Apocynaceae: Difference between revisions

Latest revision as of 11:32, 21 June 2025

Template:Short description Script error: No such module "labelled list hatnote". Template:Automatic taxobox

Apocynaceae (Template:IPAc-en, from Apocynum, Greek for "dog-away") is a family of flowering plants that includes trees, shrubs, herbs, stem succulents, and vines, commonly known as the dogbane family,^[1] because some taxa were used as dog poison.Template:When?^[2] Notable members of the family include oleander, dogbanes, milkweeds, and periwinkles. The family is native to the European, Asian, African, Australian, and American tropics or subtropics, with some temperate members as well.^[1] The former family Asclepiadaceae (now known as Asclepiadoideae) is considered a subfamily of Apocynaceae and contains 348 genera. A list of Apocynaceae genera may be found here.

Many species are tall trees found in tropical forests, but some grow in tropical dry (xeric) environments. Also perennial herbs from temperate zones occur. Many of these plants have milky latex, and many species are poisonous if ingested, the family being rich in genera containing alkaloids and cardiac glycosides, those containing the latter often finding use as arrow poisons. Some genera of Apocynaceae, such as Adenium, bleed clear sap without latex when damaged, and others, such as Pachypodium, have milky latex apart from their sap.

Description

File:Alstonia scholaris by kadavoor.JPG

Alstonia scholaris, arrangement of leaves

Growth pattern

The dogbane/milkweed^[2] family includes annual plants, perennial herbs, stem succulents, woody shrubs, trees, or vines.^[1]^[3] Most exude a milky latex when cut.^[4]

Leaves and stems

Leaves are simple. They may appear one at a time (singly) with each occurrence on alternating sides of the stem,^[3] but usually occur in pairs (and rarely in whorls).^[1] When paired, they occur on opposite sides of the stem (opposite), with each pair occurring at an angle rotated 90° to the pair below it (decussate).

There is no stipule (a small leaf-like structure at the base of the leaf stem), or stipules are small and sometimes finger-like.^[3]

Inflorescence and fruit

File:Rhigospira quadrangularis On the Apocynaceae of South America, with some preliminary remarks on the whole family (1878) (20720691296) (cropped).jpg

Rhigospira quadrangularis, portion of a plant. 1) the inflorescence and 2) a flower, to scale; 3) corolla in bud, showing the pyramidal form of the erect segments in aestivation and 4) the same cut open when expanded, showing their simple sinistrorse convolution and the nearly basal position of the stamens, both magnified; 5) the calyx, disk, very short style, clavuncle, and stigmata, to scale; 6) the same, magnified; 7) a stamen, much magnified.^[5]

Flowers have radial symmetry (actinomorphic),^[1] and are borne in heads that are cymes or racemes, or are solitary in axils.^[6] They are perfect (bisexual), with a synsepalous, five-lobed calyx united into a tube at the base.^[1]^[6] Inflorescences are terminal or axillary. Five petals are united into a tube with four or five epipetalous stamens.^[1] The style head is swollen.^[7] The pollen is transported in foam.^[7] The ovary is usually superior, bicarpellary, and apocarpous,^[1] with a common fused style and stigma. (Fig. 5. and Fig.6. in the illustration of Rhigospira quadrangularis show a typical tripartite style which divides into three zones (specialised for pollen deposition, viscin secretion, and the reception of pollen).^[8]

The fruit is a drupe, a berry, a capsule, or a (frequently paired) follicle.^[1] The seeds are often winged or have appendages of long silky hairs.^[9]

Taxonomy

Script error: No such module "labelled list hatnote". As of 2012, the family was described as comprising some 5,100 species, in five subfamilies:^[10]

Apocynoideae Burnett, 1835
Asclepiadoideae Burnett, 1835 (incorporating the Asclepiadaceae)
Periplocoideae Endl., 1838
Rauvolfioideae Kostel., 1834
Secamonoideae Endl., 1838

The former family Asclepiadaceae is included in Apocynaceae according to the Angiosperm Phylogeny Group III (APG III) modern, largely molecular-based system of flowering plant taxonomy.^[11] An updated classification, including 366 genera, 25 tribes, and 49 subtribes, was published in 2014.^[12]

376 genera are currently accepted.^[13]

Distribution and habitat

Template:Verify section Species in this family are distributed mainly in tropical regions:

In the tropical forests and swamps of Indomalaya: small to very tall evergreen trees up to Template:Cvt tall, often with buttress roots, such as Alstonia and Dyera.
In Australia: occurs in all habitats; about 46 genera and about 200 species, including about 20 naturalised; herbs, vines, shrubs and trees.Template:R
In deciduous forests of Africa, India, and Indo-China: smaller trees such as Carissa, Wrightia, and Holarrhena
In tropical America, India, Myanmar, and Malaya: evergreen trees and shrubs, such as Rauvolfia, Tabernaemontana, and Acokanthera.
In Central America: Plumeria, or the frangipani, with its waxy white or pink flowers and a sweet scent.
In South America, Africa, and Madagascar: many lianas, such as Landolphia
In the Mediterranean region: Nerium, with the well-known oleander or be-still tree (Nerium oleander), and Apple of Sodom (Calotropis procera), with other (Calotropis) species extending into South Asia.
The only genera found in temperate Europe away from the Mediterranean are Vinca (Rauvolfioideae) and Vincetoxicum (Asclepiadoideae). Also Asclepias syriaca is an invasive weed (e. g., in many areas of Ukraine).
In North America: Apocynum, dogbane or Indian hemp, including Apocynum cannabinum, a traditional source of fiber. Also the bluestars, Amsonia, herbaceous perennials of upright habit, grown as ornamental plants for their attractive flowers.
In continental southern Africa (Angola, Botswana, Eswatini, Mozambique, South Africa, and Zimbabwe) and Madagascar, except for the humid evergreen forest of the eastern side of Madagascar, and never above Template:Cvt for the entire island: Pachypodium and Fockea.

Ecology

Several genera are preferred larval host plants for the Queen Butterfly (Danaus gilippus).^[14]

Toxicity

Many species of plants from the family Apocynaceae have some toxicity, with some being extremely poisonous if parts are ingested, or if they are not handled properly. Genera containing cardiac glycosides—Cerbera, Nerium, Asclepias, Cascabela, Strophanthus,^[6] Acokanthera,^[15] Apocynum,^[16] Thevetia,^[17] etc.—have therapeutic ranges, but are often associated with accidental poisonings, in many cases lethal (see below). Alkaloid-producing species like Rauvolfia serpentina, Catharanthus roseus, and Tabernanthe iboga are likewise the source of compounds with therapeutic ranges, but which have significant associated toxicities if not taken in appropriate doses and in controlled fashion. (See below)

Uses

Several members of the family Apocynaceae have had economic uses in the past. Several are sources of important natural products—pharmacologic tool compounds and drug research candidates, and in some cases actual prescription drugs. Cardiac glycosides, which affect heart function, are a ready example. Genera studied and known to contain such glycosides include Acokanthera, Apocynum, Cerbera, Nerium, Thevetia and Strophanthus. Rauvolfia serpentina (Indian snakeroot) contains the alkaloid reserpine, which has been used as an antihypertensive and an antipsychotic drug but its adverse effects limit its clinical use.^[18] Catharanthus roseus yields alkaloids used in the treatment of cancer.^[19]^[20] Tabernanthe iboga, Voacanga africana, and Tabernaemontana undulata contain the alkaloid ibogaine, which is a psychedelic drug which may help with drug addiction, but which has significant adverse effects,^[21]^[22] with ibogaine being both cardiotoxic and neurotoxic.^[23] Ajmalicine, an alkaloid found in Rauvolfia spp., Catharanthus roseus, and Mitragyna speciosa,^[24]^[25]^[26] is an antihypertensive drug used in the treatment of high blood pressure.^[24]

Many genera are grown as ornamental plants, including Amsonia (bluestar),^[27] Nerium (oleander),^[28] Vinca (periwinkle),^[29] Carissa (Natal plum),^[30] Allamanda (golden trumpet),^[31] Plumeria (frangipani),^[32] Thevetia,^[33] Mandevilla (Savannah flower),^[34] and Adenium (desert-rose).^[35]

In addition, the genera Landolphia, Carpodinus, and Mascarenhasia have been used as commercial sources of inferior rubber.^[36] (See Congo rubber)

There are limited dietary uses of plants from this family. The flower of Echites panduratus (common name: Script error: No such module "Lang".) is edible.^[37] Carissa (Natal plum) produces an edible fruit, but all other parts of the plant are poisonous.^[38] The genus Apocynum was reportedly used as a source of fiber by Native Americans.^[39] The aromatic fruit juice from Saba comorensis (syn. Landolphia comorensis, the Bungo or Mbungo fruit) is used as a drink.^[40]

Finally, ethnopharmacologic and ethnotoxicologic uses are also known. The roots of Tabernanthe iboga and certain Voacanga species have traditionally been used ceremonially as hallucinogens in Africa. The ibogaine-type alkaloids responsible for the psychoactivity of these plants have been studied with regard to the treatment of drug addiction.^[21] The juice of Acokanthera species such as A. venenata and the milky juice of the Namibian Pachypodium have been used as poison for arrow tips.^[41]

Many species are ornamental in gardens or as houseplants.

Gallery

References

Template:Reflist

@@ Line 17: / Line 17: @@
 }}
-'''Apocynaceae''' ({{IPAc-en|@|%|p|A:|s|@|'|n|eI|s|i|%|aI|,_|-|s|i:|%|i:}}, from ''[[Apocynum]]'', Greek for "dog-away") is a family of [[flowering plant]]s that includes trees, shrubs, herbs, stem succulents, and vines, commonly known as the '''dogbane family''',<ref name="BotanicalReview2000">{{cite journal |author=Endress ME, Bruyns PV|year=2000|title=A revised classification of the Apocynaceae s.l.|journal=The Botanical Review|volume=66|issue=1|pages=1–56|doi=10.1007/BF02857781|bibcode=2000BotRv..66....1E |s2cid=31739212|url=http://doc.rero.ch/record/321598/files/12229_2008_Article_BF02857781.pdf}}</ref> because some taxa were used as dog poison.{{when?|date=November 2022}}<!-- https://www.c82.net/twining/plants/?id=92 - "Elizabeth Twining's celebrated catalog of botanical illustrations from 1868, Illustrations of the Natural Orders of Plants" notes "in the time of Pliny" (not really a ref, but a starting point) --><ref name=Simpson/> Members of the family are native to the European, Asian, African, Australian, and American tropics or subtropics, with some temperate members.<ref name="BotanicalReview2000"/> The former family Asclepiadaceae (now known as [[Asclepiadoideae]]) is considered a subfamily of Apocynaceae and contains 348 genera. A list of Apocynaceae genera may be found [[List of subfamilies and genera of Apocynaceae|here]].
+'''Apocynaceae''' ({{IPAc-en|@|%|p|A:|s|@|'|n|eI|s|i|%|aI|,_|-|s|i:|%|i:}}, from ''[[Apocynum]]'', Greek for "dog-away") is a family of [[flowering plant]]s that includes trees, shrubs, herbs, stem succulents, and vines, commonly known as the '''dogbane family''',<ref name="BotanicalReview2000">{{cite journal |author=Endress ME, Bruyns PV|year=2000|title=A revised classification of the Apocynaceae s.l.|journal=The Botanical Review|volume=66|issue=1|pages=1–56|doi=10.1007/BF02857781|bibcode=2000BotRv..66....1E |s2cid=31739212|url=http://doc.rero.ch/record/321598/files/12229_2008_Article_BF02857781.pdf}}</ref> because some taxa were used as dog poison.{{when?|date=November 2022}}<!-- https://www.c82.net/twining/plants/?id=92 - "Elizabeth Twining's celebrated catalog of botanical illustrations from 1868, Illustrations of the Natural Orders of Plants" notes "in the time of Pliny" (not really a ref, but a starting point) --><ref name=Simpson/> Notable members of the family include [[oleander]], [[Apocynum|dogbane]]s, [[milkweed]]s, and [[Vinca|periwinkle]]s. The family is native to the European, Asian, African, Australian, and American tropics or subtropics, with some temperate members as well.<ref name="BotanicalReview2000"/> The former family Asclepiadaceae (now known as [[Asclepiadoideae]]) is considered a subfamily of Apocynaceae and contains 348 genera. A list of Apocynaceae genera may be found [[List of subfamilies and genera of Apocynaceae|here]].
 Many species are tall trees found in tropical forests, but some grow in tropical dry ([[xeric]]) environments. Also [[perennial plant|perennial]] herbs from [[temperate zone]]s occur. Many of these plants have milky latex, and many species are poisonous if ingested, the family being rich in genera containing [[alkaloids]] and [[cardiac glycosides]], those containing the latter often finding use as arrow poisons. Some genera of Apocynaceae, such as ''[[Adenium]]'', bleed clear sap without latex when damaged, and others, such as ''[[Pachypodium]]'', have milky latex apart from their sap.
@@ Line 49: / Line 49: @@
 The former family Asclepiadaceae is included in Apocynaceae according to the [[Angiosperm]] Phylogeny Group III ([[APG III system|APG III]]) modern, largely molecular-based system of flowering plant taxonomy.<ref name="APGIII">{{cite journal|author=Angiosperm Phylogeny Group |year=2009|title=An update of the Angiosperm Phylogeny Group classification for the orders and families of flowering plants: APG III|journal=[[Botanical Journal of the Linnean Society|Bot. J. Linn. Soc.]]|volume=161|issue=2|pages=105–121|doi=10.1111/j.1095-8339.2009.00996.x|doi-access=free|hdl=10654/18083|hdl-access=free}}</ref>
-An updated classification, including 366 genera, 25 tribes, and 49 subtribes, was published in 2014.<ref name=Endress2014>{{Cite journal |author=Endress M.E., Liede-Schumann S. & Meve U. |year=2014 |title=An updated classification for ''Apocynaceae'' |journal=Phytotaxa  |volume=159 |issue=3 |pages=175–194  |url=http://www.mapress.com/phytotaxa/content/2014/f/p00159p194f.pdf  |doi=10.11646/phytotaxa.159.3.2}}</ref>
+An updated classification, including 366 genera, 25 tribes, and 49 subtribes, was published in 2014.<ref name=Endress2014>{{Cite journal |author=Endress M.E., Liede-Schumann S. & Meve U. |year=2014 |title=An updated classification for ''Apocynaceae'' |journal=Phytotaxa  |volume=159 |issue=3 |pages=175–194  |url=http://www.mapress.com/phytotaxa/content/2014/f/p00159p194f.pdf  |doi=10.11646/phytotaxa.159.3.2|bibcode=2014Phytx.159..175E }}</ref>
 genera are currently accepted.<ref name = powo>[https://powo.science.kew.org/taxon/urn:lsid:ipni.org:names:30000008-2 ''Apocynaceae'' Juss.] ''[[Plants of the World Online]]''. Retrieved 24 July 2023.</ref>
@@ Line 75: / Line 75: @@
 ==Uses==
 Several members of the family Apocynaceae have had economic uses in the past. Several are sources of important [[natural product]]s—pharmacologic tool compounds and drug research candidates, and in some cases actual prescription drugs. [[Cardiac glycoside]]s, which affect heart function, are a ready example. Genera studied and known to contain such glycosides include ''[[Acokanthera]]'', ''[[Apocynum]]'', ''[[Cerbera]]'', ''[[Nerium]]'', ''[[Thevetia]]'' and ''[[Strophanthus]].'' ''[[Rauvolfia serpentina]]'' (Indian snakeroot) contains the alkaloid [[reserpine]], which has been used as an antihypertensive and an antipsychotic drug but its adverse effects limit its clinical use.<ref>{{Cite web|title=reserpine|url=http://drugcentral.org/drugcard/2370|website=drugcentral.org|access-date=2020-05-31}}</ref> ''[[Catharanthus roseus]]'' yields alkaloids used in the treatment of cancer.<ref>{{Cite book|author=Arora, R., Malhotra, P., Mathur, A.K., Mathur, A., Govil, C.M., Ahuja, P.S.|title=Herbal Medicine: A Cancer Chemopreventive and Therapeutic Perspective|chapter=Chapter 21 Anticancer Alkaloids of Catharanthus roseus: Transition from Traditional to Modern Medicine|isbn=9788184488418|pages=292–310 |
-access-date=2020-06-01| chapter-url = https://www.researchgate.net/publication/312936839|edition=1|date=2010|publisher=Jaypee Brothers Medical Publishers Pvt. Limited }}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|last=Simpson|first=M.G.|title=Plant Systematics|publisher=Elsevier|year=2010|isbn=9780123743800|pages=397}}</ref> ''[[Tabernanthe iboga]], [[Voacanga africana]], and [[Tabernaemontana undulata]]'' contain the alkaloid [[ibogaine]], which is a [[psychedelic drug]] which may help with drug addiction, but which has significant adverse effects,<ref name="Koe2015">{{cite journal|vauthors=Koenig X, Hilber K|date=January 2015|title=The anti-addiction drug ibogaine and the heart: a delicate relation|journal=Molecules|volume=20|issue=2|pages=2208–28|doi=10.3390/molecules20022208|pmc=4382526|pmid=25642835|doi-access=free}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|author=Zdrojewicz Z, Kuszczak B, Olszak N.|date=2016|title=Ibogaina – budowa, wpływ na organizm człowieka, znaczenie kliniczne [Ibogaine - structure, influence on human body, clinical relevance]|journal=Pol Merkur Lekarski.|language=pl|volume=41|issue=241|pages=50–55|pmid=27734823}}</ref> with ibogaine being both cardiotoxic and neurotoxic.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Wasko|first1=M.J.|last2=Witt-Enderby|first2=P.A.|last3=Surratt|first3=C.K.|date=2018-10-17|title=DARK Classics in Chemical Neuroscience: Ibogaine|journal=ACS Chemical Neuroscience|language=en|volume=9|issue=10|pages=2475–2483|doi=10.1021/acschemneuro.8b00294|pmid=30216039|s2cid=52277862|issn=1948-7193}}</ref> [[Ajmalicine]], an [[alkaloid]] found in ''[[Rauvolfia]]'' spp., ''[[Catharanthus roseus]]'', and ''[[Mitragyna speciosa]]'',<ref name="isbn0-306-45465-3">{{cite book|author=Wink, Michael|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=bMCzyrAtrvYC&q=ajmalicine&pg=PA451|title=Alkaloids: biochemistry, ecology, and medicinal applications|author2=Roberts, M. W.|publisher=Plenum Press|year=1998|isbn=0-306-45465-3|location=New York}}</ref><ref name="pmid17401876">{{cite journal|display-authors=etal|vauthors=Kurz WG, Chatson KB, Constabel F|date=May 1981|title=Alkaloid Production in Catharanthus roseus Cell Cultures VIII1|journal=Planta Medica|volume=42|issue=5|pages=22–31|doi=10.1055/s-2007-971541|pmid=17401876|s2cid=28177495 }}</ref><ref name="pmid19731590">{{cite journal|vauthors=León F, Habib E, Adkins JE, Furr EB, McCurdy CR, Cutler SJ|date=July 2009|title=Phytochemical characterization of the leaves of Mitragyna speciosa grown in U.S.A|journal=Natural Product Communications|volume=4|issue=7|pages=907–10|doi=10.1177/1934578X0900400705|pmid=19731590|pmc=9255435 |s2cid=37709142|doi-access=free}}</ref> is an antihypertensive drug used in the treatment of high blood pressure.<ref name="isbn0-306-45465-3" />
+access-date=2020-06-01| chapter-url = https://www.researchgate.net/publication/312936839|edition=1|date=2010|publisher=Jaypee Brothers Medical Publishers Pvt. Limited }}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|last=Simpson|first=M.G.|title=Plant Systematics|publisher=Elsevier|year=2010|isbn=9780123743800|pages=397}}</ref> ''[[Tabernanthe iboga]], [[Voacanga africana]], and [[Tabernaemontana undulata]]'' contain the alkaloid [[ibogaine]], which is a [[psychedelic drug]] which may help with drug addiction, but which has significant adverse effects,<ref name="Koe2015">{{cite journal|vauthors=Koenig X, Hilber K|date=January 2015|title=The anti-addiction drug ibogaine and the heart: a delicate relation|journal=Molecules|volume=20|issue=2|pages=2208–28|doi=10.3390/molecules20022208|pmc=4382526|pmid=25642835|doi-access=free}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|author=Zdrojewicz Z, Kuszczak B, Olszak N.|date=2016|title=Ibogaina – budowa, wpływ na organizm człowieka, znaczenie kliniczne [Ibogaine - structure, influence on human body, clinical relevance]|journal=Pol Merkur Lekarski.|language=pl|volume=41|issue=241|pages=50–55|pmid=27734823}}</ref> with ibogaine being both cardiotoxic and neurotoxic.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Wasko|first1=M.J.|last2=Witt-Enderby|first2=P.A.|last3=Surratt|first3=C.K.|date=2018-10-17|title=DARK Classics in Chemical Neuroscience: Ibogaine|journal=ACS Chemical Neuroscience|language=en|volume=9|issue=10|pages=2475–2483|doi=10.1021/acschemneuro.8b00294|pmid=30216039|s2cid=52277862|issn=1948-7193}}</ref> [[Ajmalicine]], an [[alkaloid]] found in ''[[Rauvolfia]]'' spp., ''[[Catharanthus roseus]]'', and ''[[Mitragyna speciosa]]'',<ref name="isbn0-306-45465-3">{{cite book|author=Wink, Michael|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=bMCzyrAtrvYC&q=ajmalicine&pg=PA451|title=Alkaloids: biochemistry, ecology, and medicinal applications|author2=Roberts, M. W.|publisher=Plenum Press|year=1998|isbn=0-306-45465-3|location=New York}}</ref><ref name="pmid17401876">{{cite journal|display-authors=etal|vauthors=Kurz WG, Chatson KB, Constabel F|date=May 1981|title=Alkaloid Production in Catharanthus roseus Cell Cultures VIII1|journal=Planta Medica|volume=42|issue=5|pages=22–31|doi=10.1055/s-2007-971541|pmid=17401876|bibcode=1981PlMed..42...22K |s2cid=28177495 }}</ref><ref name="pmid19731590">{{cite journal|vauthors=León F, Habib E, Adkins JE, Furr EB, McCurdy CR, Cutler SJ|date=July 2009|title=Phytochemical characterization of the leaves of Mitragyna speciosa grown in U.S.A|journal=Natural Product Communications|volume=4|issue=7|pages=907–10|doi=10.1177/1934578X0900400705|pmid=19731590|pmc=9255435 |s2cid=37709142|doi-access=free}}</ref> is an antihypertensive drug used in the treatment of high blood pressure.<ref name="isbn0-306-45465-3" />
-Many genera are grown as [[ornamental plant]]s, including ''[[Amsonia]]'' (bluestar),<ref>{{Cite web|title=StackPath: Growing Amsonia|url=https://www.gardeningknowhow.com/ornamental/flowers/amsonia/growing-amsonia-plants.htm|website=www.gardeningknowhow.com|date=22 June 2013 |access-date=2020-06-01}}</ref> ''[[Nerium]]'' (oleander),<ref>{{Cite web|title=Oleander|url=https://www.bhg.com/gardening/plant-dictionary/shrub/oleander/|website=Better Homes & Gardens|language=EN|access-date=2020-06-01}}</ref> ''[[Vinca]]'' (periwinkle),<ref>{{Cite web|title=Annual Vinca|url=https://www.bhg.com/gardening/plant-dictionary/annual/annual-vinca/|website=Better Homes & Gardens|language=EN|access-date=2020-06-01}}</ref> ''[[Carissa]]'' (Natal plum),<ref>{{Cite web|title=Carissa macrocarpa - Useful Tropical Plants|url=http://tropical.theferns.info/viewtropical.php?id=Carissa+macrocarpa|website=tropical.theferns.info|access-date=2020-06-01}}</ref> ''[[Allamanda]]'' (golden trumpet),<ref>{{Cite web|title=Yellow allamanda|url=https://www.business.qld.gov.au/industries/farms-fishing-forestry/agriculture/land-management/health-pests-weeds-diseases/weeds-diseases/invasive-plants/other/yellow-allamanda|last=Agriculture and Fisheries|date=2015-10-30|website=www.business.qld.gov.au|language=en-AU|access-date=2020-06-01}}</ref> ''[[Plumeria]]'' (frangipani),<ref>{{Cite web|title=PLUMERIA RUBRA: AN OLD ORNAMENTAL, A NEW CROP|url=https://www.actahort.org/books/813/813_23.htm|website=www.actahort.org|access-date=2020-06-01}}</ref> ''[[Thevetia]]'',<ref>{{Cite web|title=Factsheet - Thevetia peruviana (Yellow Oleander)|url=https://keys.lucidcentral.org/keys/v3/eafrinet/weeds/key/weeds/Media/Html/Thevetia_peruviana_(Yellow_Oleander).htm|website=keys.lucidcentral.org|access-date=2020-06-01}}</ref> ''[[Mandevilla]]'' (Savannah flower),<ref>{{Cite web|title=Propagating Mandevilla: Using Mandevilla Cuttings Or Seeds To Propagate Mandevilla Vine| date=14 September 2010 |url=https://www.gardeningknowhow.com/ornamental/vines/mandevilla/mandevilla-propagation.htm#:~:text=long.,warm%2C%20moist%2C%20and%20humid}}</ref> and ''[[Adenium]]'' (desert-rose).<ref>Archived at [https://ghostarchive.org/varchive/youtube/20211212/w5FWGPdWccQ Ghostarchive]{{cbignore}} and the [https://web.archive.org/web/20200229225134/https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=w5FWGPdWccQ Wayback Machine]{{cbignore}}: {{Citation|title=Desert Rose Plant: How to Grow Desert Rose and Adeniums|url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=w5FWGPdWccQ|language=en|access-date=2020-06-01}}{{cbignore}}</ref>
+Many genera are grown as [[ornamental plant]]s, including ''[[Amsonia]]'' (bluestar),<ref>{{Cite web|title=StackPath: Growing Amsonia|url=https://www.gardeningknowhow.com/ornamental/flowers/amsonia/growing-amsonia-plants.htm|website=www.gardeningknowhow.com|date=22 June 2013 |access-date=2020-06-01}}</ref> ''[[Nerium]]'' (oleander),<ref>{{Cite web|title=Oleander|url=https://www.bhg.com/gardening/plant-dictionary/shrub/oleander/|website=Better Homes & Gardens|language=EN|access-date=2020-06-01}}</ref> ''[[Vinca]]'' (periwinkle),<ref>{{Cite web|title=Annual Vinca|url=https://www.bhg.com/gardening/plant-dictionary/annual/annual-vinca/|website=Better Homes & Gardens|language=EN|access-date=2020-06-01}}</ref> ''[[Carissa]]'' (Natal plum),<ref>{{Cite web|title=Carissa macrocarpa - Useful Tropical Plants|url=http://tropical.theferns.info/viewtropical.php?id=Carissa+macrocarpa|website=tropical.theferns.info|access-date=2020-06-01}}</ref> ''[[Allamanda]]'' (golden trumpet),<ref>{{Cite web|title=Yellow allamanda|url=https://www.business.qld.gov.au/industries/farms-fishing-forestry/agriculture/land-management/health-pests-weeds-diseases/weeds-diseases/invasive-plants/other/yellow-allamanda|last=Agriculture and Fisheries|date=2015-10-30|website=www.business.qld.gov.au|language=en-AU|access-date=2020-06-01}}</ref> ''[[Plumeria]]'' (frangipani),<ref>{{Cite web|title=PLUMERIA RUBRA: AN OLD ORNAMENTAL, A NEW CROP|url=https://www.actahort.org/books/813/813_23.htm|website=www.actahort.org|access-date=2020-06-01}}</ref> ''[[Thevetia]]'',<ref>{{Cite web|title=Factsheet - Thevetia peruviana (Yellow Oleander)|url=https://keys.lucidcentral.org/keys/v3/eafrinet/weeds/key/weeds/Media/Html/Thevetia_peruviana_(Yellow_Oleander).htm|website=keys.lucidcentral.org|access-date=2020-06-01}}</ref> ''[[Mandevilla]]'' (Savannah flower),<ref>{{Cite web|title=Propagating Mandevilla: Using Mandevilla Cuttings Or Seeds To Propagate Mandevilla Vine| date=14 September 2010 |url=https://www.gardeningknowhow.com/ornamental/vines/mandevilla/mandevilla-propagation.htm#:~:text=long.,warm%2C%20moist%2C%20and%20humid}}</ref> and ''[[Adenium]]'' (desert-rose).<ref>Archived at [https://ghostarchive.org/varchive/youtube/20211212/w5FWGPdWccQ Ghostarchive]{{cbignore}} and the [https://web.archive.org/web/20200229225134/https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=w5FWGPdWccQ Wayback Machine]{{cbignore}}: {{Citation|title=Desert Rose Plant: How to Grow Desert Rose and Adeniums| date=24 September 2015 |url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=w5FWGPdWccQ|language=en|access-date=2020-06-01}}{{cbignore}}</ref>
 In addition, the genera ''[[Landolphia]]'', ''[[Carpodinus]]'', and ''[[Mascarenhasia]]'' have been used as commercial sources of inferior rubber.<ref>{{Cite web|title=FloraBase—the Western Australian Flora:Apocynaceae|url=https://florabase.dpaw.wa.gov.au/browse/profile/22895|last=Western Australian Herbarium|website=florabase.dpaw.wa.gov.au|publisher=Biodiversity and Conservation Science|language=en|access-date=2020-05-29}}</ref> (See [[Congo rubber]])
@@ Line 186: / Line 186: @@
 <ref name=Simpson>{{cite book|isbn=9780123743800 |title=Plant Systematics|last1=Simpson|first1=Michael George|year=2010|publisher=Academic Press }}</ref>
-<ref name="FOA">{{cite web |url=https://profiles.ala.org.au/opus/foa/profile/Apocynaceae |title=''Apocynaceae'' |last1=Ohlsen |first1=D.J. |last2=Forster |first2=P.I. |year=2022 |editor-last1=Kodela |editor-first1=P.G. |editor-last2= |editor-first2= |website=[[Flora of Australia]] |publisher=[[Australian Biological Resources Study]], Department of Climate Change, Energy, the Environment and Water: Canberra |access-date=1 July 2024}}</ref>
+<ref name="FOA">{{cite web |url=https://profiles.ala.org.au/opus/foa/profile/Apocynaceae |title=''Apocynaceae'' |last1=Ohlsen |first1=D.J. |last2=Forster |first2=P.I. |year=2022 |editor-last1=Kodela |editor-first1=P.G. |website=[[Flora of Australia]] |publisher=[[Australian Biological Resources Study]], Department of Climate Change, Energy, the Environment and Water: Canberra |access-date=1 July 2024}}</ref>
 <ref name="RFK">{{cite web |url=https://apps.lucidcentral.org/rainforest/text/entities/Apocynaceae.htm |title=''Apocynaceae'' |author1=F.A.Zich |author2=B.P.M.Hyland |author3=T.Whiffen |author4=R.A.Kerrigan |author2-link=Bernard Hyland |year=2020 |website=[[Australian Tropical Rainforest Plants]] Edition 8 (RFK8) |publisher=Centre for Australian National Biodiversity Research (CANBR), [[Australian Government]] |access-date=1 July 2024}}</ref>

Apocynaceae: Difference between revisions

Latest revision as of 11:32, 21 June 2025

Contents

Description

Growth pattern

Leaves and stems

Inflorescence and fruit

Taxonomy

Distribution and habitat

Ecology

Toxicity

Uses

Gallery

Flowers

Fruits

Pachycaul species

References

External links

Further reading

Navigation menu

Apocynaceae: Difference between revisions

Latest revision as of 11:32, 21 June 2025

Description

Growth pattern

Leaves and stems

Inflorescence and fruit

Taxonomy

Distribution and habitat

Ecology

Toxicity

Uses

Gallery

Flowers

Fruits

Pachycaul species

References

External links

Further reading

Navigation menu

Search