHOH–)|3|H}} and three fatty acids. The molecule of a triglyceride can be described as resulting from a [[condensation reaction]] (specifically, [[esterification]]) between each of glycerol's –OH groups and the HO– part of the carboxyl group {{chem2|HO(O\d)C\s}} of each fatty acid, forming an [[Ester|ester bridge]] {{chem2|\sO\s(O\d)C\s}} with elimination of a water molecule {{chem|H|2|O}}. | ||
Other less common types of fats include [[diglyceride]]s and [[monoglyceride]]s, where the esterification is limited to two or just one of glycerol's –OH groups. Other alcohols, such as [[cetyl alcohol]] (predominant in [[spermaceti]]), may replace glycerol. In the [[phospholipid]]s, one of the fatty acids is replaced by [[phosphoric acid]] or a monoester thereof. | Other less common types of fats include [[diglyceride]]s and [[monoglyceride]]s, where the esterification is limited to two or just one of glycerol's –OH groups. Other alcohols, such as [[cetyl alcohol]] (predominant in [[spermaceti]]), may replace glycerol. In the [[phospholipid]]s, one of the fatty acids is replaced by [[phosphoric acid]] or a monoester thereof. | ||
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<!--Merged from [[unsaturated fat]]--> | <!--Merged from [[unsaturated fat]]--> | ||
Different foods contain different amounts of fat with different proportions of saturated and unsaturated fatty acids. Some animal products, like [[beef]] and [[dairy | Different foods contain different amounts of fat with different proportions of saturated and unsaturated fatty acids. Some animal products, like [[beef]] and [[dairy product]]s made with whole or reduced fat milk like [[yogurt]], [[ice cream]], [[cheese]] and [[butter]] have mostly saturated fatty acids (and some have significant contents of [[dietary cholesterol]]). Other animal products, like [[pork]], [[poultry]], [[Eggs as food|eggs]], and seafood have mostly unsaturated fats. Industrialized [[baked goods]] may use fats with high unsaturated fat contents as well, especially those containing [[partially hydrogenated oil]]s, and [[processed food]]s that are [[deep-fried]] in [[Vegetable oil#Hydrogenation|hydrogenated oil]] are high in saturated fat content.<ref name="aha2014" /><ref name="husp2014" /><ref name="choo2020" /> | ||
Plants and fish oil generally contain a higher proportion of unsaturated acids, although there are exceptions such as [[coconut oil]] and [[palm kernel oil]].<ref name="reec2002" /><ref name="choos2015b" /> Foods containing unsaturated fats include [[avocado]], [[ | Plants and fish oil generally contain a higher proportion of unsaturated acids, although there are exceptions such as [[coconut oil]] and [[palm kernel oil]].<ref name="reec2002" /><ref name="choos2015b" /> Foods containing unsaturated fats include [[avocado]], [[Nut (fruit)|nuts]], [[olive oil]]s, and [[vegetable oil]]s such as [[canola]]. | ||
Many [[scientific studies]] have found that replacing saturated fats with ''cis'' unsaturated fats in the diet reduces risk of [[cardiovascular disease]]s (CVDs),<ref name="hoop2020e" /> [[diabetes]], or death.<ref name="sacks2017" /> These studies prompted many medical organizations and public health departments, including the [[World Health Organization]] (WHO),<ref name="who2015" /><ref name="who0000" /> to officially issue that advice. Some countries with such recommendations include: | Many [[scientific studies]] have found that replacing saturated fats with ''cis'' unsaturated fats in the diet reduces risk of [[cardiovascular disease]]s (CVDs),<ref name="hoop2020e" /> [[diabetes]], or death.<ref name="sacks2017" /> These studies prompted many medical organizations and public health departments, including the [[World Health Organization]] (WHO),<ref name="who2015" /><ref name="who0000" /> to officially issue that advice. Some countries with such recommendations include: | ||
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Concerns were also expressed at a 2010 conference of the [[American Dietetic Association]] that a blanket recommendation to avoid saturated fats could drive people to also reduce the amount of polyunsaturated fats, which may have health benefits, and/or replace fats by refined carbohydrates — which carry a high risk of obesity and heart disease.<ref name="zelm2011" /> | Concerns were also expressed at a 2010 conference of the [[American Dietetic Association]] that a blanket recommendation to avoid saturated fats could drive people to also reduce the amount of polyunsaturated fats, which may have health benefits, and/or replace fats by refined carbohydrates — which carry a high risk of obesity and heart disease.<ref name="zelm2011" /> | ||
For these reasons, the U.S. | For these reasons, the [[U.S. Food and Drug Administration]], for example, recommends to consume less than 10% (7% for high-risk groups) of calories from saturated fat, with 15-30% of total calories from all fat.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Nutrition |first=Center for Food Safety and Applied |date=March 7, 2022 |title=Health Claim Notification for Saturated Fat, Cholesterol, and Trans Fat, and Reduced Risk of Heart Disease |url=https://www.fda.gov/food/food-labeling-nutrition/health-claim-notification-saturated-fat-cholesterol-and-trans-fat-and-reduced-risk-heart-disease |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190926004512/https://www.fda.gov/food/food-labeling-nutrition/health-claim-notification-saturated-fat-cholesterol-and-trans-fat-and-reduced-risk-heart-disease |archive-date=September 26, 2019 |journal=FDA |language=en}}</ref><ref name="who2003s" /> A general 7% limit was recommended also by the [[American Heart Association]] (AHA) in 2006.<ref name="lich2006" /><ref name="smith2004" /> | ||
The WHO/FAO report also recommended replacing fats so as to reduce the content of myristic and palmitic acids, specifically.<ref name="who2003s" /> | The WHO/FAO report also recommended replacing fats so as to reduce the content of myristic and palmitic acids, specifically.<ref name="who2003s" /> | ||
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The consumption of saturated fat is generally considered a risk factor for [[dyslipidemia]]—abnormal blood lipid levels, including high total cholesterol, high levels of triglycerides, high levels of [[low-density lipoprotein]] (LDL, "bad" cholesterol) or low levels of [[high-density lipoprotein]] (HDL, "good" cholesterol). These parameters in turn are believed to be risk indicators for some types of cardiovascular disease.<ref name="fphuk0000" /><ref name="who2003k" /><ref name="irhf0000" /><ref name="usda2010m" /><ref name="cann2007" /><ref name="wohf2017" /><ref name="cata2011" /><ref name="aha0000xc" /><ref name="merck0000" /> These effects were observed in children too.<ref name="sanch2008" /> | The consumption of saturated fat is generally considered a risk factor for [[dyslipidemia]]—abnormal blood lipid levels, including high total cholesterol, high levels of triglycerides, high levels of [[low-density lipoprotein]] (LDL, "bad" cholesterol) or low levels of [[high-density lipoprotein]] (HDL, "good" cholesterol). These parameters in turn are believed to be risk indicators for some types of cardiovascular disease.<ref name="fphuk0000" /><ref name="who2003k" /><ref name="irhf0000" /><ref name="usda2010m" /><ref name="cann2007" /><ref name="wohf2017" /><ref name="cata2011" /><ref name="aha0000xc" /><ref name="merck0000" /> These effects were observed in children too.<ref name="sanch2008" /> | ||
Several [[ | Several [[meta-analyses]] (reviews and consolidations of multiple previously published experimental studies) have confirmed a significant relationship between saturated fat and high [[serum cholesterol]] levels,<ref name="sacks2017" /><ref name="clarke1997" /> which in turn have been claimed to have a causal relation with increased risk of cardiovascular disease (the so-called [[lipid hypothesis]]).<ref name="buck1999" /><ref name="lewin2007" /> However, high cholesterol may be caused by many factors. Other indicators, such as high LDL/HDL ratio, have proved to be more predictive.<ref name="lewin2007" /> In a study of [[myocardial infarction]] in 52 countries, the [[ApoB]]/[[ApoA1]] (related to LDL and HDL, respectively) ratio was the strongest predictor of CVD among all risk factors.<ref name="laba2011n" /> There are other pathways involving [[obesity]], [[triglyceride]] levels, [[insulin sensitivity]], [[endothelial function]], and [[thrombogenicity]], among others, that play a role in CVD, although it seems, in the absence of an adverse blood lipid profile, the other known risk factors have only a weak [[atherogenic]] effect.<ref name="laba2011p" /> Different saturated fatty acids have differing effects on various lipid levels.<ref name="thij2005" /> | ||
====Cancer==== | ====Cancer==== | ||
The evidence for a relation between saturated fat intake and [[cancer]] is significantly weaker, and there does not seem to be a clear medical consensus about it. | The evidence for a relation between saturated fat intake and [[cancer]] is significantly weaker, and there does not seem to be a clear medical consensus about it. | ||
* Several reviews of [[ | * Several reviews of [[case–control studies]] have found that saturated fat intake is associated with increased breast cancer risk.<ref>{{cite journal |vauthors=Dandamudi A, Tommie J, Nommsen-Rivers L, Couch S |year=2018|title=Dietary Patterns and Breast Cancer Risk: A Systematic Review|journal=Anticancer Research|volume=38|issue=6|pages=3209–3222|pmid=29848668|doi=10.21873/anticanres.12586|s2cid=44149964|doi-access=free}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|vauthors=Xia H, Ma S, Wang S, Sun G |year=2015|title=Meta-Analysis of Saturated Fatty Acid Intake and Breast Cancer Risk|journal=Medicine|volume=94|issue=52|article-number=e2391|pmid=26717389|doi=10.1097/MD.0000000000002391|pmc=5291630}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|vauthors=Brennan SF, Woodside JV, Lunny PM, Cardwell CR, Cantwell MM |year=2017|title=Dietary fat and breast cancer mortality: A systematic review and meta-analysis|journal=Critical Reviews in Food Science and Nutrition|volume=57|issue=10|pages=1999–2008|doi=10.1080/10408398.2012.724481|pmid=25692500 |s2cid=34098509 |url=https://pure.qub.ac.uk/en/publications/dietary-fat-and-breast-cancer-mortality-a-systematic-review-and-metaanalysis(d733bb2c-2e38-494e-bb66-03b38759e0c2).html}}</ref> | ||
* Another review found limited evidence for a positive relationship between consuming animal fat and incidence of [[colorectal cancer]].<ref name="xxxx2009a" /> | * Another review found limited evidence for a positive relationship between consuming animal fat and incidence of [[colorectal cancer]].<ref name="xxxx2009a" /> | ||
* Other meta-analyses found evidence for increased risk of [[ovarian cancer]] by high consumption of saturated fat.<ref name="hunch2001" /> | * Other meta-analyses found evidence for increased risk of [[ovarian cancer]] by high consumption of saturated fat.<ref name="hunch2001" /> | ||
* Some studies have indicated that serum [[myristic acid]]<ref name="mann2003" /><ref name="crowe2008" /> and [[palmitic acid]]<ref name="crowe2008" /> and dietary myristic<ref name="kura2008" /> and palmitic<ref name="kura2008" /> saturated fatty acids and serum palmitic combined with [[ | * Some studies have indicated that serum [[myristic acid]]<ref name="mann2003" /><ref name="crowe2008" /> and [[palmitic acid]]<ref name="crowe2008" /> and dietary myristic<ref name="kura2008" /> and palmitic<ref name="kura2008" /> saturated fatty acids and serum palmitic combined with [[alpha-tocopherol]] supplementation<ref name="mann2003" /> are associated with increased risk of [[prostate cancer]] in a dose-dependent manner. These associations may, however, reflect differences in intake or metabolism of these fatty acids between the precancer cases and controls, rather than being an actual cause.<ref name="crowe2008" /> | ||
====Bones==== | ====Bones==== | ||
Various animal studies have indicated that the intake of saturated fat has a negative effect on the [[ | Various animal studies have indicated that the intake of saturated fat has a negative effect on the [[Osteoporosis|mineral density of bones]]. One study suggested that men may be particularly vulnerable.<ref name="corw2006" /> | ||
====Disposition and overall health==== | ====Disposition and overall health==== | ||
Studies have shown that substituting monounsaturated fatty acids for saturated ones is associated with increased daily physical activity and resting energy expenditure. More physical activity, less anger, and less irritability were associated with a higher-oleic acid diet than one of a [[palmitic acid]] diet.<ref name="kien2013" /> | Studies have shown that substituting monounsaturated fatty acids for saturated ones is associated with increased daily physical activity and resting energy expenditure. More physical activity, less anger, and less irritability were associated with a higher-oleic acid diet than one of a [[palmitic acid]] diet.<ref name="kien2013" /> | ||
[[File:Fatchart.svg|thumb|Amounts of fat types in selected foods]] | |||
[[File:Fatchart.svg|thumb | |||
==={{anchor|Monounsaturated fat}}{{anchor|Polyunsaturated fat}}Monounsaturated vs. polyunsaturated fat=== | ==={{anchor|Monounsaturated fat}}{{anchor|Polyunsaturated fat}}Monounsaturated vs. polyunsaturated fat=== | ||
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<!--Merged from [p[olyunsaturated fat]]--> | <!--Merged from [p[olyunsaturated fat]]--> | ||
[[File:Fat triglyceride shorthand formula.PNG|thumb| | [[File:Fat triglyceride shorthand formula.PNG|thumb|upright=1.6|Schematic diagram of a triglyceride with a saturated fatty acid (top), a monounsaturated one (middle) and a polyunsaturated one (bottom)]] | ||
The most common fatty acids in human diet are unsaturated or mono-unsaturated. Monounsaturated fats are found in animal flesh such as red [[meat]], whole milk products, nuts, and high fat fruits such as olives and avocados. Olive oil is about 75% monounsaturated fat.<ref name="abdu2017" /> The high oleic variety [[sunflower oil]] contains at least 70% monounsaturated fat.<ref name="huth2015" /> [[Canola oil]] and [[cashew]]s are both about 58% monounsaturated fat.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Shute |first=Nancy |date=May 2, 2012 |title=Lard Is Back In The Larder, But Hold The Health Claims |language=en |work=NPR |url=https://www.npr.org/sections/thesalt/2012/05/02/151868208/lard-is-back-in-the-larder-but-hold-the-health-claims |access-date=June 29, 2022}}</ref> [[Tallow]] (beef fat) is about 50% monounsaturated fat,<ref name="nrc1974" /> and [[lard]] is about 40% monounsaturated fat.<ref>{{Cite web |date=April 13, 2015 |title=Ask the Expert: Concerns about canola oil |url=https://www.hsph.harvard.edu/nutritionsource/2015/04/13/ask-the-expert-concerns-about-canola-oil/ |access-date=June 29, 2022 |website=The Nutrition Source |language=en-us}}</ref> Other sources include [[hazelnut]], [[avocado oil]], [[macadamia nut oil]], [[grapeseed oil]], groundnut oil ([[peanut oil]]), [[sesame oil]], [[corn oil]], [[popcorn]], [[whole grain]] [[wheat]], [[cereal]], [[oatmeal]], [[almond oil]], [[hemp oil]], and [[tea-oil camellia]].<ref name="aizp2015" /> | |||
The most common fatty acids in human diet are unsaturated or mono-unsaturated. Monounsaturated fats are found in animal flesh such as red [[meat]], whole milk products, nuts, and high fat fruits such as olives and avocados. Olive oil is about 75% monounsaturated fat.<ref name="abdu2017" /> The high oleic variety [[sunflower oil]] contains at least 70% monounsaturated fat.<ref name="huth2015" /> [[Canola oil]] and [[cashew]]s are both about 58% monounsaturated fat.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Shute |first=Nancy |date=2012 | |||
Polyunsaturated fatty acids can be found mostly in nuts, seeds, fish, seed oils, and [[oyster]]s.<ref name="osu2014" /> | Polyunsaturated fatty acids can be found mostly in nuts, seeds, fish, seed oils, and [[oyster]]s.<ref name="osu2014" /> | ||
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! Food source (100g) !! Polyunsaturated fat (g) | ! Food source (100g) !! Polyunsaturated fat (g) | ||
|- | |- | ||
| [[ | | [[Walnut]]s || 47 | ||
|- | |- | ||
| [[Canola oil]] || 34 | | [[Canola oil]] || 34 | ||
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| [[Sesame seed]]s || 26 | | [[Sesame seed]]s || 26 | ||
|- | |- | ||
| [[ | | [[Chia seed]]s || 23.7 | ||
|- | |- | ||
| [[ | | Unsalted [[peanut]]s || 16 | ||
|- | |- | ||
| [[Peanut butter]] || 14.2 | | [[Peanut butter]] || 14.2 | ||
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| [[Olive oil]] || 11 | | [[Olive oil]] || 11 | ||
|- | |- | ||
|[[Safflower oil]] | | [[Safflower oil]] | ||
|12.82<ref name="usda2015b" /> | |12.82<ref name="usda2015b" /> | ||
|- | |- | ||
| [[Seaweed]] || 11 | | [[Seaweed]] || 11 | ||
|- | |- | ||
| [[ | | [[Sardine]]s || 5 | ||
|- | |- | ||
| [[ | | [[Soybean]]s || 7 | ||
|- | |- | ||
| [[Tuna]] || 14 | | [[Tuna]] || 14 | ||
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|} | |} | ||
==== Insulin resistance | ==== Insulin resistance (sensitivity) ==== | ||
MUFAs (especially oleic acid) have been found to lower the incidence of [[insulin resistance]]; PUFAs (especially large amounts of [[arachidonic acid]]) and SFAs (such as [[arachidic acid]]) increased it. These ratios can be indexed in the [[phospholipid]]s of human [[skeletal muscle]] and in other tissues as well. | MUFAs (especially oleic acid) have been found to lower the incidence of [[insulin resistance]]; PUFAs (especially large amounts of [[arachidonic acid]]) and SFAs (such as [[arachidic acid]]) increased it. These ratios can be indexed in the [[phospholipid]]s of human [[skeletal muscle]] and in other tissues as well. The relationship between dietary fats and insulin resistance is presumed secondary to the relationship between insulin resistance and [[inflammation]], which is partially modulated by dietary fat ratios {{nowrap|([[omega−3]]/[[Omega-6 fatty acids|6]]/[[Omega-9 fatty acids|9]])}}, with both omega{{nbnd}}3 and {{nbnd}}9 thought to be anti-inflammatory and omega{{nbnd}}6 pro-inflammatory (as well as by numerous other dietary components, particularly [[Health effects of polyphenols|polyphenols]] and exercise, with both of these anti-inflammatory). Although both pro- and anti-inflammatory types of fat are [[biologically]] necessary, fat dietary ratios in most U.S. diets are skewed towards omega{{nbnd}}6, with subsequent disinhibition of inflammation and potentiation of insulin resistance.<ref name="stor1996" /> This is contrary to the suggestion that polyunsaturated fats are shown to be protective against insulin resistance.{{citation needed|date=January 2023}} | ||
The large scale KANWU study found that increasing MUFA and decreasing SFA intake could improve insulin sensitivity, but only when the overall fat intake of the diet was low.<ref name="vess2001" /> However, some MUFAs may promote | The large-scale KANWU study found that increasing MUFA and decreasing SFA intake could improve insulin sensitivity, but only when the overall fat intake of the diet was low.<ref name="vess2001" /> However, some MUFAs may promote insulin resistance (like the SFAs), whereas PUFAs may protect against it.<ref name="love2002" /><ref name="fuku2004" />{{clarify|date=August 2020}} | ||
====Cancer==== | ====Cancer==== | ||
Levels of oleic acid along with other MUFAs in red blood cell membranes were positively associated with breast cancer risk. The [[saturation index]] (SI) of the same membranes was inversely associated with breast cancer risk. MUFAs and low SI in erythrocyte membranes are predictors of postmenopausal breast cancer. Both of these variables depend on the activity of the enzyme [[delta-9 desaturase]] (Δ9-d).<ref name="pala2001" /> | Levels of oleic acid along with other MUFAs in red blood cell membranes were positively associated with breast cancer risk. The [[Membrane scaling#Scaling prediction methods|saturation index]] (SI) of the same membranes was inversely associated with breast cancer risk. MUFAs and low SI in erythrocyte membranes are predictors of postmenopausal breast cancer. Both of these variables depend on the activity of the enzyme [[delta-9 desaturase]] (Δ9-d).<ref name="pala2001" /> | ||
Results from [[ | Results from [[Observational study|observational clinical trials]] on PUFA intake and cancer have been inconsistent and vary by numerous factors of cancer incidence, including gender and genetic risk.<ref name="nihw2016" /> Some studies have shown associations between higher intakes and/or blood levels of omega-3 PUFAs and a decreased risk of certain cancers, including breast and colorectal cancer, while other studies found no associations with cancer risk.<ref name="nihw2016" /><ref name="patt2011xk" /> | ||
====Pregnancy disorders==== | ====Pregnancy disorders==== | ||
| Line 190: | Line 189: | ||
==={{anchor|Trans fat}}"Cis fat" vs. "trans fat"=== | ==={{anchor|Trans fat}}"Cis fat" vs. "trans fat"=== | ||
{{main|Trans fat}} | {{main|Trans fat}} | ||
In nature, unsaturated fatty acids generally have double bonds in [[ | In nature, unsaturated fatty acids generally have double bonds in [[Cis–trans isomerism|''cis'' configuration]] (with the adjacent [[C–C bond]]s on the same side) as opposed to ''trans''.<ref name="mart2007" /> Nevertheless, [[Trans fat|''trans'' fatty acids]] (TFAs) occur in small amounts in meat and milk of [[ruminant]]s (such as cattle and sheep),<ref name="kuhnt2011" /><ref>{{cite book|first1=Fred August |last1=Kummerow |first2=Jean M. |last2=Kummerow|title=Cholesterol Won't Kill You, But Trans Fat Could|publisher=Trafford|year=2008|isbn=978-1-4251-3808-0}}</ref> typically 2{{nbnd}}5% of total fat.<ref name="tfca2006" /> Natural TFAs, which include [[conjugated linoleic acid]] (CLA) and [[vaccenic acid]], originate in the [[rumen]] of these animals. CLA has two double bonds, one in the ''cis'' configuration and one in ''trans'', which makes it simultaneously a ''cis''- and a ''trans''-fatty acid.<ref name="mejo0000" /> | ||
The trans fat content in various natural and traditionally processed foods is shown in the table below. | |||
{| class="wikitable" | {| class="wikitable" | ||
|- | |- | ||
! Food type | ! Food type | ||
! Trans fat content | ! Trans fat content<ref name="tarr2006" /><br />(grams per 100 g) | ||
|- | |- | ||
| | | [[Butter]] | ||
|2 to 7 g | |2 to 7 g | ||
|- | |- | ||
| | | [[Whole milk]] | ||
|0.07 to 0.1 g | |0.07 to 0.1 g | ||
|- | |- | ||
| | | [[Animal fat]] | ||
| 0 to 5 g<ref name="tfca2006" /> | | 0 to 5 g<ref name="tfca2006" /> | ||
|- | |- | ||
| | | [[Ground beef]] | ||
|1 g | |1 g | ||
|} | |} | ||
The processing of fats by hydrogenation can convert some unsaturated fats into trans | The processing of fats by hydrogenation can convert some unsaturated fats into trans fats. The presence of trans fats in various processed foods has received much attention. | ||
[[File:Margaryn 022.jpg | thumb | [[File:Margaryn 022.jpg|thumb|[[Margarine]] is a common product that can contain trans fats.]] | ||
[[File:Crisco Cookbook 1912.jpg|thumb|upright=0.9|Cover of the original [[Crisco]] cookbook, 1912. Crisco was made by hydrogenating cottonseed oil. The formula was revised in the 2000s and now has only a small amount of trans fat.]] | |||
[[File:Crisco Cookbook 1912.jpg | thumb | Cover of original [[Crisco]] cookbook, 1912. Crisco was made by hydrogenating cottonseed oil. The formula was revised in the 2000s and now has only a small amount of trans fat.]] | |||
===Omega-three and omega-six fatty acids=== | ===Omega-three and omega-six fatty acids=== | ||
| Line 224: | Line 222: | ||
Several experimental studies in humans found no statistical difference on fasting blood lipids between a diet with large amounts of IE fat, having 25-40% C16:0 or C18:0 on the 2-position, and a similar diet with non-IE fat, having only 3-9% C16:0 or C18:0 on the 2-position.<ref name="zock1995" /><ref name="nest1995" /><ref name="meij1997" /> A negative result was obtained also in a study that compared the effects on blood [[cholesterol]] levels of an IE fat product mimicking [[cocoa butter]] and the real non-IE product.<ref name="gran1970" /><ref name="berry2007a" /><ref name="zamp1994" /><ref name="ylij2001" /><ref name="berry2007b" /><ref name="summ1999" /><ref name="chris2000b" /> Another study found tentative evidence that interesterified fat may lower cardiovascular disease risk.<ref name=Alfieri/> | Several experimental studies in humans found no statistical difference on fasting blood lipids between a diet with large amounts of IE fat, having 25-40% C16:0 or C18:0 on the 2-position, and a similar diet with non-IE fat, having only 3-9% C16:0 or C18:0 on the 2-position.<ref name="zock1995" /><ref name="nest1995" /><ref name="meij1997" /> A negative result was obtained also in a study that compared the effects on blood [[cholesterol]] levels of an IE fat product mimicking [[cocoa butter]] and the real non-IE product.<ref name="gran1970" /><ref name="berry2007a" /><ref name="zamp1994" /><ref name="ylij2001" /><ref name="berry2007b" /><ref name="summ1999" /><ref name="chris2000b" /> Another study found tentative evidence that interesterified fat may lower cardiovascular disease risk.<ref name=Alfieri/> | ||
A 2007 study funded by the Malaysian Palm Oil Board<ref name="sund2007" /> claimed that replacing natural [[palm oil]] by other interesterified or partially hydrogenated fats caused adverse health effects, such as higher [[ | A 2007 study funded by the Malaysian Palm Oil Board<ref name="sund2007" /> claimed that replacing natural [[palm oil]] by other interesterified or partially hydrogenated fats caused adverse health effects, such as higher [[Low-density lipoprotein|LDL]]/[[High-density lipoprotein|HDL]] ratio and [[Blood sugar level|plasma glucose levels]]. However, these effects could be attributed to the higher percentage of saturated acids in the IE and partially hydrogenated fats, rather than to the IE process itself.<ref name="dest2007" /><ref name="mens2003" /> | ||
===Rancification=== | ===Rancification=== | ||
{{main|Rancidification}} | {{main|Rancidification}} | ||
Unsaturated fats undergo [[auto-oxidation]], which involves replacement of a C-H bond with C-OH unit. The process requires oxygen (air) and is accelerated by the presence of traces of metals, which serve as catalysts. Doubly unsaturated fatty acids are particularly prone to this reaction. Vegetable oils resist this process to a small degree because they contain antioxidants, such as [[tocopherol]]. Fats and oils often are treated with [[ | Unsaturated fats undergo [[auto-oxidation]], which involves replacement of a C-H bond with C-OH unit. The process requires oxygen (air) and is accelerated by the presence of traces of metals, which serve as catalysts. Doubly unsaturated fatty acids are particularly prone to this reaction. Vegetable oils resist this process to a small degree because they contain antioxidants, such as [[tocopherol]]. Fats and oils often are treated with [[chelating agents]] such as [[citric acid]] to remove the metal catalysts. | ||
===Role in disease=== | ===Role in disease=== | ||
{{Main|Hypertriglyceridemia}} | {{Main|Hypertriglyceridemia}} | ||
In the human body, high levels of triglycerides in the bloodstream have been linked to [[atherosclerosis]], [[Coronary | In the human body, high levels of triglycerides in the bloodstream have been linked to [[atherosclerosis]], [[Coronary artery disease|heart disease]]<ref>{{cite news | title=Boston scientists say triglycerides play key role in heart health | newspaper=The Boston Globe | url=https://www.bostonglobe.com/news/science/2014/06/18/boston-researchers-find-that-triglycerides-play-pivotal-role-heart-health/ynrM4QQwIq1fCCoRwMfOAN/story.html |access-date=June 18, 2014}}</ref> | ||
and [[stroke]].<ref name="drummond" /> However, the relative negative impact of raised levels of triglycerides compared to that of LDL:HDL ratios is as yet unknown. The risk can be partly accounted for by a strong inverse relationship between triglyceride level and HDL-cholesterol level. But the risk is also due to high triglyceride levels increasing the quantity of [[Low-density lipoprotein#LDL size patterns|small, dense LDL particles]].<ref>{{cite journal |vauthors=Ivanova EA, Myasoedova VA, Melnichenko AA, Grechko AV, Orekhov AN |title=Small Dense Low-Density Lipoprotein as Biomarker for Atherosclerotic Diseases |journal= Oxidative Medicine and Cellular Longevity |volume=2017 | | and [[stroke]].<ref name="drummond" /> However, the relative negative impact of raised levels of triglycerides compared to that of LDL:HDL ratios is as yet unknown. The risk can be partly accounted for by a strong inverse relationship between triglyceride level and HDL-cholesterol level. But the risk is also due to high triglyceride levels increasing the quantity of [[Low-density lipoprotein#LDL size patterns|small, dense LDL particles]].<ref>{{cite journal |vauthors=Ivanova EA, Myasoedova VA, Melnichenko AA, Grechko AV, Orekhov AN |title=Small Dense Low-Density Lipoprotein as Biomarker for Atherosclerotic Diseases |journal= Oxidative Medicine and Cellular Longevity |volume=2017 |article-number=1273042 |year=2017 |doi=10.1155/2017/1273042 |pmc= 5441126 |pmid = 28572872 |doi-access=free}}</ref> | ||
=== Guidelines === | === Guidelines === | ||
<div class="noprint">[[File:Blood values sorted by mass and molar concentration.png|thumb| | <div class="noprint">[[File:Blood values sorted by mass and molar concentration.png|thumb|upright=1.8|[[Reference ranges for blood tests]], showing usual ranges for triglycerides (increasing with age) in orange at right]]</div> | ||
The [[National Cholesterol Education Program]] has set guidelines for triglyceride levels:<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www. | The [[National Cholesterol Education Program]] has set guidelines for triglyceride levels:<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.medlineplus.gov/ency/article/003493.htm |title=Triglycerides |website=MedlinePlus |access-date=April 23, 2015 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140228062757/http://www.heart.org/HEARTORG/GettingHealthy/NutritionCenter/Triglycerides_UCM_306029_Article.jsp |archive-date=February 28, 2014}}</ref><ref>Crawford, H., Micheal. ''Current Diagnosis & Treatment Cardiology''. 3rd ed. McGraw-Hill Medical, 2009. p19</ref> | ||
{| class="wikitable" | {| class="wikitable" | ||
| Line 263: | Line 262: | ||
| Very high – high risk | | Very high – high risk | ||
|} | |} | ||
These levels are tested after [[ | These levels are tested after [[Fasting#Medical application|fasting]] for 8 to 12 hours. Triglyceride levels remain temporarily higher for a period after eating. | ||
The AHA recommends an optimal triglyceride level of 100{{nbs}}mg/dL (1.1{{nbs}}mmol/L) or lower to improve heart health.<ref>{{cite web|title=What's considered normal?|url=http://www.mayoclinic.org/diseases-conditions/high-blood-cholesterol/in-depth/triglycerides/art-20048186|website=Triglycerides: Why do they matter?|publisher=[[Mayo Clinic]]|date=28 | The AHA recommends an optimal triglyceride level of 100{{nbs}}mg/dL (1.1{{nbs}}mmol/L) or lower to improve heart health.<ref>{{cite web|title=What's considered normal?|url=http://www.mayoclinic.org/diseases-conditions/high-blood-cholesterol/in-depth/triglycerides/art-20048186|website=Triglycerides: Why do they matter?|publisher=[[Mayo Clinic]]|date=September 28, 2012}}</ref> | ||
=== Reducing triglyceride levels === | === Reducing triglyceride levels === | ||
| Line 271: | Line 270: | ||
==See also== | ==See also== | ||
* [[Diet and heart disease]] | * [[Diet and heart disease]] | ||
* [[Fatty acid synthesis]] | * [[Fatty acid synthesis]] | ||
* [[Food composition data]] | * [[Food composition data]] | ||
* [[Western pattern diet]] | * [[Western pattern diet]] | ||
==References== | ==References== | ||
<references> | |||
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<ref name="self0000">{{cite web|url=http://nutritiondata.self.com/facts/fats-and-oils/620/2|title=Vegetable oil, avocado Nutrition Facts & Calories |website=nutritiondata.self.com}}</ref> | <ref name="self0000">{{cite web|url=http://nutritiondata.self.com/facts/fats-and-oils/620/2|title=Vegetable oil, avocado Nutrition Facts & Calories |website=nutritiondata.self.com}}</ref> | ||
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<ref name="who0000">World Health Organization: ''[[Food pyramid (nutrition)#Food pyramid published by the WHO and FAO|Food pyramid (nutrition)]]''</ref> | <ref name="who0000">World Health Organization: ''[[Food pyramid (nutrition)#Food pyramid published by the WHO and FAO|Food pyramid (nutrition)]]''</ref> | ||
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<ref name="clarke1997">{{cite journal |vauthors=Clarke R, Frost C, Collins R, Appleby P, Peto R | title = Dietary lipids and blood cholesterol: quantitative meta-analysis of metabolic ward studies | journal = BMJ (Clinical Research Ed.) | volume = 314 | issue = 7074 | pages = 112–7 | year = 1997 | pmid = 9006469 | pmc = 2125600 | doi = 10.1136/bmj.314.7074.112}}</ref> | <ref name="clarke1997">{{cite journal |vauthors=Clarke R, Frost C, Collins R, Appleby P, Peto R | title = Dietary lipids and blood cholesterol: quantitative meta-analysis of metabolic ward studies | journal = BMJ (Clinical Research Ed.) | volume = 314 | issue = 7074 | pages = 112–7 | year = 1997 | pmid = 9006469 | pmc = 2125600 | doi = 10.1136/bmj.314.7074.112}}</ref> | ||
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<ref name="reec2002">{{Cite book |last1=Reece, Jane |url=https://archive.org/details/biologyc00camp/page/69 |title=Biology |last2=Campbell, Neil |publisher=Benjamin Cummings |year=2002 |isbn=978-0-8053-6624-2 |location=San Francisco |pages=[https://archive.org/details/biologyc00camp/page/69 69–70] |url-access=registration}}</ref> | <ref name="reec2002">{{Cite book |last1=Reece, Jane |url=https://archive.org/details/biologyc00camp/page/69 |title=Biology |last2=Campbell, Neil |publisher=Benjamin Cummings |year=2002 |isbn=978-0-8053-6624-2 |location=San Francisco |pages=[https://archive.org/details/biologyc00camp/page/69 69–70] |url-access=registration}}</ref> | ||
<ref name="mann2003">{{cite journal |vauthors=Männistö S, Pietinen P, Virtanen MJ, Salminen I, Albanes D, Giovannucci E, Virtamo J | title = Fatty acids and risk of prostate cancer in a nested case-control study in male smokers | journal = Cancer Epidemiology, Biomarkers & Prevention | volume = 12 | issue = 12 | pages = 1422–8 | date = December 2003 | pmid = 14693732 | url = http://cebp.aacrjournals.org/cgi/pmidlookup?view=long&pmid=14693732}}</ref> | <ref name="mann2003">{{cite journal |vauthors=Männistö S, Pietinen P, Virtanen MJ, Salminen I, Albanes D, Giovannucci E, Virtamo J | title = Fatty acids and risk of prostate cancer in a nested case-control study in male smokers | journal = Cancer Epidemiology, Biomarkers & Prevention | volume = 12 | issue = 12 | pages = 1422–8 | date = December 2003 | pmid = 14693732 | url = http://cebp.aacrjournals.org/cgi/pmidlookup?view=long&pmid=14693732}}</ref> | ||
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<ref name="who2003k">{{cite web | url =https://www.who.int/hpr/NPH/docs/who_fao_expert_report.pdf | archive-url =https://web.archive.org/web/20030404172324/http://www.who.int/hpr/NPH/docs/who_fao_expert_report.pdf | archive-date =April 4, 2003 | title = Diet, Nutrition and the Prevention of Chronic Diseases | publisher = World Health Organization | author = Report of a Joint WHO/FAO Expert Consultation | year = 2003 | access-date = 2011 | <ref name="who2003k">{{cite web | url =https://www.who.int/hpr/NPH/docs/who_fao_expert_report.pdf | archive-url =https://web.archive.org/web/20030404172324/http://www.who.int/hpr/NPH/docs/who_fao_expert_report.pdf | archive-date =April 4, 2003 | title = Diet, Nutrition and the Prevention of Chronic Diseases | publisher = World Health Organization | author = Report of a Joint WHO/FAO Expert Consultation | year = 2003 | access-date = March 11, 2011}}</ref> | ||
<ref name="who2003s">{{cite book |url= http://apps.who.int/iris/bitstream/10665/42665/1/WHO_TRS_916.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130421132456/http://apps.who.int/iris/bitstream/10665/42665/1/WHO_TRS_916.pdf |archive-date=2013 | <ref name="who2003s">{{cite book |url= http://apps.who.int/iris/bitstream/10665/42665/1/WHO_TRS_916.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130421132456/http://apps.who.int/iris/bitstream/10665/42665/1/WHO_TRS_916.pdf |archive-date=April 21, 2013 |url-status=live |title= Diet, Nutrition and the Prevention of Chronic Diseases (WHO technical report series 916) |publisher= World Health Organization |author = Joint WHO/FAO Expert Consultation |year= 2003 |pages=81–94 |isbn= 978-92-4-120916-8 |access-date = April 4, 2016}}</ref> | ||
<ref name="bray2004"> | <ref name="bray2004">{{cite journal | vauthors = Bray GA, Paeratakul S, Popkin BM | year = 2004 | title = Dietary fat and obesity: a review of animal, clinical and epidemiological studies | url = | journal = Physiology & Behavior | volume = 83 | issue = 4| pages = 549–555 | doi = 10.1016/j.physbeh.2004.08.039 }}</ref> | ||
<ref name="cdc2004">{{cite web | url = https://www.cdc.gov/od/oc/media/mmwrnews/n040206.htm#mmwr2 | title = Trends in Intake of Energy, Protein, Carbohydrate, Fat, and Saturated Fat — United States, 1971–2000 | publisher = [[Centers for Disease Control]] | year = 2004 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20081201152506/http://www.cdc.gov/od/oc/media/mmwrnews/n040206.htm#mmwr2 | archive-date = 2008 | <ref name="cdc2004">{{cite web | url = https://www.cdc.gov/od/oc/media/mmwrnews/n040206.htm#mmwr2 | title = Trends in Intake of Energy, Protein, Carbohydrate, Fat, and Saturated Fat — United States, 1971–2000 | publisher = [[Centers for Disease Control]] | year = 2004 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20081201152506/http://www.cdc.gov/od/oc/media/mmwrnews/n040206.htm#mmwr2 | archive-date = December 1, 2008}}</ref> | ||
<ref name="germ2004">{{cite journal |vauthors=German JB, Dillard CJ | title = Saturated fats: what dietary intake? | journal = American Journal of Clinical Nutrition | volume = 80 | issue = 3 | pages = 550–559 | date = September 2004 | pmid = 15321792 | doi = 10.1093/ajcn/80.3.550 | doi-access = free}}</ref> | <ref name="germ2004">{{cite journal |vauthors=German JB, Dillard CJ | title = Saturated fats: what dietary intake? | journal = American Journal of Clinical Nutrition | volume = 80 | issue = 3 | pages = 550–559 | date = September 2004 | pmid = 15321792 | doi = 10.1093/ajcn/80.3.550 | doi-access = free}}</ref> | ||
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<ref name="dona2005">Rebecca J. Donatelle (2005): ''Health, the Basics'', 6th edition. Pearson Education, San Francisco; {{isbn | 978-0-13-120687-8}}</ref> | <ref name="dona2005">Rebecca J. Donatelle (2005): ''Health, the Basics'', 6th edition. Pearson Education, San Francisco; {{isbn | 978-0-13-120687-8}}</ref> | ||
<ref name="thij2005">{{cite book | vauthors = Thijssen MA, Mensink RP | chapter = Fatty acids and atherosclerotic risk | volume = 170 | issue = 170 | pages = | <ref name="thij2005">{{cite book | vauthors = Thijssen MA, Mensink RP | chapter = Fatty acids and atherosclerotic risk | volume = 170 | issue = 170 | pages = 165–194 | year = 2005 | pmid = 16596799 | doi = 10.1007/3-540-27661-0_5 | publisher = Springer | isbn = 978-3-540-22569-0 | series = Handbook of Experimental Pharmacology | title = Atherosclerosis: Diet and Drugs}}</ref> | ||
<ref name="USDA2005u">{{cite web | publisher = [[United States Department of Agriculture]] | url = https://www.fda.gov/ohrms/dockets/dockets/06q0458/06q-0458-sup0001-02.pdf | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20061215153622/http://www.fda.gov/ohrms/dockets/dockets/06q0458/06q-0458-sup0001-02.pdf | <ref name="USDA2005u">{{cite web | publisher = [[United States Department of Agriculture]] | url = https://www.fda.gov/ohrms/dockets/dockets/06q0458/06q-0458-sup0001-02.pdf | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20061215153622/http://www.fda.gov/ohrms/dockets/dockets/06q0458/06q-0458-sup0001-02.pdf | archive-date = December 15, 2006 | title = Dietary Guidelines for Americans | year = 2005}}</ref> | ||
<ref name="corw2006">{{cite journal |vauthors=Corwin RL, Hartman TJ, Maczuga SA, Graubard BI | title = Dietary saturated fat intake is inversely associated with bone density in humans: Analysis of NHANES III | journal = The Journal of Nutrition | volume = 136 | issue = 1 | pages = 159–165 | year = 2006 | pmid = 16365076 | doi = 10.1093/jn/136.1.159 | s2cid = 4443420 | doi-access = free}}</ref> | <ref name="corw2006">{{cite journal |vauthors=Corwin RL, Hartman TJ, Maczuga SA, Graubard BI | title = Dietary saturated fat intake is inversely associated with bone density in humans: Analysis of NHANES III | journal = The Journal of Nutrition | volume = 136 | issue = 1 | pages = 159–165 | year = 2006 | pmid = 16365076 | doi = 10.1093/jn/136.1.159 | s2cid = 4443420 | doi-access = free}}</ref> | ||
<ref name="lich2006">{{cite journal |vauthors=[[Alice H. Lichtenstein|Lichtenstein AH]], Appel LJ, Brands M, Carnethon M, Daniels S, Franch HA, Franklin B, Kris-Etherton P, Harris WS, Howard B, Karanja N, Lefevre M, Rudel L, Sacks F, Van Horn L, Winston M, Wylie-Rosett J | title = Diet and lifestyle recommendations revision 2006: a scientific statement from the American Heart Association Nutrition Committee | journal = Circulation | volume = 114 | issue = 1 | pages = 82–96 | date = July 2006 | pmid = 16785338 | doi = 10.1161/CIRCULATIONAHA.106.176158 | s2cid = 647269 | doi-access = free}}</ref> | <ref name="lich2006">{{cite journal |vauthors=[[Alice H. Lichtenstein|Lichtenstein AH]], Appel LJ, Brands M, Carnethon M, Daniels S, Franch HA, Franklin B, Kris-Etherton P, Harris WS, Howard B, Karanja N, Lefevre M, Rudel L, Sacks F, Van Horn L, Winston M, Wylie-Rosett J | title = Diet and lifestyle recommendations revision 2006: a scientific statement from the American Heart Association Nutrition Committee | journal = Circulation | volume = 114 | issue = 1 | pages = 82–96 | date = July 2006 | pmid = 16785338 | doi = 10.1161/CIRCULATIONAHA.106.176158 | s2cid = 647269 | doi-access = free}}</ref> | ||
<ref name="moza2006"> | <ref name="moza2006">{{cite journal | vauthors = Mozaffarian D, Katan MB, Ascherio A, Stampfer MJ, Willett WC | year = 2006 | title = Trans fatty acids and cardiovascular disease | url = | journal = New England Journal of Medicine | volume = 354 | issue = 15| pages = 1601–1613 | doi = 10.1056/NEJMra054035 | pmid = 16611951 }}</ref> | ||
<ref name="tarr2006">{{cite journal | vauthors = Tarrago-Trani MT, Phillips KM, Lemar LE, Holden JM | title = New and existing oils and fats used in products with reduced trans-fatty acid content | journal = Journal of the American Dietetic Association | volume = 106 | issue = 6 | pages = 867–80 | date = June 2006 | pmid = 16720128 | doi = 10.1016/j.jada.2006.03.010}}</ref> | <ref name="tarr2006">{{cite journal | vauthors = Tarrago-Trani MT, Phillips KM, Lemar LE, Holden JM | title = New and existing oils and fats used in products with reduced trans-fatty acid content | journal = Journal of the American Dietetic Association | volume = 106 | issue = 6 | pages = 867–80 | date = June 2006 | pmid = 16720128 | doi = 10.1016/j.jada.2006.03.010}}</ref> | ||
<ref name="tfca2006">{{cite book|isbn=0-662-43689-X|author=Trans Fat Task Force|title=TRANSforming the Food Supply|date=June 2006|publisher=Trans Fat Task Force |url=http://www.hc-sc.gc.ca/fn-an/nutrition/gras-trans-fats/tf-ge/tf-gt_rep-rap_e.html|access-date=7 | <ref name="tfca2006">{{cite book|isbn=0-662-43689-X|author=Trans Fat Task Force|title=TRANSforming the Food Supply|date=June 2006|publisher=Trans Fat Task Force |url=http://www.hc-sc.gc.ca/fn-an/nutrition/gras-trans-fats/tf-ge/tf-gt_rep-rap_e.html|access-date=January 7, 2007}}</ref> | ||
<ref name="cann2007">{{cite book | title = Critical Pathways in Cardiovascular Medicine | edition = 2nd | publisher = Lippincott Williams & Wilkins | last1 = Cannon | first1 = Christopher | last2 = O'Gara | first2 = Patrick | name-list-style = vanc | year = 2007 | page = 243}}</ref> | <ref name="cann2007">{{cite book | title = Critical Pathways in Cardiovascular Medicine | edition = 2nd | publisher = Lippincott Williams & Wilkins | last1 = Cannon | first1 = Christopher | last2 = O'Gara | first2 = Patrick | name-list-style = vanc | year = 2007 | page = 243}}</ref> | ||
<ref name="dest2007">{{Citation | title=Letter to the editor: healthy alternatives to trans fats | work=Nutr Metab | volume=4 | page=10 | year=2007 | doi=10.1186/1743-7075-4-10 | pmc=1867814 | pmid=17462099 | vauthors=Destaillats F, Moulin J, Bezelgues JB | doi-access=free}}</ref> | <ref name="dest2007">{{Citation | title=Letter to the editor: healthy alternatives to trans fats | work=Nutr Metab | volume=4 | page=10 | year=2007 | doi=10.1186/1743-7075-4-10 | pmc=1867814 | pmid=17462099 | vauthors=Destaillats F, Moulin J, Bezelgues JB | doi-access=free}}</ref> | ||
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<ref name="lewin2007">{{cite journal |vauthors=Lewington S, Whitlock G, Clarke R, Sherliker P, Emberson J, Halsey J, Qizilbash N, Peto R, Collins R | title = Blood cholesterol and vascular mortality by age, sex, and blood pressure: a meta-analysis of individual data from 61 prospective studies with 55,000 vascular deaths | journal = Lancet | volume = 370 | issue = 9602 | pages = 1829–39 | date = December 2007 | pmid = 18061058 | doi = 10.1016/S0140-6736(07)61778-4 | s2cid = 54293528}}</ref> | <ref name="lewin2007">{{cite journal |vauthors=Lewington S, Whitlock G, Clarke R, Sherliker P, Emberson J, Halsey J, Qizilbash N, Peto R, Collins R | title = Blood cholesterol and vascular mortality by age, sex, and blood pressure: a meta-analysis of individual data from 61 prospective studies with 55,000 vascular deaths | journal = Lancet | volume = 370 | issue = 9602 | pages = 1829–39 | date = December 2007 | pmid = 18061058 | doi = 10.1016/S0140-6736(07)61778-4 | s2cid = 54293528}}</ref> | ||
<ref name="mart2007">{{cite journal | vauthors = Martin CA, Milinsk MC, Visentainer JV, Matsushita M, de-Souza NE | title = Trans fatty acid-forming processes in foods: a review | journal = Anais da Academia Brasileira de Ciências | volume = 79 | issue = 2 | pages = 343–50 | date = June 2007 | pmid = 17625687 | doi = 10.1590/S0001-37652007000200015 | doi-access = free}}</ref> | <ref name="mart2007">{{cite journal | vauthors = Martin CA, Milinsk MC, Visentainer JV, Matsushita M, de-Souza NE | title = Trans fatty acid-forming processes in foods: a review | journal = Anais da Academia Brasileira de Ciências | volume = 79 | issue = 2 | pages = 343–50 | date = June 2007 | pmid = 17625687 | doi = 10.1590/S0001-37652007000200015 | doi-access = free}}</ref> | ||
<ref name="sund2007">{{Cite journal | vauthors=Sundram K, Karupaiah T, Hayes K | year=2007 | title=Stearic acid-rich interesterified fat and trans-rich fat raise the LDL/HDL ratio and plasma glucose relative to palm olein in humans | url=http://www.nutritionandmetabolism.com/content/pdf/1743-7075-4-3.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070128211336/http://www.nutritionandmetabolism.com/content/pdf/1743-7075-4-3.pdf |archive-date=2007 | <ref name="sund2007">{{Cite journal | vauthors=Sundram K, Karupaiah T, Hayes K | year=2007 | title=Stearic acid-rich interesterified fat and trans-rich fat raise the LDL/HDL ratio and plasma glucose relative to palm olein in humans | url=http://www.nutritionandmetabolism.com/content/pdf/1743-7075-4-3.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070128211336/http://www.nutritionandmetabolism.com/content/pdf/1743-7075-4-3.pdf |archive-date=January 28, 2007 |url-status=live | journal=Nutr Metab | volume=4 | page=3 | doi=10.1186/1743-7075-4-3 | pmc=1783656 | pmid=17224066 | access-date=January 19, 2007 | doi-access=free}}</ref> | ||
<ref name="berry2007a">{{Citation | title=The solid fat content of stearic acid-rich fats determines their postprandial effects. | url=http://www.ajcn.org/cgi/reprint/85/6/1486.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160303222710/http://www.ajcn.org/cgi/reprint/85/6/1486.pdf |archive-date=2016 | <ref name="berry2007a">{{Citation | title=The solid fat content of stearic acid-rich fats determines their postprandial effects. | url=http://www.ajcn.org/cgi/reprint/85/6/1486.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160303222710/http://www.ajcn.org/cgi/reprint/85/6/1486.pdf |archive-date=March 3, 2016 |url-status=live | work=Am J Clin Nutr | volume=85 | issue=6 | pages=1486–1494 | year=2007 | doi=10.1093/ajcn/85.6.1486 | pmid=17556683 | vauthors=Berry SE, Miller GJ, Sanders TA| doi-access=free}}</ref> | ||
<ref name="berry2007b">{{Citation | title=Effect of interesterification of palmitic-acid rich tryacylglycerol on postprandial lipid and factor VII response | journal=Lipids | volume=42 | issue=4 | pages=315–323 | year=2007 | doi=10.1007/s11745-007-3024-x | pmid=17406926 | vauthors=Berry SE, Woodward R, Yeoh C, Miller GJ, Sanders TA| s2cid=3986807}}</ref> | <ref name="berry2007b">{{Citation | title=Effect of interesterification of palmitic-acid rich tryacylglycerol on postprandial lipid and factor VII response | journal=Lipids | volume=42 | issue=4 | pages=315–323 | year=2007 | doi=10.1007/s11745-007-3024-x | pmid=17406926 | vauthors=Berry SE, Woodward R, Yeoh C, Miller GJ, Sanders TA| s2cid=3986807}}</ref> | ||
<ref name="kris2007f">{{cite journal |vauthors=Kris-Etherton PM, Innis S | title = Position of the American Dietetic Association and Dietitians of Canada: Dietary Fatty Acids | journal = Journal of the American Dietetic Association | volume = 107 | issue = 9 | pages = 1599–1611 [1603] | date = September 2007 | pmid = 17936958 | doi = 10.1016/j.jada.2007.07.024}}</ref> | <ref name="kris2007f">{{cite journal |vauthors=Kris-Etherton PM, Innis S | title = Position of the American Dietetic Association and Dietitians of Canada: Dietary Fatty Acids | journal = Journal of the American Dietetic Association | volume = 107 | issue = 9 | pages = 1599–1611 [1603] | date = September 2007 | pmid = 17936958 | doi = 10.1016/j.jada.2007.07.024}}</ref> | ||
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<ref name="rest2008">{{cite journal | vauthors = van de Rest O, Geleijnse JM, Kok FJ, van Staveren WA, Dullemeijer C, Olderikkert MG, Beekman AT, de Groot CP | title = Effect of fish oil on cognitive performance in older subjects: a randomized, controlled trial | journal = Neurology | volume = 71 | issue = 6 | pages = 430–8 | date = August 2008 | pmid = 18678826 | doi = 10.1212/01.wnl.0000324268.45138.86 | s2cid = 45576671}}</ref> | <ref name="rest2008">{{cite journal | vauthors = van de Rest O, Geleijnse JM, Kok FJ, van Staveren WA, Dullemeijer C, Olderikkert MG, Beekman AT, de Groot CP | title = Effect of fish oil on cognitive performance in older subjects: a randomized, controlled trial | journal = Neurology | volume = 71 | issue = 6 | pages = 430–8 | date = August 2008 | pmid = 18678826 | doi = 10.1212/01.wnl.0000324268.45138.86 | s2cid = 45576671}}</ref> | ||
<ref name="sanch2008">{{cite journal | vauthors = Sanchez-Bayle M, Gonzalez-Requejo A, Pelaez MJ, Morales MT, Asensio-Anton J, Anton-Pacheco E | title = A cross-sectional study of dietary habits and lipid profiles. The Rivas-Vaciamadrid study | journal = European Journal of Pediatrics | volume = 167 | issue = 2 | pages = 149–54 | date = February 2008 | pmid = 17333272 | doi = 10.1007/s00431-007-0439-6 | s2cid = 8798248}}</ref> | <ref name="sanch2008">{{cite journal | vauthors = Sanchez-Bayle M, Gonzalez-Requejo A, Pelaez MJ, Morales MT, Asensio-Anton J, Anton-Pacheco E | title = A cross-sectional study of dietary habits and lipid profiles. The Rivas-Vaciamadrid study | journal = European Journal of Pediatrics | volume = 167 | issue = 2 | pages = 149–54 | date = February 2008 | pmid = 17333272 | doi = 10.1007/s00431-007-0439-6 | s2cid = 8798248}}</ref> | ||
<ref name="xxxx2009a">{{cite book|year=2009|volume=472|pages= | <ref name="xxxx2009a">{{cite book|year=2009|volume=472|pages=361–372|doi=10.1007/978-1-60327-492-0_16|chapter=Acquired risk factors for colorectal cancer|author=Lin OS|title = Cancer Epidemiology|pmid=19107442|series=Methods in Molecular Biology|isbn=978-1-60327-491-3}}</ref> | ||
<ref name="FDA2009h">{{cite web | url = https://www.fda.gov/Food/LabelingNutrition/ConsumerInformation/ucm192658.htm | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20100128112635/http://www.fda.gov/Food/LabelingNutrition/ConsumerInformation/ucm192658.htm | <ref name="FDA2009h">{{cite web | url = https://www.fda.gov/Food/LabelingNutrition/ConsumerInformation/ucm192658.htm | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20100128112635/http://www.fda.gov/Food/LabelingNutrition/ConsumerInformation/ucm192658.htm | archive-date = January 28, 2010 | title = Nutrition Facts at a Glance - Nutrients: Saturated Fat | publisher = [[Food and Drug Administration]] | date = December 22, 2009 | access-date = May 3, 2012}}</ref> | ||
<ref name="efsa2010">{{cite web|title=Scientific Opinion on Dietary Reference Values for fats, including saturated fatty acids, polyunsaturated fatty acids, monounsaturated fatty acids, trans fatty acids, and cholesterol|url=http://www.efsa.europa.eu/en/efsajournal/pub/1461|publisher=European Food Safety Authority|access-date=3 | <ref name="efsa2010">{{cite web|title=Scientific Opinion on Dietary Reference Values for fats, including saturated fatty acids, polyunsaturated fatty acids, monounsaturated fatty acids, trans fatty acids, and cholesterol|url=http://www.efsa.europa.eu/en/efsajournal/pub/1461|publisher=European Food Safety Authority|access-date=May 3, 2012|date=March 25, 2010}}</ref> | ||
<ref name="usda2010m">{{cite book | author = U.S. Department of Agriculture and U.S. Department of Health and Human Services | date = December 2010 | title = Dietary Guidelines for Americans, 2010 | edition = 7th | location = Washington, DC | publisher = U.S. Government Printing Office | url = https://health.gov/dietaryguidelines/dga2010/dietaryguidelines2010.pdf}}</ref> | <ref name="usda2010m">{{cite book | author = U.S. Department of Agriculture and U.S. Department of Health and Human Services | date = December 2010 | title = Dietary Guidelines for Americans, 2010 | edition = 7th | location = Washington, DC | publisher = U.S. Government Printing Office | url = https://health.gov/dietaryguidelines/dga2010/dietaryguidelines2010.pdf}}</ref> | ||
<ref name="cata2011">{{cite journal | vauthors = Catapano AL, Reiner Z, De Backer G, Graham I, Taskinen MR, Wiklund O, Agewall S, Alegria E, Chapman MJ, Durrington P, Erdine S, Halcox J, Hobbs R, Kjekshus J, Perrone Filardi P, Riccardi G, Storey RF, Wood D | display-authors = 6 | title = ESC/EAS Guidelines for the management of dyslipidaemias: the Task Force for the management of dyslipidaemias of the European Society of Cardiology (ESC) and the European Atherosclerosis Society (EAS) | journal = Atherosclerosis | volume = 217 Suppl 1 | issue = 14 | pages = S1-44 | date = July 2011 | pmid = 21723445 | doi = 10.1016/j.atherosclerosis.2011.06.012 | hdl = 10138/307445 | url = <!-- NOT https://orbi.uliege.be/handle/2268/205760 -->}}</ref> | <ref name="cata2011">{{cite journal | vauthors = Catapano AL, Reiner Z, De Backer G, Graham I, Taskinen MR, Wiklund O, Agewall S, Alegria E, Chapman MJ, Durrington P, Erdine S, Halcox J, Hobbs R, Kjekshus J, Perrone Filardi P, Riccardi G, Storey RF, Wood D | display-authors = 6 | title = ESC/EAS Guidelines for the management of dyslipidaemias: the Task Force for the management of dyslipidaemias of the European Society of Cardiology (ESC) and the European Atherosclerosis Society (EAS) | journal = Atherosclerosis | volume = 217 Suppl 1 | issue = 14 | pages = S1-44 | date = July 2011 | pmid = 21723445 | doi = 10.1016/j.atherosclerosis.2011.06.012 | hdl = 10138/307445 | url = <!-- NOT https://orbi.uliege.be/handle/2268/205760 -->}}</ref> | ||
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<ref name="laba2011">{{cite book | title = Epidemiology and prevention of cardiovascular disease: a global challenge | first = Darwin | last = Labarthe | name-list-style = vanc | publisher = Jones and Bartlett Publishers | year = 2011 | chapter = Chapter 17 What Causes Cardiovascular Diseases? | edition = 2nd | isbn = 978-0-7637-4689-6}}</ref> | <ref name="laba2011">{{cite book | title = Epidemiology and prevention of cardiovascular disease: a global challenge | first = Darwin | last = Labarthe | name-list-style = vanc | publisher = Jones and Bartlett Publishers | year = 2011 | chapter = Chapter 17 What Causes Cardiovascular Diseases? | edition = 2nd | isbn = 978-0-7637-4689-6}}</ref> | ||
<ref name="zelm2011">{{cite journal | author = Zelman K | author-link1=Kathleen Zelman | title = The Great Fat Debate: A Closer Look at the Controversy—Questioning the Validity of Age-Old Dietary Guidance | journal = Journal of the American Dietetic Association | volume = 111 | issue = 5 | pages = 655–658 | year = 2011 | pmid = 21515106 | doi = 10.1016/j.jada.2011.03.026}}</ref> | <ref name="zelm2011">{{cite journal | author = Zelman K | author-link1=Kathleen Zelman | title = The Great Fat Debate: A Closer Look at the Controversy—Questioning the Validity of Age-Old Dietary Guidance | journal = Journal of the American Dietetic Association | volume = 111 | issue = 5 | pages = 655–658 | year = 2011 | pmid = 21515106 | doi = 10.1016/j.jada.2011.03.026}}</ref> | ||
<ref name="usda2011a">{{cite web|publisher=United States Department of Agriculture, Agricultural Research Service|year=2011|title=National nutrient database for standard reference, release 23|url= | <ref name="usda2011a">{{cite web|publisher=United States Department of Agriculture, Agricultural Research Service|year=2011|title=National nutrient database for standard reference, release 23|url=https://www.nal.usda.gov/human-nutrition-and-food-safety/dri-calculator|access-date=February 22, 2009|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150303184216/http://www.nal.usda.gov/fnic/foodcomp/search/|archive-date=March 3, 2015}}</ref> | ||
<ref name="laba2011n">{{cite book | title = Epidemiology and prevention of cardiovascular disease: a global challenge | first = Darwin | last = Labarthe | name-list-style = vanc | publisher = Jones and Bartlett Publishers | year = 2011 | chapter = Chapter 11 Adverse Blood Lipid Profile | page = 290 | edition = 2 | isbn = 978-0-7637-4689-6}}</ref> | <ref name="laba2011n">{{cite book | title = Epidemiology and prevention of cardiovascular disease: a global challenge | first = Darwin | last = Labarthe | name-list-style = vanc | publisher = Jones and Bartlett Publishers | year = 2011 | chapter = Chapter 11 Adverse Blood Lipid Profile | page = 290 | edition = 2 | isbn = 978-0-7637-4689-6}}</ref> | ||
<ref name="laba2011p">{{cite book | title = Epidemiology and prevention of cardiovascular disease: a global challenge | first = Darwin | last = Labarthe | name-list-style = vanc | publisher = Jones and Bartlett Publishers | year = 2011 | chapter = Chapter 11 Adverse Blood Lipid Profile | page = 277 | edition = 2nd | isbn = 978-0-7637-4689-6}}</ref> | <ref name="laba2011p">{{cite book | title = Epidemiology and prevention of cardiovascular disease: a global challenge | first = Darwin | last = Labarthe | name-list-style = vanc | publisher = Jones and Bartlett Publishers | year = 2011 | chapter = Chapter 11 Adverse Blood Lipid Profile | page = 277 | edition = 2nd | isbn = 978-0-7637-4689-6}}</ref> | ||
<ref name="patt2011xk">{{cite journal | vauthors = Patterson RE, Flatt SW, Newman VA, Natarajan L, Rock CL, Thomson CA, Caan BJ, Parker BA, Pierce JP | title = Marine fatty acid intake is associated with breast cancer prognosis | journal = The Journal of Nutrition | volume = 141 | issue = 2 | pages = 201–6 | date = February 2011 | pmid = 21178081 | pmc = 3021439 | doi = 10.3945/jn.110.128777}}</ref> | <ref name="patt2011xk">{{cite journal | vauthors = Patterson RE, Flatt SW, Newman VA, Natarajan L, Rock CL, Thomson CA, Caan BJ, Parker BA, Pierce JP | title = Marine fatty acid intake is associated with breast cancer prognosis | journal = The Journal of Nutrition | volume = 141 | issue = 2 | pages = 201–6 | date = February 2011 | pmid = 21178081 | pmc = 3021439 | doi = 10.3945/jn.110.128777}}</ref> | ||
<ref name="ausmd2012">{{cite web | url = https://www.eatforhealth.gov.au/food-essentials/fat-salt-sugars-and-alcohol/fat | title = Fat | publisher = Australia's [[National Health and Medical Research Council]] and [[Department of Health and Ageing]] | access-date = 2019 | <ref name="ausmd2012">{{cite web | url = https://www.eatforhealth.gov.au/food-essentials/fat-salt-sugars-and-alcohol/fat | title = Fat | publisher = Australia's [[National Health and Medical Research Council]] and [[Department of Health and Ageing]] | access-date = September 24, 2019 | date = September 24, 2012 | archive-date = February 23, 2013 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20130223172707/https://www.eatforhealth.gov.au/food-essentials/fat-salt-sugars-and-alcohol/fat }}</ref> | ||
<ref name="kien2013">{{cite journal | vauthors = Kien CL, Bunn JY, Tompkins CL, Dumas JA, Crain KI, Ebenstein DB, Koves TR, Muoio DM | author-link8=Deborah Muoio|title = Substituting dietary monounsaturated fat for saturated fat is associated with increased daily physical activity and resting energy expenditure and with changes in mood | journal = The American Journal of Clinical Nutrition | volume = 97 | issue = 4 | pages = 689–97 | date = April 2013 | pmid = 23446891 | pmc = 3607650 | doi = 10.3945/ajcn.112.051730}}</ref> | <ref name="kien2013">{{cite journal | vauthors = Kien CL, Bunn JY, Tompkins CL, Dumas JA, Crain KI, Ebenstein DB, Koves TR, Muoio DM | author-link8=Deborah Muoio|title = Substituting dietary monounsaturated fat for saturated fat is associated with increased daily physical activity and resting energy expenditure and with changes in mood | journal = The American Journal of Clinical Nutrition | volume = 97 | issue = 4 | pages = 689–97 | date = April 2013 | pmid = 23446891 | pmc = 3607650 | doi = 10.3945/ajcn.112.051730}}</ref> | ||
<ref name="rams2013">{{cite journal | vauthors = Ramsden CE, Zamora D, Leelarthaepin B, Majchrzak-Hong SF, Faurot KR, Suchindran CM, Ringel A, Davis JM, Hibbeln JR | display-authors = 6 | title = Use of dietary linoleic acid for secondary prevention of coronary heart disease and death: evaluation of recovered data from the Sydney Diet Heart Study and updated meta-analysis | journal = BMJ | volume = 346 | | <ref name="rams2013">{{cite journal | vauthors = Ramsden CE, Zamora D, Leelarthaepin B, Majchrzak-Hong SF, Faurot KR, Suchindran CM, Ringel A, Davis JM, Hibbeln JR | display-authors = 6 | title = Use of dietary linoleic acid for secondary prevention of coronary heart disease and death: evaluation of recovered data from the Sydney Diet Heart Study and updated meta-analysis | journal = BMJ | volume = 346 | article-number = e8707 | date = February 2013 | pmid = 23386268 | pmc = 4688426 | doi = 10.1136/bmj.e8707}}</ref> | ||
<ref name="aha2014">{{Cite web |url=http://www.heart.org/HEARTORG/GettingHealthy/FatsAndOils/Fats101/Saturated-Fats_UCM_301110_Article.jsp |title=Saturated fats | | <ref name="aha2014">{{Cite web |url=http://www.heart.org/HEARTORG/GettingHealthy/FatsAndOils/Fats101/Saturated-Fats_UCM_301110_Article.jsp |title=Saturated fats |year=2014 |publisher=American Heart Association |access-date=March 1, 2014}}</ref> | ||
<ref name="husp2014">{{Cite web |url=http://www.hsph.harvard.edu/nutritionsource/top-food-sources-of-saturated-fat-in-the-us/ |title=Top food sources of saturated fat in the US | | <ref name="husp2014">{{Cite web |url=http://www.hsph.harvard.edu/nutritionsource/top-food-sources-of-saturated-fat-in-the-us/ |title=Top food sources of saturated fat in the US |year=2014 |publisher=Harvard University School of Public Health |access-date=March 1, 2014}}</ref> | ||
<ref name="mckin2014">{{Cite web|url = http://www.mckinley.illinois.edu/handouts/macronutrients.htm|title = Macronutrients: the Importance of Carbohydrate, Protein, and Fat|access-date = 20 | <ref name="mckin2014">{{Cite web|url = http://www.mckinley.illinois.edu/handouts/macronutrients.htm|title = Macronutrients: the Importance of Carbohydrate, Protein, and Fat|access-date = September 20, 2014|website = McKinley Health Center|publisher = [[University of Illinois at Urbana–Champaign]]|archive-date = September 21, 2014|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20140921024358/http://www.mckinley.illinois.edu/handouts/macronutrients.htm}}</ref> | ||
<ref name="osu2014">{{cite web|title=Essential Fatty Acids|url=http://lpi.oregonstate.edu/mic/other-nutrients/essential-fatty-acids|publisher=Micronutrient Information Center, Oregon State University, Corvallis, OR|access-date=24 | <ref name="osu2014">{{cite web|title=Essential Fatty Acids|url=http://lpi.oregonstate.edu/mic/other-nutrients/essential-fatty-acids|publisher=Micronutrient Information Center, Oregon State University, Corvallis, OR|access-date=May 24, 2017|date=May 2014}}</ref> | ||
<ref name="aizp2015">{{cite journal | vauthors = Aizpurua-Olaizola O, Ormazabal M, Vallejo A, Olivares M, Navarro P, Etxebarria N, Usobiaga A | title = Optimization of supercritical fluid consecutive extractions of fatty acids and polyphenols from Vitis vinifera grape wastes | journal = Journal of Food Science | volume = 80 | issue = 1 | pages = E101-7 | date = January 2015 | pmid = 25471637 | doi = 10.1111/1750-3841.12715}}</ref> | <ref name="aizp2015">{{cite journal | vauthors = Aizpurua-Olaizola O, Ormazabal M, Vallejo A, Olivares M, Navarro P, Etxebarria N, Usobiaga A | title = Optimization of supercritical fluid consecutive extractions of fatty acids and polyphenols from Vitis vinifera grape wastes | journal = Journal of Food Science | volume = 80 | issue = 1 | pages = E101-7 | date = January 2015 | pmid = 25471637 | doi = 10.1111/1750-3841.12715}}</ref> | ||
<ref name="htus2015">{{cite web | title=Key Recommendations: Components of Healthy Eating Patterns | url=https://health.gov/dietaryguidelines/2015/guidelines/chapter-1/key-recommendations/ | website=Dietary Guidelines 2015-2020 | access-date=20 | <ref name="htus2015">{{cite web | title=Key Recommendations: Components of Healthy Eating Patterns | url=https://health.gov/dietaryguidelines/2015/guidelines/chapter-1/key-recommendations/ | website=Dietary Guidelines 2015-2020 | access-date=February 20, 2019}}</ref> | ||
<ref name="huth2015">{{cite journal | vauthors = Huth PJ, Fulgoni VL, Larson BT | title = A systematic review of high-oleic vegetable oil substitutions for other fats and oils on cardiovascular disease risk factors: implications for novel high-oleic soybean oils | journal = Advances in Nutrition | volume = 6 | issue = 6 | pages = 674–93 | date = November 2015 | pmid = 26567193 | pmc = 4642420 | doi = 10.3945/an.115.008979}}</ref> | <ref name="huth2015">{{cite journal | vauthors = Huth PJ, Fulgoni VL, Larson BT | title = A systematic review of high-oleic vegetable oil substitutions for other fats and oils on cardiovascular disease risk factors: implications for novel high-oleic soybean oils | journal = Advances in Nutrition | volume = 6 | issue = 6 | pages = 674–93 | date = November 2015 | pmid = 26567193 | pmc = 4642420 | doi = 10.3945/an.115.008979}}</ref> | ||
<ref name="souza2015">{{cite journal | vauthors = de Souza RJ, Mente A, Maroleanu A, Cozma AI, Ha V, Kishibe T, Uleryk E, Budylowski P, Schünemann H, Beyene J, Anand SS | title = Intake of saturated and trans unsaturated fatty acids and risk of all cause mortality, cardiovascular disease, and type 2 diabetes: systematic review and meta-analysis of observational studies | journal = BMJ | volume = 351 | issue = Aug 11 | | <ref name="souza2015">{{cite journal | vauthors = de Souza RJ, Mente A, Maroleanu A, Cozma AI, Ha V, Kishibe T, Uleryk E, Budylowski P, Schünemann H, Beyene J, Anand SS | title = Intake of saturated and trans unsaturated fatty acids and risk of all cause mortality, cardiovascular disease, and type 2 diabetes: systematic review and meta-analysis of observational studies | journal = BMJ | volume = 351 | issue = Aug 11 | article-number = h3978 | date = August 2015 | pmid = 26268692 | pmc = 4532752 | doi = 10.1136/bmj.h3978}}</ref> | ||
<ref name="weyl2015">{{cite journal | vauthors = Weylandt KH, Serini S, Chen YQ, Su HM, Lim K, Cittadini A, Calviello G | title = Omega-3 Polyunsaturated Fatty Acids: The Way Forward in Times of Mixed Evidence | journal = BioMed Research International | volume = 2015 | | <ref name="weyl2015">{{cite journal | vauthors = Weylandt KH, Serini S, Chen YQ, Su HM, Lim K, Cittadini A, Calviello G | title = Omega-3 Polyunsaturated Fatty Acids: The Way Forward in Times of Mixed Evidence | journal = BioMed Research International | volume = 2015 | article-number = 143109 | year = 2015 | pmid = 26301240 | pmc = 4537707 | doi = 10.1155/2015/143109 | doi-access = free}}</ref> | ||
<ref name="who2015">{{cite web|title=Healthy diet Fact sheet N°394|url=https://www.who.int/mediacentre/factsheets/fs394/en/|access-date=12 | <ref name="who2015">{{cite web|title=Healthy diet Fact sheet N°394|url=https://www.who.int/mediacentre/factsheets/fs394/en/|access-date=August 12, 2015|date=May 2015}}</ref> | ||
<ref name="choos2015b">{{Cite web |url=http://www.choosemyplate.gov/food-groups/oils.html |title=What are "oils"? |year=2015 |publisher=ChooseMyPlate.gov, US Department of Agriculture |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150609080528/http://www.choosemyplate.gov/food-groups/oils.html |archive-date=9 | <ref name="choos2015b">{{Cite web |url=http://www.choosemyplate.gov/food-groups/oils.html |title=What are "oils"? |year=2015 |publisher=ChooseMyPlate.gov, US Department of Agriculture |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150609080528/http://www.choosemyplate.gov/food-groups/oils.html |archive-date=June 9, 2015 |access-date=June 13, 2015}}</ref> | ||
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<ref name="mens2016">{{Cite journal | last1=Mensink | first1=Ronald P. | last2=Sanders | first2=Thomas A. | last3=Baer | first3=David J. | last4=Hayes | first4=K. C. | last5=Howles | first5=Philip N. | last6=Marangoni | first6=Alejandro | date=2016 | <ref name="mens2016">{{Cite journal | last1=Mensink | first1=Ronald P. | last2=Sanders | first2=Thomas A. | last3=Baer | first3=David J. | last4=Hayes | first4=K. C. | last5=Howles | first5=Philip N. | last6=Marangoni | first6=Alejandro | date=July 1, 2016 | title=The Increasing Use of Interesterified Lipids in the Food Supply and Their Effects on Health Parameters | url= | journal=Advances in Nutrition | language=en | volume=7 | issue=4 | pages=719–729 | doi=10.3945/an.115.009662 | issn=2161-8313 | pmc=4942855 | pmid=27422506 | doi-access=free}}</ref> | ||
<ref name="nihw2016">{{cite web | url= | <ref name="nihw2016">{{cite web | url=https://ods.od.nih.gov/factsheets/Omega3FattyAcids-HealthProfessional/ | publisher=US National Institutes of Health, Office of Dietary Supplements | title=Omega-3 Fatty Acids and Health: Fact Sheet for Health Professionals | date=November 2, 2016 | access-date=April 5, 2017}}</ref> | ||
<ref name="rams2016">{{cite journal | vauthors = Ramsden CE, Zamora D, Majchrzak-Hong S, Faurot KR, Broste SK, Frantz RP, Davis JM, Ringel A, Suchindran CM, Hibbeln JR | title = Re-evaluation of the traditional diet-heart hypothesis: analysis of recovered data from Minnesota Coronary Experiment (1968-73) | journal = BMJ | volume = 353 | | <ref name="rams2016">{{cite journal | vauthors = Ramsden CE, Zamora D, Majchrzak-Hong S, Faurot KR, Broste SK, Frantz RP, Davis JM, Ringel A, Suchindran CM, Hibbeln JR | title = Re-evaluation of the traditional diet-heart hypothesis: analysis of recovered data from Minnesota Coronary Experiment (1968-73) | journal = BMJ | volume = 353 | article-number = i1246 | date = April 2016 | pmid = 27071971 | pmc = 4836695 | doi = 10.1136/bmj.i1246}}</ref> | ||
<ref name="sand2016">Thomas A. B. Sanders (2016): "The Role of Fats in Human Diet". Pages 1-20 of ''Functional Dietary Lipids''. Woodhead/Elsevier, 332 pages. {{isbn | 978-1-78242-247-1}}{{doi | 10.1016/B978-1-78242-247-1.00001-6}}</ref> | <ref name="sand2016">Thomas A. B. Sanders (2016): "The Role of Fats in Human Diet". Pages 1-20 of ''Functional Dietary Lipids''. Woodhead/Elsevier, 332 pages. {{isbn | 978-1-78242-247-1}}{{doi | 10.1016/B978-1-78242-247-1.00001-6}}</ref> | ||
<ref name="abdu2017">{{cite journal | vauthors = Abdullah MM, Jew S, Jones PJ | title = Health benefits and evaluation of healthcare cost savings if oils rich in monounsaturated fatty acids were substituted for conventional dietary oils in the United States | journal = Nutrition Reviews | volume = 75 | issue = 3 | pages = 163–174 | date = February 2017 | pmid = 28158733 | pmc = 5914363 | doi = 10.1093/nutrit/nuw062}}</ref> | <ref name="abdu2017">{{cite journal | vauthors = Abdullah MM, Jew S, Jones PJ | title = Health benefits and evaluation of healthcare cost savings if oils rich in monounsaturated fatty acids were substituted for conventional dietary oils in the United States | journal = Nutrition Reviews | volume = 75 | issue = 3 | pages = 163–174 | date = February 2017 | pmid = 28158733 | pmc = 5914363 | doi = 10.1093/nutrit/nuw062}}</ref> | ||
<ref name="dinu2017">{{cite journal | vauthors = Dinu M, Pagliai G, Casini A, Sofi F | title = Mediterranean diet and multiple health outcomes: an umbrella review of meta-analyses of observational studies and randomised trials | journal = European Journal of Clinical Nutrition | volume = 72 | issue = 1 | pages = 30–43 | date = January 2018 | pmid = 28488692 | doi = 10.1038/ejcn.2017.58 | hdl = 2158/1081996 | s2cid = 7702206 | hdl-access = free}}</ref> | <ref name="dinu2017">{{cite journal | vauthors = Dinu M, Pagliai G, Casini A, Sofi F | title = Mediterranean diet and multiple health outcomes: an umbrella review of meta-analyses of observational studies and randomised trials | journal = European Journal of Clinical Nutrition | volume = 72 | issue = 1 | pages = 30–43 | date = January 2018 | pmid = 28488692 | doi = 10.1038/ejcn.2017.58 | hdl = 2158/1081996 | s2cid = 7702206 | hdl-access = free}}</ref> | ||
<ref name="sacks2017">{{Cite journal |vauthors=Sacks FM, Lichtenstein AH, Wu JH, Appel LJ, Creager MA, Kris-Etherton PM, Miller M, Rimm EB, Rudel LL, Robinson JG, Stone NJ, Van Horn LV |date=July 2017 |title=Dietary Fats and Cardiovascular Disease: A Presidential Advisory From the American Heart Association |journal=Circulation |volume=136 |issue=3 |pages=e1–e23 |doi=10.1161/CIR.0000000000000510 |pmid=28620111|s2cid=367602 |doi-access=free}}</ref> | <ref name="sacks2017">{{Cite journal |vauthors=Sacks FM, Lichtenstein AH, Wu JH, Appel LJ, Creager MA, Kris-Etherton PM, Miller M, Rimm EB, Rudel LL, Robinson JG, Stone NJ, Van Horn LV |date=July 2017 |title=Dietary Fats and Cardiovascular Disease: A Presidential Advisory From the American Heart Association |journal=Circulation |volume=136 |issue=3 |pages=e1–e23 |doi=10.1161/CIR.0000000000000510 |pmid=28620111|s2cid=367602 |doi-access=free}}</ref> | ||
<ref name="will2017">{{cite web | url=https://www.hsph.harvard.edu/nutritionsource/2016/04/13/diet-heart-ramsden-mce-bmj-comments/ | title=Research Review: Old data on dietary fats in context with current recommendations: Comments on Ramsden et al. in the British Medical Journal | author=Interview: Walter Willett | publisher=TH Chan School of Public Health, Harvard University, Boston | | <ref name="will2017">{{cite web | url=https://www.hsph.harvard.edu/nutritionsource/2016/04/13/diet-heart-ramsden-mce-bmj-comments/ | title=Research Review: Old data on dietary fats in context with current recommendations: Comments on Ramsden et al. in the British Medical Journal | author=Interview: Walter Willett | publisher=TH Chan School of Public Health, Harvard University, Boston | year=2017 | access-date=May 24, 2017}}</ref> | ||
<ref name="wohf2017">{{cite web| url = http://www.world-heart-federation.org/cardiovascular-health/cardiovascular-disease-risk-factors| title = Cardiovascular Disease Risk Factors| publisher = World Heart Federation| date = 30 | <ref name="wohf2017">{{cite web| url = http://www.world-heart-federation.org/cardiovascular-health/cardiovascular-disease-risk-factors| title = Cardiovascular Disease Risk Factors| publisher = World Heart Federation| date = May 30, 2017| access-date = May 3, 2012| archive-date = May 10, 2012| archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20120510135600/http://www.world-heart-federation.org/cardiovascular-health/cardiovascular-disease-risk-factors/}}</ref> | ||
<ref name="nhsuk2018">{{cite web | url = https://www.nhs.uk/live-well/eat-well/different-fats-nutrition/ | title = Fat: the facts | publisher = United Kingdom's [[National Health Service]] | access-date = 2019 | <ref name="nhsuk2018">{{cite web | url = https://www.nhs.uk/live-well/eat-well/different-fats-nutrition/ | title = Fat: the facts | publisher = United Kingdom's [[National Health Service]] | access-date = September 24, 2019| date = April 27, 2018}}</ref> | ||
<ref name="choos2018q">{{cite web | url = https://food-guide.canada.ca/en/healthy-eating-recommendations/make-it-a-habit-to-eat-vegetables-fruit-whole-grains-and-protein-foods/choosing-foods-with-healthy-fats/ | title = Choosing foods with healthy fats | publisher = [[Health Canada]] | access-date = 2019 | <ref name="choos2018q">{{cite web | url = https://food-guide.canada.ca/en/healthy-eating-recommendations/make-it-a-habit-to-eat-vegetables-fruit-whole-grains-and-protein-foods/choosing-foods-with-healthy-fats/ | title = Choosing foods with healthy fats | publisher = [[Health Canada]] | access-date = September 24, 2019| date = October 10, 2018}}</ref> | ||
<ref name="mart2018xh">{{cite journal | vauthors = Martinez-Lacoba R, Pardo-Garcia I, Amo-Saus E, Escribano-Sotos F | title = Mediterranean diet and health outcomes: a systematic meta-review | journal = European Journal of Public Health | volume = 28 | issue = 5 | pages = 955–961 | date = October 2018 | pmid = 29992229 | doi = 10.1093/eurpub/cky113 | doi-access = free}}</ref> | <ref name="mart2018xh">{{cite journal | vauthors = Martinez-Lacoba R, Pardo-Garcia I, Amo-Saus E, Escribano-Sotos F | title = Mediterranean diet and health outcomes: a systematic meta-review | journal = European Journal of Public Health | volume = 28 | issue = 5 | pages = 955–961 | date = October 2018 | pmid = 29992229 | doi = 10.1093/eurpub/cky113 | doi-access = free}}</ref> | ||
<ref name="choo2020">{{Cite web |url=https://www.choosemyplate.gov/node/5664 |title=Saturated, Unsaturated, and Trans Fats | | <ref name="choo2020">{{Cite web |url=https://www.choosemyplate.gov/node/5664 |title=Saturated, Unsaturated, and Trans Fats |year=2020 |publisher=choosemyplate.gov |access-date=August 30, 2020 |archive-date=October 15, 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201015130429/https://www.choosemyplate.gov/node/5664}}</ref> | ||
<ref name="hoop2020e">{{cite journal|vauthors=Hooper L, Martin N, Jimoh OF, Kirk C, Foster E, Abdelhamid AS |title=Reduction in saturated fat intake for cardiovascular disease |journal=Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews |year=2020 |volume=5 |issue=5 | | <ref name="hoop2020e">{{cite journal|vauthors=Hooper L, Martin N, Jimoh OF, Kirk C, Foster E, Abdelhamid AS |title=Reduction in saturated fat intake for cardiovascular disease |journal=Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews |year=2020 |volume=5 |issue=5 |article-number=CD011737 |issn=1465-1858 |doi=10.1002/14651858.CD011737.pub2 |pmid=32428300 |pmc=7388853 |type=Systematic review}}</ref>{{Update inline|reason=Updated version https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/32827219|date = February 2025}} | ||
<ref name="buck1999">{{cite journal |vauthors=Bucher HC, Griffith LE, Guyatt GH | title = Systematic review on the risk and benefit of different cholesterol-lowering interventions | journal = Arteriosclerosis, Thrombosis, and Vascular Biology | volume = 19 | issue = 2 | pages = 187–195 | date = February 1999 | pmid = 9974397 | doi = 10.1161/01.atv.19.2.187 | doi-access = free}}</ref> | <ref name="buck1999">{{cite journal |vauthors=Bucher HC, Griffith LE, Guyatt GH | title = Systematic review on the risk and benefit of different cholesterol-lowering interventions | journal = Arteriosclerosis, Thrombosis, and Vascular Biology | volume = 19 | issue = 2 | pages = 187–195 | date = February 1999 | pmid = 9974397 | doi = 10.1161/01.atv.19.2.187 | doi-access = free}}</ref> | ||
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<ref name="love2002">{{cite journal | vauthors = Lovejoy JC | title = The influence of dietary fat on insulin resistance | journal = Current Diabetes Reports | volume = 2 | issue = 5 | pages = 435–40 | date = October 2002 | pmid = 12643169 | doi = 10.1007/s11892-002-0098-y | s2cid = 31329463}}</ref> | <ref name="love2002">{{cite journal | vauthors = Lovejoy JC | title = The influence of dietary fat on insulin resistance | journal = Current Diabetes Reports | volume = 2 | issue = 5 | pages = 435–40 | date = October 2002 | pmid = 12643169 | doi = 10.1007/s11892-002-0098-y | s2cid = 31329463}}</ref> | ||
<ref name="fuku2004">{{cite journal | vauthors = Fukuchi S, Hamaguchi K, Seike M, Himeno K, Sakata T, Yoshimatsu H | title = Role of fatty acid composition in the development of metabolic disorders in sucrose-induced obese rats | journal = Experimental Biology and Medicine | volume = 229 | issue = 6 | pages = 486–93 | date = June 2004 | pmid = 15169967 | doi = 10.1177/153537020422900606 | s2cid = 20966659}}</ref> | <ref name="fuku2004">{{cite journal | vauthors = Fukuchi S, Hamaguchi K, Seike M, Himeno K, Sakata T, Yoshimatsu H | title = Role of fatty acid composition in the development of metabolic disorders in sucrose-induced obese rats | journal = Experimental Biology and Medicine | volume = 229 | issue = 6 | pages = 486–93 | date = June 2004 | pmid = 15169967 | doi = 10.1177/153537020422900606 | s2cid = 20966659}}</ref> | ||
<ref name="merck0000">{{cite web | title = You Can Control Your Cholesterol: A Guide to Low-Cholesterol Living | publisher = [[Merck & Co.|MerckSource]] | url = http://www.mercksource.com/pp/us/cns/cns_krames_template.jspzQzpgzEzzSzppdocszSzuszSzcnszSzcontentzSzkrameszSz1292_01zPzhtm | access-date = 2018 | <ref name="merck0000">{{cite web | title = You Can Control Your Cholesterol: A Guide to Low-Cholesterol Living | publisher = [[Merck & Co.|MerckSource]] | url = http://www.mercksource.com/pp/us/cns/cns_krames_template.jspzQzpgzEzzSzppdocszSzuszSzcnszSzcontentzSzkrameszSz1292_01zPzhtm | access-date = January 2, 2018 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20090303124418/http://www.mercksource.com/pp/us/cns/cns_krames_template.jspzQzpgzEzzSzppdocszSzuszSzcnszSzcontentzSzkrameszSz1292_12zPzhtm | archive-date = March 3, 2009}}</ref> | ||
<ref name="aha0000xc">{{cite web | title = Monounsaturated Fat | publisher = American Heart Association | url = https://healthyforgood.heart.org/Eat-smart/Articles/Monounsaturated-Fats | access-date = 2018 | <ref name="aha0000xc">{{cite web | title = Monounsaturated Fat | publisher = American Heart Association | url = https://healthyforgood.heart.org/Eat-smart/Articles/Monounsaturated-Fats | access-date = April 19, 2018 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20180307184535/https://healthyforgood.heart.org/Eat-smart/Articles/Monounsaturated-Fats | archive-date = March 7, 2018 | url-status = live}}</ref> | ||
</references> | |||
{{Cookbook | Oil and fat}} | {{Cookbook | Oil and fat}} | ||
{{wiktionary | Fat}} | {{wiktionary | Fat}} | ||
Latest revision as of 12:37, 18 November 2025
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In nutrition, biology, and chemistry, fat usually means any ester of fatty acids, or a mixture of such compounds, most commonly those that occur in living beings or in food.[1]
The term often refers specifically to triglycerides (triple esters of glycerol), that are the main components of vegetable oils and of fatty tissue in animals;[2] or, even more narrowly, to triglycerides that are solid or semisolid at room temperature, thus excluding oils. The term may also be used more broadly as a synonym of lipid—any substance of biological relevance, composed of carbon, hydrogen, or oxygen, that is insoluble in water but soluble in non-polar solvents.[1] In this sense, besides the triglycerides, the term would include several other types of compounds like mono- and diglycerides, phospholipids (such as lecithin), sterols (such as cholesterol), waxes (such as beeswax),[1] and free fatty acids, which are usually present in human diet in smaller amounts.[2]
Fats are one of the three main macronutrient groups in human diet, along with carbohydrates and proteins,[1][3] and the main components of common food products like milk, butter, tallow, lard, salt pork, and cooking oils. They are a major and dense source of food energy for many animals and play important structural and metabolic functions in most living beings, including energy storage, waterproofing, and thermal insulation.[4] The human body can produce the fat it requires from other food ingredients, except for a few essential fatty acids that must be included in the diet. Dietary fats are also the carriers of some flavor and aroma ingredients and vitamins that are not water-soluble.[2]
Biological importance
In humans and many animals, fats serve both as energy sources and as stores for energy in excess of what the body needs immediately. Each gram of fat when burned or metabolized releases about nine food calories (37 kJ = 8.8 kcal).[5]
Fats are also sources of essential fatty acids, an important dietary requirement. Vitamins A, D, E, and K are fat-soluble, meaning they can only be digested, absorbed, and transported in conjunction with fats.
Fats play a vital role in maintaining healthy skin and hair, insulating body organs against shock, maintaining body temperature, and promoting healthy cell function. Fat also serves as a useful buffer against a host of diseases. When a particular substance, whether chemical or biotic, reaches unsafe levels in the bloodstream, the body can effectively dilute—or at least maintain equilibrium of—the offending substances by storing it in new fat tissue.[6] This helps to protect vital organs, until such time as the offending substances can be metabolized or removed from the body by such means as excretion, urination, accidental or intentional bloodletting, sebum excretion, and hair growth.
Adipose tissue
In animals, adipose tissue (fatty tissue) is the body's means of storing metabolic energy over extended periods of time. Adipocytes (fat cells) store fat derived from the diet and from liver metabolism. Under energy stress these cells may degrade their stored fat to supply fatty acids and also glycerol to the circulation. These metabolic activities are regulated by several hormones (e.g., insulin, glucagon and epinephrine). Adipose tissue also secretes the hormone leptin.[7]
Production and processing
A variety of chemical and physical techniques are used for the production and processing of fats, both industrially and in cottage or home settings. They include:
- Pressing to extract liquid fats from fruits, seeds, or algae, e.g. olive oil from olives
- Solvent extraction using solvents like hexane or supercritical carbon dioxide
- Rendering – the melting of fat in adipose tissue, e.g. to produce tallow, lard, fish oil, and whale oil
- Churning of milk to produce butter
- Hydrogenation to increase the degree of saturation of the fatty acids
- Interesterification – the rearrangement of fatty acids across different triglycerides
- Winterization to remove oil components with higher melting points
- Clarification of butter
Metabolism
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The pancreatic lipase acts at the ester bond, hydrolyzing the bond and "releasing" the fatty acid. In triglyceride form, lipids cannot be absorbed by the duodenum. Fatty acids, monoglycerides (one glycerol, one fatty acid), and some diglycerides are absorbed by the duodenum, once the triglycerides have been broken down.
In the intestine, following the secretion of lipases and bile, triglycerides are split into monoacylglycerol and free fatty acids in a process called lipolysis. They are subsequently moved to absorptive enterocyte cells lining the intestines. The triglycerides are rebuilt in the enterocytes from their fragments and packaged together with cholesterol and proteins to form chylomicrons. These are excreted from the cells and collected by the lymph system and transported to the large vessels near the heart before being mixed into the blood. Various tissues can capture the chylomicrons, releasing the triglycerides to be used as a source of energy. Liver cells can synthesize and store triglycerides. When the body requires fatty acids as an energy source, the hormone glucagon signals the breakdown of the triglycerides by hormone-sensitive lipase to release free fatty acids. As the brain cannot utilize fatty acids as an energy source (unless converted to a ketone),[8] the glycerol component of triglycerides can be converted into glucose, via gluconeogenesis by conversion into dihydroxyacetone phosphate and then into glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate, for brain fuel when it is broken down. Fat cells may also be broken down for that reason if the brain's needs ever outweigh the body's.
Triglycerides cannot pass through cell membranes freely. Special enzymes on the walls of blood vessels called lipoprotein lipases must break down triglycerides into free fatty acids and glycerol. Fatty acids can then be taken up by cells via fatty acid transport proteins (FATPs).
Triglycerides, as major components of very-low-density lipoprotein (VLDL) and chylomicrons, play an important role in metabolism as energy sources and transporters of dietary fat. They contain more than twice as much energy (approximately 9Template:Nbskcal/g or 38Template:NbskJ/g) as carbohydrates (approximately 4Template:Nbskcal/g or 17Template:NbskJ/g).[9]
Nutritional and health aspects
The most common type of fat, in human diet and most living beings, is a triglyceride, an ester of the triple alcohol glycerol Template:Chem and three fatty acids. The molecule of a triglyceride can be described as resulting from a condensation reaction (specifically, esterification) between each of glycerol's –OH groups and the HO– part of the carboxyl group Template:Chem2 of each fatty acid, forming an ester bridge Template:Chem2 with elimination of a water molecule Template:Chem.
Other less common types of fats include diglycerides and monoglycerides, where the esterification is limited to two or just one of glycerol's –OH groups. Other alcohols, such as cetyl alcohol (predominant in spermaceti), may replace glycerol. In the phospholipids, one of the fatty acids is replaced by phosphoric acid or a monoester thereof. The benefits and risks of various amounts and types of dietary fats have been the object of much study, and are still highly controversial topics.[10][11][12][13]
Essential fatty acids
There are two essential fatty acids (EFAs) in human nutrition: alpha-Linolenic acid (an omega-3 fatty acid) and linoleic acid (an omega-6 fatty acid).[14][5] The adult body can synthesize other lipids that it needs from these two.
Dietary sources
Template:Vegetable oils, composition
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Different foods contain different amounts of fat with different proportions of saturated and unsaturated fatty acids. Some animal products, like beef and dairy products made with whole or reduced fat milk like yogurt, ice cream, cheese and butter have mostly saturated fatty acids (and some have significant contents of dietary cholesterol). Other animal products, like pork, poultry, eggs, and seafood have mostly unsaturated fats. Industrialized baked goods may use fats with high unsaturated fat contents as well, especially those containing partially hydrogenated oils, and processed foods that are deep-fried in hydrogenated oil are high in saturated fat content.[15][16][17]
Plants and fish oil generally contain a higher proportion of unsaturated acids, although there are exceptions such as coconut oil and palm kernel oil.[18][19] Foods containing unsaturated fats include avocado, nuts, olive oils, and vegetable oils such as canola.
Many scientific studies have found that replacing saturated fats with cis unsaturated fats in the diet reduces risk of cardiovascular diseases (CVDs),[20] diabetes, or death.[21] These studies prompted many medical organizations and public health departments, including the World Health Organization (WHO),[22][23] to officially issue that advice. Some countries with such recommendations include:
- United Kingdom[24][25][26][27][28]
- United States[21][29][30][31][32]
- India[33][34]
- Canada[35]
- Australia[36]
- Singapore[37]
- New Zealand[38]
- Hong Kong[39]
A 2004 review concluded that "no lower safe limit of specific saturated fatty acid intakes has been identified" and recommended that the influence of varying saturated fatty acid intakes against a background of different individual lifestyles and genetic backgrounds should be the focus in future studies.[40]
This advice is often oversimplified by labeling the two kinds of fats as bad fats and good fats, respectively. However, since the fats and oils in most natural and traditionally processed foods contain both unsaturated and saturated fatty acids,[41] the complete exclusion of saturated fat is unrealistic and possibly unwise. For instance, some foods rich in saturated fat, such as coconut and palm oil, are an important source of cheap dietary calories for a large fraction of the population in developing countries.[42]
Concerns were also expressed at a 2010 conference of the American Dietetic Association that a blanket recommendation to avoid saturated fats could drive people to also reduce the amount of polyunsaturated fats, which may have health benefits, and/or replace fats by refined carbohydrates — which carry a high risk of obesity and heart disease.[43]
For these reasons, the U.S. Food and Drug Administration, for example, recommends to consume less than 10% (7% for high-risk groups) of calories from saturated fat, with 15-30% of total calories from all fat.[44][42] A general 7% limit was recommended also by the American Heart Association (AHA) in 2006.[45][46]
The WHO/FAO report also recommended replacing fats so as to reduce the content of myristic and palmitic acids, specifically.[42]
The so-called Mediterranean diet, prevalent in many countries in the Mediterranean Sea area, includes more total fat than the diet of Northern European countries, but most of it is in the form of unsaturated fatty acids (specifically, monounsaturated and omega-3) from olive oil and fish, vegetables, and certain meats like lamb, while consumption of saturated fat is minimal in comparison. A 2017 review found evidence that a Mediterranean-style diet could reduce the risk of cardiovascular diseases, overall cancer incidence, neurodegenerative diseases, diabetes, and mortality rate.[47] A 2018 review showed that a Mediterranean-like diet may improve overall health status, such as reduced risk of non-communicable diseases. It also may reduce the social and economic costs of diet-related illnesses.[48]
A small number of contemporary reviews have challenged this negative view of saturated fats. For example, an evaluation of evidence from 1966 to 1973 of the observed health impact of replacing dietary saturated fat with linoleic acid found that it increased rates of death from all causes, coronary heart disease, and cardiovascular disease.[49] These studies have been disputed by many scientists,[50] and the consensus in the medical community is that saturated fat and cardiovascular disease are closely related.[51][52][53] Still, these discordant studies fueled debate over the merits of substituting polyunsaturated fats for saturated fats.[54]
Cardiovascular disease
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The effect of saturated fat on cardiovascular disease has been extensively studied.[20] The general consensus is that there is evidence of moderate-quality of a strong, consistent, and graded relationship between saturated fat intake, blood cholesterol levels, and the incidence of cardiovascular disease.[21][20] The relationships are accepted as causal,[55][56] including by many government and medical organizations.[42][57][58][21][59][60][61][62]
A 2017 review by the AHA estimated that replacement of saturated fat with polyunsaturated fat in the American diet could reduce the risk of cardiovascular diseases by 30%.[21]
The consumption of saturated fat is generally considered a risk factor for dyslipidemia—abnormal blood lipid levels, including high total cholesterol, high levels of triglycerides, high levels of low-density lipoprotein (LDL, "bad" cholesterol) or low levels of high-density lipoprotein (HDL, "good" cholesterol). These parameters in turn are believed to be risk indicators for some types of cardiovascular disease.[63][64][65][66][67][59][68][69][70] These effects were observed in children too.[71]
Several meta-analyses (reviews and consolidations of multiple previously published experimental studies) have confirmed a significant relationship between saturated fat and high serum cholesterol levels,[21][72] which in turn have been claimed to have a causal relation with increased risk of cardiovascular disease (the so-called lipid hypothesis).[73][74] However, high cholesterol may be caused by many factors. Other indicators, such as high LDL/HDL ratio, have proved to be more predictive.[74] In a study of myocardial infarction in 52 countries, the ApoB/ApoA1 (related to LDL and HDL, respectively) ratio was the strongest predictor of CVD among all risk factors.[75] There are other pathways involving obesity, triglyceride levels, insulin sensitivity, endothelial function, and thrombogenicity, among others, that play a role in CVD, although it seems, in the absence of an adverse blood lipid profile, the other known risk factors have only a weak atherogenic effect.[76] Different saturated fatty acids have differing effects on various lipid levels.[77]
Cancer
The evidence for a relation between saturated fat intake and cancer is significantly weaker, and there does not seem to be a clear medical consensus about it.
- Several reviews of case–control studies have found that saturated fat intake is associated with increased breast cancer risk.[78][79][80]
- Another review found limited evidence for a positive relationship between consuming animal fat and incidence of colorectal cancer.[81]
- Other meta-analyses found evidence for increased risk of ovarian cancer by high consumption of saturated fat.[82]
- Some studies have indicated that serum myristic acid[83][84] and palmitic acid[84] and dietary myristic[85] and palmitic[85] saturated fatty acids and serum palmitic combined with alpha-tocopherol supplementation[83] are associated with increased risk of prostate cancer in a dose-dependent manner. These associations may, however, reflect differences in intake or metabolism of these fatty acids between the precancer cases and controls, rather than being an actual cause.[84]
Bones
Various animal studies have indicated that the intake of saturated fat has a negative effect on the mineral density of bones. One study suggested that men may be particularly vulnerable.[86]
Disposition and overall health
Studies have shown that substituting monounsaturated fatty acids for saturated ones is associated with increased daily physical activity and resting energy expenditure. More physical activity, less anger, and less irritability were associated with a higher-oleic acid diet than one of a palmitic acid diet.[87]
Script error: No such module "anchor".Script error: No such module "anchor".Monounsaturated vs. polyunsaturated fat
The most common fatty acids in human diet are unsaturated or mono-unsaturated. Monounsaturated fats are found in animal flesh such as red meat, whole milk products, nuts, and high fat fruits such as olives and avocados. Olive oil is about 75% monounsaturated fat.[88] The high oleic variety sunflower oil contains at least 70% monounsaturated fat.[89] Canola oil and cashews are both about 58% monounsaturated fat.[90] Tallow (beef fat) is about 50% monounsaturated fat,[91] and lard is about 40% monounsaturated fat.[92] Other sources include hazelnut, avocado oil, macadamia nut oil, grapeseed oil, groundnut oil (peanut oil), sesame oil, corn oil, popcorn, whole grain wheat, cereal, oatmeal, almond oil, hemp oil, and tea-oil camellia.[93]
Polyunsaturated fatty acids can be found mostly in nuts, seeds, fish, seed oils, and oysters.[94]
Food sources of polyunsaturated fats include:[94][95]
| Food source (100g) | Polyunsaturated fat (g) |
|---|---|
| Walnuts | 47 |
| Canola oil | 34 |
| Sunflower seeds | 33 |
| Sesame seeds | 26 |
| Chia seeds | 23.7 |
| Unsalted peanuts | 16 |
| Peanut butter | 14.2 |
| Avocado oil | 13.5[96] |
| Olive oil | 11 |
| Safflower oil | 12.82[97] |
| Seaweed | 11 |
| Sardines | 5 |
| Soybeans | 7 |
| Tuna | 14 |
| Wild salmon | 17.3 |
| Whole grain wheat | 9.7 |
Insulin resistance (sensitivity)
MUFAs (especially oleic acid) have been found to lower the incidence of insulin resistance; PUFAs (especially large amounts of arachidonic acid) and SFAs (such as arachidic acid) increased it. These ratios can be indexed in the phospholipids of human skeletal muscle and in other tissues as well. The relationship between dietary fats and insulin resistance is presumed secondary to the relationship between insulin resistance and inflammation, which is partially modulated by dietary fat ratios (omega−3/6/9), with both omegaTemplate:Nbnd3 and Template:Nbnd9 thought to be anti-inflammatory and omegaTemplate:Nbnd6 pro-inflammatory (as well as by numerous other dietary components, particularly polyphenols and exercise, with both of these anti-inflammatory). Although both pro- and anti-inflammatory types of fat are biologically necessary, fat dietary ratios in most U.S. diets are skewed towards omegaTemplate:Nbnd6, with subsequent disinhibition of inflammation and potentiation of insulin resistance.[41] This is contrary to the suggestion that polyunsaturated fats are shown to be protective against insulin resistance.Script error: No such module "Unsubst".
The large-scale KANWU study found that increasing MUFA and decreasing SFA intake could improve insulin sensitivity, but only when the overall fat intake of the diet was low.[98] However, some MUFAs may promote insulin resistance (like the SFAs), whereas PUFAs may protect against it.[99][100]Template:Clarify
Cancer
Levels of oleic acid along with other MUFAs in red blood cell membranes were positively associated with breast cancer risk. The saturation index (SI) of the same membranes was inversely associated with breast cancer risk. MUFAs and low SI in erythrocyte membranes are predictors of postmenopausal breast cancer. Both of these variables depend on the activity of the enzyme delta-9 desaturase (Δ9-d).[101]
Results from observational clinical trials on PUFA intake and cancer have been inconsistent and vary by numerous factors of cancer incidence, including gender and genetic risk.[102] Some studies have shown associations between higher intakes and/or blood levels of omega-3 PUFAs and a decreased risk of certain cancers, including breast and colorectal cancer, while other studies found no associations with cancer risk.[102][103]
Pregnancy disorders
Polyunsaturated fat supplementation was found to have no effect on the incidence of pregnancy-related disorders, such as hypertension or preeclampsia, but may increase the length of gestation slightly and decreased the incidence of early premature births.[94]
Expert panels in the United States and Europe recommend that pregnant and lactating women consume higher amounts of polyunsaturated fats than the general population to enhance the DHA status of the fetus and newborn.[94]
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Script error: No such module "Labelled list hatnote". In nature, unsaturated fatty acids generally have double bonds in cis configuration (with the adjacent C–C bonds on the same side) as opposed to trans.[104] Nevertheless, trans fatty acids (TFAs) occur in small amounts in meat and milk of ruminants (such as cattle and sheep),[105][106] typically 2Template:Nbnd5% of total fat.[107] Natural TFAs, which include conjugated linoleic acid (CLA) and vaccenic acid, originate in the rumen of these animals. CLA has two double bonds, one in the cis configuration and one in trans, which makes it simultaneously a cis- and a trans-fatty acid.[108]
The trans fat content in various natural and traditionally processed foods is shown in the table below.
| Food type | Trans fat content[109] (grams per 100 g) |
|---|---|
| Butter | 2 to 7 g |
| Whole milk | 0.07 to 0.1 g |
| Animal fat | 0 to 5 g[107] |
| Ground beef | 1 g |
The processing of fats by hydrogenation can convert some unsaturated fats into trans fats. The presence of trans fats in various processed foods has received much attention.
Omega-three and omega-six fatty acids
Script error: No such module "Labelled list hatnote". The ω−3 fatty acids have received substantial attention. Among omega-3 fatty acids, neither long-chain nor short-chain forms were consistently associated with breast cancer risk. High levels of docosahexaenoic acid (DHA), however, the most abundant omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acid in erythrocyte (red blood cell) membranes, were associated with a reduced risk of breast cancer.[101] The DHA obtained through the consumption of polyunsaturated fatty acids is positively associated with cognitive and behavioral performance.[110] In addition, DHA is vital for the grey matter structure of the human brain, as well as retinal stimulation and neurotransmission.[94]
Interesterification
Some studies have investigated the health effects of interesterified (IE) fats, by comparing diets with IE and non-IE fats with the same overall fatty acid composition.[111][112]
Several experimental studies in humans found no statistical difference on fasting blood lipids between a diet with large amounts of IE fat, having 25-40% C16:0 or C18:0 on the 2-position, and a similar diet with non-IE fat, having only 3-9% C16:0 or C18:0 on the 2-position.[113][114][115] A negative result was obtained also in a study that compared the effects on blood cholesterol levels of an IE fat product mimicking cocoa butter and the real non-IE product.[116][117][118][119][120][121][122] Another study found tentative evidence that interesterified fat may lower cardiovascular disease risk.[111]
A 2007 study funded by the Malaysian Palm Oil Board[123] claimed that replacing natural palm oil by other interesterified or partially hydrogenated fats caused adverse health effects, such as higher LDL/HDL ratio and plasma glucose levels. However, these effects could be attributed to the higher percentage of saturated acids in the IE and partially hydrogenated fats, rather than to the IE process itself.[124][125]
Rancification
Script error: No such module "Labelled list hatnote". Unsaturated fats undergo auto-oxidation, which involves replacement of a C-H bond with C-OH unit. The process requires oxygen (air) and is accelerated by the presence of traces of metals, which serve as catalysts. Doubly unsaturated fatty acids are particularly prone to this reaction. Vegetable oils resist this process to a small degree because they contain antioxidants, such as tocopherol. Fats and oils often are treated with chelating agents such as citric acid to remove the metal catalysts.
Role in disease
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Guidelines
The National Cholesterol Education Program has set guidelines for triglyceride levels:[128][129]
| Level | Interpretation | |
|---|---|---|
| (mg/dL) | (mmol/L) | |
| < 150 | < 1.70 | Normal range – low risk |
| 150–199 | 1.70–2.25 | Slightly above normal |
| 200–499 | 2.26–5.65 | Some risk |
| 500 or higher | > 5.65 | Very high – high risk |
These levels are tested after fasting for 8 to 12 hours. Triglyceride levels remain temporarily higher for a period after eating.
The AHA recommends an optimal triglyceride level of 100Template:Nbsmg/dL (1.1Template:Nbsmmol/L) or lower to improve heart health.[130]
Reducing triglyceride levels
See also
References
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- ↑ a b c Thomas A. B. Sanders (2016): "The Role of Fats in Human Diet". Pages 1-20 of Functional Dietary Lipids. Woodhead/Elsevier, 332 pages. Template:IsbnScript error: No such module "doi".
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