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{{Short description|Mande language spoken in West Africa}} | {{Short description|Mande language spoken in West Africa}} | ||
{{Distinguish|Jola-Fonyi language{{!}}Diola language}} | {{Distinguish|Jola-Fonyi language{{!}}Diola language}} | ||
{{Use dmy dates|date=October 2025}} | |||
{{page numbers needed|date=October 2025}} | |||
{{Infobox language | {{Infobox language | ||
| name = Dyula | | name = Dyula | ||
| nativename = {{lang|dyu-latn|Julakan}} {{lang|dyu-nkoo|ߖߎ߬ߟߊ߬ߞߊ߲}} | | nativename = {{lang|dyu-latn|Julakan}} {{lang|dyu-nkoo|ߖߎ߬ߟߊ߬ߞߊ߲}} | ||
| states = [[Burkina Faso]], [[Mali]], [[ | | states = [[Burkina Faso]], [[Mali]], [[Côte d'Ivoire]] | ||
| ethnicity = [[Dyula people|Dyula]] | | ethnicity = [[Dyula people|Dyula]] | ||
| speakers = [[first language|L1]]: {{sigfig|2.563000|2}} million | | speakers = [[first language|L1]]: {{sigfig|2.563000|2}} million | ||
| Line 16: | Line 18: | ||
| fam5 = [[Manding languages|East]] | | fam5 = [[Manding languages|East]] | ||
| fam6 = [[Bambara language|Bambara–Dyula]] | | fam6 = [[Bambara language|Bambara–Dyula]] | ||
|official=[[Ivory Coast]] | |||
| iso2 = dyu | | iso2 = dyu | ||
| iso3 = dyu | | iso3 = dyu | ||
| Line 24: | Line 27: | ||
}} | }} | ||
[[File:WIKITONGUES- Achille speaking Mooré and Dioula.webm|thumb|A Dyula speaker speaking Mooré and Dyula, recorded in [[Taiwan]] | [[File:WIKITONGUES- Achille speaking Mooré and Dioula.webm|thumb|A Dyula speaker speaking Mooré and Dyula, recorded in [[Taiwan]]]] | ||
'''Dyula''' (or '''Jula''', '''Dioula''', ''Julakan'' ߖߎ߬ߟߊ߬ߞߊ߲) is a language of the [[Mande languages|Mande language family]] spoken mainly in [[Burkina Faso]], [[ | '''Dyula''' (or '''Ivorian''', '''Jula''', '''Dioula''', ''Julakan'' ߖߎ߬ߟߊ߬ߞߊ߲) is a language of the [[Mande languages|Mande language family]] spoken mainly in [[Burkina Faso]], [[Côte d'Ivoire]] and [[Mali]], and also in some other countries, including [[Ghana]], [[Guinea]] and [[Guinea-Bissau]]. It is one of the [[Manding languages]] and is most closely related to [[Bambara language|Bambara]], being [[Mutual intelligibility|mutually intelligible]] with Bambara as well as [[Maninka language|Malinke]]. It is a [[Lingua franca|trade language]] in [[West Africa]] and is spoken by millions of people, either as a first or second language. Similar to the other Mande languages, it uses [[Tone (linguistics)|tones]]. It may be written in the [[Latin script|Latin]], [[Arabic script|Arabic]] or [[N'Ko script]]s. | ||
== History == | == History == | ||
Historically, Dyula ("jula" in the language) was not an ethonym, but rather a [[Manding languages|Manding language]] label literally meaning 'trader'. The term used to distinguish Muslim traders from the non-Muslim population living in the same area, mainly [[Senufo people|Senufo]] agricultors. It then became an exonym for Manding-speaking traders such as the [[Bambara people|Bambara]] or the [[Mandinka people|Mandinka]] and their languages.<ref name="Werthmann">{{cite journal |last1=Werthmann |first1=Katja |title=Wer sind die Dyula?: Ethnizität und Bürgerkrieg in der Côte d'Ivoire |journal=Afrika Spectrum |date=2005 |volume=40 |issue=2 |pages=221–140 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101226042839/http://www.giga-hamburg.de/openaccess/afrikaspectrum/2005_2/giga_as_2005_2_werthmann.pdf |trans-title=Who are the Dyula?: Ethnicity and Civil War in the Côte d'Ivoire |publisher=Institut für Afrika-Forschung |location=Hamburg |language=de |archive-date=26 December 2010 |url-status=dead |url=http://www.giga-hamburg.de/openaccess/afrikaspectrum/2005_2/giga_as_2005_2_werthmann.pdf}}</ref> At the same time, however, a process of ethnogenesis across the centuries led to some communities in modern towns like Bobo-Dioulasso, Odienné and Kong adopting the label as one of their ethnic identity.<ref>Sanogo | Historically, Dyula ("jula" in the language) was not an ethonym, but rather a [[Manding languages|Manding language]] label literally meaning 'trader'. The term used to distinguish Muslim traders from the non-Muslim population living in the same area, mainly [[Senufo people|Senufo]] agricultors. It then became an exonym for Manding-speaking traders such as the [[Bambara people|Bambara]] or the [[Mandinka people|Mandinka]] and their languages.<ref name="Werthmann">{{cite journal |last1=Werthmann |first1=Katja |title=Wer sind die Dyula?: Ethnizität und Bürgerkrieg in der Côte d'Ivoire |journal=Afrika Spectrum |date=2005 |volume=40 |issue=2 |pages=221–140 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101226042839/http://www.giga-hamburg.de/openaccess/afrikaspectrum/2005_2/giga_as_2005_2_werthmann.pdf |trans-title=Who are the Dyula?: Ethnicity and Civil War in the Côte d'Ivoire |publisher=Institut für Afrika-Forschung |location=Hamburg |language=de |archive-date=26 December 2010 |url-status=dead |url=http://www.giga-hamburg.de/openaccess/afrikaspectrum/2005_2/giga_as_2005_2_werthmann.pdf}}</ref> At the same time, however, a process of ethnogenesis across the centuries led to some communities in modern towns like Bobo-Dioulasso, Odienné and Kong adopting the label as one of their ethnic identity.<ref>{{cite book |last=Sanogo |first=Mamadou Lamine |year=2003 |chapter=L’ethnisme jula: origines et évolution d’un groupe ethnolinguistique dans la boucle du Niger |title=Burkina Faso, Cents Ans d'Histoire, 1895–1995 |editor-first=Yénouyaba Georges |editor-last=Madiéga |pages=369–379 |location=Paris |publisher=Karthala}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Wilks |first=Ivor |year=1968 |chapter=The Transmission of Islamic Learning in the Western Sudan |title=Literacy in Traditional Societies |editor-first=Jack |editor-last=Goody |pages=162–197 |location=Cambridge |publisher=Cambridge University Press}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Wilks |first=Ivor |year=2000 |chapter=The Juula and the Expansion of Islam into the Forest |title=The History of Islam in Africa |editor-first=Nehema |editor-last=Levtzion |editor-first2=Randell |editor-last2=Pouwels |pages=93–115 |location=Athens, OH |publisher=Ohio University Press}}</ref> These communities speak varieties of Dyula with common traits that distinguish it from the lingua franca form of Jula that one hears in markets across much of Burkina Faso and Côte d'Ivoire.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Donaldson |first=Coleman |date=1 October 2013 |title=Jula Ajami in Burkina Faso: A Grassroots Literacy in the Former Kong Empire |url=https://repository.upenn.edu/wpel/vol28/iss2/2 |journal=Working Papers in Educational Linguistics |volume=28 |issue=2 |issn=1548-3134}}</ref><ref>{{cite thesis |last=Sangaré |first=Aby |year=1984 |title=Dioula de Kong : Côte d'Ivoire |degree=PhD |publisher=Université de Grenoble}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Braconnier |first=C. |year=1999 |title=Dictionnaire du dioula d'Odienné: parler de Samatiguila |location=Paris |publisher=Documents de Linguistique Africaine}}</ref> | ||
Later, the term was also used for a simplified version of Bambara, which comes from Mali, mixed with elements of Maninka. It became a widely used lingua franca.<ref>{{ | Later, the term was also used for a simplified version of Bambara, which comes from Mali, mixed with elements of Maninka. It became a widely used lingua franca.<ref>{{cite AV media |via=YouTube |title=DIOULA: a Manding language variety of West Africa {{!}} Na baro kè 14 | date=26 January 2023 |url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=FwE1Bo71Cz4 |language=en |access-date=21 February 2023 |publisher=An ka taa}}</ref>{{better source needed|date=October 2025}} Native speakers of Manding{{clarification needed|date=October 2025}} in the Ivory Coast use the pejorative term 'Tagbusikan'{{which lang?|date=October 2025}} to refer to this simplified language, while they{{who?|date=October 2025}} called their own language 'Konyakakan', 'Odiennekakan' or 'Maukakan'. The influx of millions of migrant workers from the [[Sahel]] further boostered the use of Dyula in the Ivory Coast due to the need of a lingua franca. Many Burkinabe learned Dyula while staying in the Ivory Coast and further disseminated it back home. Today, Dyula is used to at least some extent by 61% of the population of the Ivory Coast and by about 35% of the Burkinabe (mainly those living in the southern or western part of the country).<ref name="Werthmann" /> | ||
== Phonology == | == Phonology == | ||
| Line 37: | Line 40: | ||
=== Consonants === | === Consonants === | ||
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;" | {| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;" | ||
! colspan="2" | | |+Consonants{{sfn|Hien|2000|p=29}} | ||
! colspan="2"| | |||
![[Labial consonant|Labial]] | ![[Labial consonant|Labial]] | ||
![[Alveolar consonant|Alveolar]] | ![[Alveolar consonant|Alveolar]] | ||
| Line 98: | Line 102: | ||
=== Vowels === | === Vowels === | ||
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;" | {| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;" | ||
|+Vowels{{sfn|Hien|2000|pp=27-28}} | |||
! | ! | ||
![[Front vowel|Front]] | ![[Front vowel|Front]] | ||
| Line 123: | Line 128: | ||
| | | | ||
|} | |} | ||
The seven vowel sounds may also be either lengthened {{IPA|/iː eː ɛː aː ɔː oː uː/}} or nasalized {{IPA|/ĩ ẽ ɛ̃ ã ɔ̃ õ ũ/}}. | The seven vowel sounds may also be either lengthened {{IPA|/iː eː ɛː aː ɔː oː uː/}} or nasalized {{IPA|/ĩ ẽ ɛ̃ ã ɔ̃ õ ũ/}}.{{sfn|Hien|2000|pp=27-28}} | ||
==Writing systems== | ==Writing systems== | ||
| Line 241: | Line 246: | ||
==References== | ==References== | ||
{{Reflist}} | {{Reflist}} | ||
== Bibliography == | == Bibliography == | ||
{{refbegin}} | |||
* Commission nationale des langues burkinabè – Sous-commission du dioula, ''Guide de transcription du Dioula'', Burkina Faso, 2003 | * Commission nationale des langues burkinabè – Sous-commission du dioula, ''Guide de transcription du Dioula'', Burkina Faso, 2003 | ||
* Commission nationale des langues burkinabè – Sous-commission nationale du dioula, ''Règles orthographiques du Dioula'', Ouagadougou, Coopération suisse, 1999, 69 | * Commission nationale des langues burkinabè – Sous-commission nationale du dioula, ''Règles orthographiques du Dioula'', Ouagadougou, Coopération suisse, 1999, 69 | ||
| Line 254: | Line 255: | ||
* Maurice Delafosse, ''Essai de manuel pratique de la langue mandé ou mandingue. Étude grammaticale du dialecte dyoula. Vocabulaire français-dyoula. Histoire de Samori en mandé. Étude comparée des principaux dialectes mandé'', Paris, Publications de l'[[INALCO]], 1904, 304 | * Maurice Delafosse, ''Essai de manuel pratique de la langue mandé ou mandingue. Étude grammaticale du dialecte dyoula. Vocabulaire français-dyoula. Histoire de Samori en mandé. Étude comparée des principaux dialectes mandé'', Paris, Publications de l'[[INALCO]], 1904, 304 | ||
* Mohamadou Diallo, « Le noyau du code orthographique du dioula du Burkina Faso », ''Mandekan, Bulletin semestriel d’études linguistiques mandé'', o 37, 2001, 9–31 | * Mohamadou Diallo, « Le noyau du code orthographique du dioula du Burkina Faso », ''Mandekan, Bulletin semestriel d’études linguistiques mandé'', o 37, 2001, 9–31 | ||
* {{Cite thesis |last=Hien|first=Amélie|title=La terminologie de la médecine traditionnelle en milieu jula du Burkina Faso : méthode de recherche, langue de la santé et lexique julakan-français, français-julakan|year=2000|publisher=Université de Montréal |lang=fr |degree=PhD |hdl=1866/30143 |pages=27–31}} | |||
* Mamadou Lamine Sanogo (master's thesis, supervised by Bakary Coulibaly), ''Les syntagmes nominaux du jula véhiculaire'', University of Ouagadougou, 1991, 81 | * Mamadou Lamine Sanogo (master's thesis, supervised by Bakary Coulibaly), ''Les syntagmes nominaux du jula véhiculaire'', University of Ouagadougou, 1991, 81 | ||
* Mamadou Lamine Sanogo (DEA thesis, supervised by Bakary Coulibaly), ''Approche définitoire du jula véhiculaire'', University of Ouagadougou, 1992, 79 | * Mamadou Lamine Sanogo (DEA thesis, supervised by Bakary Coulibaly), ''Approche définitoire du jula véhiculaire'', University of Ouagadougou, 1992, 79 | ||
| Line 267: | Line 269: | ||
* Y. Person, ''Samori : Une révolution dyula'', 2, Dakar, IFAN, « Mémoires de l’Institut fondamental d’Afrique noire », 1970 | * Y. Person, ''Samori : Une révolution dyula'', 2, Dakar, IFAN, « Mémoires de l’Institut fondamental d’Afrique noire », 1970 | ||
* Y. Person, ''Samori : Une révolution dyula'', 3, Dakar, IFAN, « Mémoires de l’Institut fondamental d’Afrique noire », 1975 | * Y. Person, ''Samori : Une révolution dyula'', 3, Dakar, IFAN, « Mémoires de l’Institut fondamental d’Afrique noire », 1975 | ||
{{refend}} | |||
==External links== | |||
*[http://www.ankataa.com An ka taa]: a website with a dictionary, resources and media in and about Jula and Manding more generally. | |||
*[http://dominicweb.eu/en/endictionaries/exotic-languages-prayers?dyu Database of audio recordings in Jula (Dioula) – basic Catholic prayers]{{Dead link|date=February 2024 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }} | |||
{{navboxes| | {{navboxes| | ||
|list= | |list= | ||
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[[Category:Languages of Guinea]] | [[Category:Languages of Guinea]] | ||
[[Category:Languages of Senegal]] | [[Category:Languages of Senegal]] | ||
[[Category:Lingua francas]] | |||
Latest revision as of 11:08, 6 November 2025
Template:Short description Script error: No such module "Distinguish". Template:Use dmy dates Template:Page numbers needed Script error: No such module "Infobox".Template:Template otherTemplate:Main other
Dyula (or Ivorian, Jula, Dioula, Julakan ߖߎ߬ߟߊ߬ߞߊ߲) is a language of the Mande language family spoken mainly in Burkina Faso, Côte d'Ivoire and Mali, and also in some other countries, including Ghana, Guinea and Guinea-Bissau. It is one of the Manding languages and is most closely related to Bambara, being mutually intelligible with Bambara as well as Malinke. It is a trade language in West Africa and is spoken by millions of people, either as a first or second language. Similar to the other Mande languages, it uses tones. It may be written in the Latin, Arabic or N'Ko scripts.
History
Historically, Dyula ("jula" in the language) was not an ethonym, but rather a Manding language label literally meaning 'trader'. The term used to distinguish Muslim traders from the non-Muslim population living in the same area, mainly Senufo agricultors. It then became an exonym for Manding-speaking traders such as the Bambara or the Mandinka and their languages.[1] At the same time, however, a process of ethnogenesis across the centuries led to some communities in modern towns like Bobo-Dioulasso, Odienné and Kong adopting the label as one of their ethnic identity.[2][3][4] These communities speak varieties of Dyula with common traits that distinguish it from the lingua franca form of Jula that one hears in markets across much of Burkina Faso and Côte d'Ivoire.[5][6][7]
Later, the term was also used for a simplified version of Bambara, which comes from Mali, mixed with elements of Maninka. It became a widely used lingua franca.[8]Template:Better source needed Native speakers of MandingTemplate:Clarification needed in the Ivory Coast use the pejorative term 'Tagbusikan'Template:Which lang? to refer to this simplified language, while theyTemplate:Who? called their own language 'Konyakakan', 'Odiennekakan' or 'Maukakan'. The influx of millions of migrant workers from the Sahel further boostered the use of Dyula in the Ivory Coast due to the need of a lingua franca. Many Burkinabe learned Dyula while staying in the Ivory Coast and further disseminated it back home. Today, Dyula is used to at least some extent by 61% of the population of the Ivory Coast and by about 35% of the Burkinabe (mainly those living in the southern or western part of the country).[1]
Phonology
Consonants
Vowels
| Front | Central | Back | |
|---|---|---|---|
| Close | Template:IPA link | Template:IPA link | |
| Close-mid | Template:IPA link | Template:IPA link | |
| Open-mid | Template:IPA link | Template:IPA link | |
| Open | Template:IPA link |
The seven vowel sounds may also be either lengthened Script error: No such module "IPA". or nasalized Script error: No such module "IPA"..Template:Sfn
Writing systems
N'Ko alphabet
The N'Ko script is an indigenous writing system for the Manding language continuum, invented in 1949 by Solomana Kanté, a Guinean educator. Today, the script has been digitised as part of Unicode, which allows it to be used easily online, but the lack of funding and the official status of French means that use of this alphabet largely happens outside of formal education and is not systematically used on street signs, etc.
Latin alphabet and orthography
Dioula orthography is regulated in Burkina Faso by the Dioula Sub-Commission of the National Commission for Languages. On 15 July 1971, the National Sub-Commission for Dioula was created[9] and on 16 July 1971, it began a study in order to set the Dioula alphabet. An alphabet was published on 27 July 1973 and gained official status on 2 February 1979.[10] Some letters were added later, Template:Angbr for borrowed words, and others were replaced: Template:Angbr by Template:Angbr, and Template:Angbr by Template:Angbr.[11]
| Dioula Alphabet | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| A | B | C | D | E | Ɛ | F | G | H | I | J | K | L | M | N | Ɲ | Ŋ | O | Ɔ | P | R | S | T | U | V | W | Y | Z |
| a | b | c | d | e | ɛ | f | g | h | i | j | k | l | m | n | ɲ | ŋ | o | ɔ | p | r | s | t | u | v | w | y | z |
| Phonetic value | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| Template:IPA link | Template:IPA link | Template:IPA link | Template:IPA link | Template:IPA link | Template:IPA link | Template:IPA link | Template:IPA link | Template:IPA link | Template:IPA link | Template:IPA link | Template:IPA link | Template:IPA link | Template:IPA link | Template:IPA link | Template:IPA link | Template:IPA link | Template:IPA link | Template:IPA link | Template:IPA link | Template:IPA link | Template:IPA link | Template:IPA link | Template:IPA link | Template:IPA link | Template:IPA link | Template:IPA link | Template:IPA link |
In Burkina Faso, the Dioula alphabet is made up of 28 letters each representing a single phoneme. In the orthography, long vowels are represented by doubled letters; thus, /e/ is written Template:Angbr and /eː/, Template:Angbr. The nasalisation of a vowel is written followed by an n; for example, /ẽ/ is written Template:Angbr.
The notation of tones was recommended in 1973, but in practice they are not written. The transcription guide published in 2003 does not reiterate this recommendation. Tones are noted solely in lexicographical works. However, to avoid ambiguity, tone marking is obligatory in certain cases.
For example:
- Template:Angbr he/she (third person singular pronoun)
- Template:Angbr you (second person plural pronoun)
Media
Dioula can be heard spoken in the 2004 film Night of Truth, directed by Fanta Régina Nacro, Burkina Faso's first female director.
See also
References
Bibliography
- Commission nationale des langues burkinabè – Sous-commission du dioula, Guide de transcription du Dioula, Burkina Faso, 2003
- Commission nationale des langues burkinabè – Sous-commission nationale du dioula, Règles orthographiques du Dioula, Ouagadougou, Coopération suisse, 1999, 69
- Moussa Coulibaly et Haraguchi Takehiko, Lexique du Dioula, Institute of Developing Economies, 1993 (read online [archive])
- Maurice Delafosse, Vocabulaires comparatifs de plus de 60 langues ou dialectes parlés à la Côte d'Ivoire et dans les régions limitrophes, Paris, E. Leroux, 1904, 284
- Maurice Delafosse, Essai de manuel pratique de la langue mandé ou mandingue. Étude grammaticale du dialecte dyoula. Vocabulaire français-dyoula. Histoire de Samori en mandé. Étude comparée des principaux dialectes mandé, Paris, Publications de l'INALCO, 1904, 304
- Mohamadou Diallo, « Le noyau du code orthographique du dioula du Burkina Faso », Mandekan, Bulletin semestriel d’études linguistiques mandé, o 37, 2001, 9–31
- Template:Cite thesis
- Mamadou Lamine Sanogo (master's thesis, supervised by Bakary Coulibaly), Les syntagmes nominaux du jula véhiculaire, University of Ouagadougou, 1991, 81
- Mamadou Lamine Sanogo (DEA thesis, supervised by Bakary Coulibaly), Approche définitoire du jula véhiculaire, University of Ouagadougou, 1992, 79
- Mamadou Lamine Sanogo, « Tons, segments et règles transformationnelles en jula », Mandenkan, Paris, o 30, 1995, 41–54
- Mamadou Lamine Sanogo (University of Rouen thesis, supervised by Claude Caitucoli (URA-CNRS 1164)), Langues nationales, langues véhiculaires, langue officielle et glottopolitique au Burkina Faso, 1996, 832
- Mamadou Lamine Sanogo, « Les fondements scientifiques d'une règle d'écriture orthographique : le redoublement de la voyelle finale du défini en jula », Cahiers du CERLESHS, University of Ouagadougou, o 16, 1999, 127–144
- Mamadou Lamine Sanogo, À propos de jula à Bobo-Dioulasso, 2000, 73–83, spécial 2, PUO
- Mamadou Lamine Sanogo, « L'ethisme jula : origines et évolution d'un groupe ethnolinguistique dans la boucle du Niger », dans Y. G. Madiéga et O. Nao, 1, 2003, 370–379
- Mamadou Lamine Sanogo, « À propos des constructions du syntagme complétif en dioula », Cahiers du CERLESHS, University of Ouagadougou, o 20, 2003, 179–211
- Mamadou Lamine Sanogo, « Vers une approche sociolinguistique des dérivatifs en dioula véhiculaire », Cahiers du CERLESHS, University of Ouagadougou, o 1* er numéro spécial, June 2003, 221–223
- Mamadou Lamine Sanogo, La recherche terminologique dans un dialecte couvert : le cas du dioula, Paris, Édition des archives contemporaines, 2006, 631–639
- Y. Person, Samori : Une révolution dyula, 1, Dakar, IFAN, « Mémoires de l’Institut fondamental d’Afrique noire », 1968
- Y. Person, Samori : Une révolution dyula, 2, Dakar, IFAN, « Mémoires de l’Institut fondamental d’Afrique noire », 1970
- Y. Person, Samori : Une révolution dyula, 3, Dakar, IFAN, « Mémoires de l’Institut fondamental d’Afrique noire », 1975
External links
- An ka taa: a website with a dictionary, resources and media in and about Jula and Manding more generally.
- Database of audio recordings in Jula (Dioula) – basic Catholic prayersTemplate:Dead link
- ↑ a b Script error: No such module "Citation/CS1".
- ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
- ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
- ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
- ↑ Script error: No such module "Citation/CS1".
- ↑ Template:Cite thesis
- ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
- ↑ Script error: No such module "Citation/CS1".
- ↑ Republic of Burkina Faso, Ministerial Decree no 54/ENC/CNU.
- ↑ Republic of Burkina Faso, Ministerial Decree no 367/ENC/CNU.
- ↑ Script error: No such module "Citation/CS1".