View source for Tsakonian language

{{short description|Modern Hellenic language}}
{{Infobox language
| name             = Tsakonian
| nativename       = {{lang|tsd|τσακώνικα}}
| states           = [[Greece]]
| region           = Eastern [[Peloponnese]], around Mount [[Parnon]]
| ethnicity        = [[Tsakonia]]ns
| speakers         = 2,000–4,000
| date             = 2018
| ref              = <ref>{{Cite book |last1=Campbell |first1=Lyle |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=CVRSDwAAQBAJ&pg=PT204 |title=Cataloguing the World's Endangered Languages |last2=Bellew |first2=Anna |publisher=[[Routledge]] |date=2018 |pages=204–205 |isbn=9781317413899 |language=en}}</ref>
| familycolor      = Indo-European
| fam2             = [[Hellenic languages|Hellenic]]
| fam3             = [[Greek language|Greek]]
| fam4             = (disputed)
| fam5             = [[Doric Greek|Doric]]
| fam6             = [[Doric Greek#Doric proper|Doric proper]]
| fam7             = [[Doric Greek#Laconian|Laconian]]
| dia1             = Propontis {{extinct}}
| dia2             = Northern
| dia3             = Southern
| dia4             = Western? {{extinct}}
| iso3             = tsd
| lingua           = 56-AAA-b
| glotto           = tsak1248
| glottorefname    = Tsakonian
| map2             = Lang Status 20-CR.svg
| mapcaption2      = {{center|{{small|Tsakonian is classified as Critically Endangered by the [[UNESCO]] ''[[Atlas of the World's Languages in Danger]]''}}}}
| notice           = IPA
| image            = Leonidio-Tsakonian-sign.jpg
| imagecaption     = (Tsakonian/Greek) "Our language is Tsakonian. Ask and they'll tell you./{{tlit|tsd|Groússa námou eíni ta Tsakónika. Rotíete na nioúm' alíoi.}}/{{tlit|el|I glóssa mas eínai ta Tsakónika. Rotíste na sas poun.}}, bilingual (Tsakonian and Standard Greek) sign in the town of [[Leonidio]].
}}

'''Tsakonian''' or '''Tsaconian''' (also '''Tzakonian''' or '''Tsakonic''', {{langx|el|τσακωνικά}}, η τσακωνική διάλεκτος and Tsakonian: {{lang|tsd|τσακώνικα}}, {{lang|tsd|α τσακώνικα γρούσσα}}) is a highly divergent [[varieties of Modern Greek|modern variety of Greek]], spoken in the [[Tsakonia|Tsakonian region]] of the [[Peloponnese]], [[Greece]]. Unlike all other extant varieties of Greek, Tsakonian derives from [[Doric Greek]] rather than from the [[Attic Greek|Attic]]–[[Ionic Greek|Ionic]] branch.<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20120315130854/http://linguistlist.org/forms/langs/LLDescription.cfm?code=tsd Linguist List]</ref> Although it is conventionally treated as a dialect of Greek,<ref>{{cite book|last=Browning|first=Robert|title=Medieval and modern Greek|year=1983|page=124|location=Cambridge|publisher=Cambridge University Press}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last=Horrocks|first=Geoffrey|title=Greek: A history of the language and its speakers|page=382|edition=2nd|location=Oxford|publisher=Blackwell|year=2010}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last1=Joseph|first1=Brian D.|last2=Terdanelis|first2=Georgios|chapter=Modern Greek|title=Variation typology: a typological handbook of European languages|editor-last=Roelcke|editor-first=Thorsten|pages=823–836|publisher=de Gruyter|location=Berlin|year=2003}}
{{cite book|last=Joseph|first=Brian D.|chapter=Lexical diffusion and the regular transmission of language chang in its sociohistorical context|page=411|title=Handbook of historical sociolinguistics|editor1-first=Juan Manuel|editor1-last=Hernández-Campoy|editor2-first=Juan Camilo|editor2-last=Conde-Silvestre|location=Oxford|publisher=Blackwell|year=2012}}</ref> some compendia treat it as a separate language.<ref name="Moseley">{{cite book|last=Moseley|first=Christopher|title=Encyclopedia of the world's endangered languages|year=2007|publisher=Routledge|location=New York|at=s.v. "Tsakonian"}}</ref>
Tsakonian is [[Critically endangered language|critically endangered]], with only a few hundred or a few thousand, mostly elderly, fluent speakers left.<ref name="Moseley" /> Although Tsakonian and standard Modern Greek are related, they are not [[mutually intelligible]].<ref name=":0">{{Cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=YUUUAQAAIAAJ |title=Encyclopedia of World Cultures: Europe (Central, Western, and Southeastern Europe) |date=1991 |publisher=G.K. Hall |isbn=978-0-8161-1808-3 |pages=269 |language=en |quote=Tsakonian is a dialect of Greek and is related to, though not mutually intelligible with, modern Greek.}}</ref>

==Etymology==
The term Tsakonas or Tzakonas first emerges in the writings of [[Byzantine Empire|Byzantine]] chroniclers who derive the ethnonym from a corruption of Lakonas, a Laconian/Lacedaemonian ([[Sparta]]n)—a reference to the [[Doric Greek|Doric]] roots of the Tsakonian language.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Miller |first=William |url=https://archive.org/details/latinsinlevanta00millgoog |title=The Latins in the Levant, a history of Frankish Greece (1204–1566) |date=1964 |publisher=Cambridge, Speculum Historiale; New York, Barnes & Noble |others=Harvard University |pages=4}}</ref>

==Geographic distribution==
[[File:Pelopones ethnic.JPG|thumb|left|Old ethnic map of [[Peloponnese]]; Tsakonian-speaking areas in blue]]

Tsakonian is found today in a group of mountain towns and villages slightly inland from the [[Argolic Gulf]], although it was once spoken farther to the south and west as well as on the coasts of [[Laconia]] (ancient [[Sparta]]).

[[Geography of Greece|Geographical]] barriers to travel and communication kept the Tsakonians relatively isolated from the rest of Greece until the 19th century, although there was some trade between the coastal towns. The rise of mass education and improved travel beginning after the [[Greek War of Independence]] meant that fluent Tsakonian speakers were no longer as isolated from the rest of Greece. In addition, during the war, the Turkish army drove the Tsakonians east, and as a result, their de facto capital shifted from [[Prastos]] to [[Leonidio]], further making the people significantly less isolated.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Mansfield |first=Peter |date=April 21, 2000 |title=Letter from Tere-Sapunadzi |journal=The Times Literary Supplement}}</ref> There began a rapid decline from an estimated figure of some 200,000 fluent speakers to the present estimate of a speaker count between 200 and 1,000.<ref name="Moseley" />

Since the introduction of electricity to all villages in Tsakonia by the late 1950s, Greek mass media can reach the most remote of areas and has profoundly affected the speech of younger speakers. Efforts to revive the language by teaching it in local schools do not seem to have had much success. Standard Modern Greek is the official language of government, commerce and education, and it is possible that the continued modernization of Tsakonia will lead to the language's disappearance sometime this{{ambiguous|date=January 2023}} century.{{Citation needed|date=July 2010}}

The area where the language is found today in some villages Tsakonia slopes of Parnon in the southern province of Kynouria, including the towns of [[Leonidio]] and [[Tyros, Greece|Tyros]] and the villages of Melana, [[Agios Andreas, Patras|Agios Andreas]], Vaskina, [[Prastos]], Sitaina and [[Kastanitsa]].

===Official status===
Tsakonian has no official status. Prayers and liturgies of the [[Church of Greece|Greek Orthodox Church]] have been translated into Tsakonian, but the ancient [[Koine]] of the traditional church services is usually used as in other locations in Greece. Some teaching materials in Tsakonian for use in local schools have reportedly also been produced.<ref>P. Trudgill, D. Schreier (2006): Greece and Cyprus. In: U. Ammon (ed.), ''Sociolinguistics.'' Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter.</ref>

==Dialects==
There are three [[dialect]]s of Tsakonian: Northern, Southern, and Propontis.

The Propontis dialect was spoken in what was formerly a Tsakonian colony on the [[Sea of Marmara]] (or Propontis; two villages near [[Gönen]], Vatika and Havoutsi), whose members were resettled in Greece during the 1924 [[Population exchange between Greece and Turkey]].<ref name="Moseley"/> Propontis Tsakonian appears to have died out around 1970, although it had already stopped being the primary language of its community after 1914 when they were internally exiled with other Greeks in the region due to the outbreak of [[World War I]].<ref>Costakis, A. P. (1986) Lexiko tīs tsakōnikīs dialektou. pX</ref> Propontis Tsakonian was overall grammatically more conservative, but it was also influenced by the nearby Thracian dialects of Greek which were much closer to Standard Modern Greek.<ref>{{harvnb|Nicholas|2019|p=20}}</ref> The emergence of the Propontis community is either dated to the 13th century settlement of Tsakonians by [[Emperor Michael VII]], explicitly referenced by Byzantine [[George Pachymeres]]<ref>Koukoules, F. (1924) Ekthesis peri tou kata to etos 1919 telesthentos diagōnismou tīs en Athīnais Glōssikīs
Etaireias [Presentation of the competition conducted by the Linguistic Society of Athens in 1919]. Athina,
36: 254–281. Referenced in Nicholas 2019 : p20.</ref> or around the time of the 1770 [[Orlov Revolt]].<ref>Costakis, A. P. (1951) Syntomī grammatikī tīs tsakōnikīs dialektou [A brief grammar of the Tsakonian dialect].
Athens: Institut Français d’Athènes Publ., 224 p. (Collection de l’Institut Français d’Athènes. Vol. 35). Pages 151–155</ref> For an example of the standardizing Thracian Greek influence, compare the Northern and Southern word for water, ''ύο'' (''ýo'', derived from Ancient Greek {{lang|grc|ὕδωρ}}) to Propontic ''νερέ'' and Standard ''νερό'' (''neré'', ''neró'').

Of the two mainland dialects of Tsakonian, Southern Tsakonian is spoken in the villages of Melana, [[Prastos]], Vaskina, Tiros, [[Leonidio]], Pragmateftis and Sapounakeika, while Northern Tsakonian is found in Sitena and [[Kastanitsa]].<ref name=":1">{{Cite book |last=Kisilier |first=Maxim L. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=olk8EAAAQBAJ |title=Between Separation and Symbiosis: South Eastern European Languages and Cultures in Contact |date=2021 |publisher=Walter de Gruyter GmbH & Co KG |isbn=978-1-5015-0921-6 |editor-last=Sobolev |editor-first=Andrey N. |pages=229 |language=en |chapter=Reconstructing Past Coexistence: Problems and Mysteries in the Multilingual History of Tsakonia, Greece}}</ref> As early as 1971, it became difficult for researchers in the northern villages to find any informants who could offer more than "a few isolated words".<ref>Haralambopoulos, A. L. (1980) Fōnologikī analysī tīs tsakōnikīs dialektou [Phonological analysis of the Tsakonian
dialect]. Thessaloniki: Aristotle University Publ., 195 p. (Aristoteleio Panepistīmeio Thessalonikīs, Epistīmonikī
Epetīrida tīs Filosofilkīs Scholīs [Aristotle University of Thessaloniki. Scholarly papers of the Faculty
of Philosophy]. Appendix. No. 30). Page 7</ref> The Northern villages were much more exposed to the rest of Greek society, and as a result, according to linguist Nick Nicholas, Northern Tsakonian experienced much heavier Standard Greek lexical and phonological influence, before it began to die out much faster than Southern Tsakonian.<ref>{{harvnb|Nicholas|2019|p=19}}</ref> It is generally believed that Northern Tsakonian has been influenced by modern Greek and there are indeed some examples where Northern Tsakonian uses "more modern" vocabulary than its Southern counterpart.<ref name=":1" /> The principal difference between Northern and Southern Tsakonian is the loss of the [[intervocalic consonant]] /-l-/ which exists in Northern Tsakonian but is absent from Southern Tsakonian.<ref name=":1" /> According to Maxim L. Kisilier, professor of Modern Greek in the [[Saint Petersburg State University]], the /-l-/ in Northern Tsakonian is unlikely to be an innovation influenced by Standard Modern Greek, and, as such, according to him, it's more likely that Southern Tsakonian changed instead.<ref name=":1" />

There may have once been a fourth, Western, dialect of Tsakonian given the forms attested by [[Evliya Çelebi|Evliya Celebi]] in the 17th century.<ref>Liosis, N. (2007) Glōssikes epafes stī notioanatolikī Peloponnīso [Language contact in the Southeastern Peloponnese].
PhD dissertation (Linguistics). Thessalonica, Aristotle University. Page 7</ref>

==Contact==

There has always been contact with [[Koine Greek]] speakers and the language was affected by the neighboring Greek dialects. Additionally, there are some lexical borrowings from [[Arvanitika]] and [[Turkish language|Turkish]]. The core, base vocabulary remains recognizably Doric, although experts disagree on the extent to which other true Doricisms can be found. There are only a few hundred, mainly elderly true native speakers living,<ref name="Moseley"/> although a great many more can speak the language less than fluently.

== Phonology ==

=== Consonants ===
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center"
! colspan="2" rowspan="2" |
! rowspan="2" |[[Labial consonant|Labial]]
! colspan="2" |[[Dental consonant|Dental]]/[[Alveolar consonant|Alveolar]]
! rowspan="2" |[[Postalveolar consonant|Post-<br>alveolar]]
! rowspan="2" |[[Palatal consonant|Palatal]]
! rowspan="2" |[[Velar consonant|Velar]]
|-
!<small>central</small>
!<small>[[sibilant]]</small>
|-
! rowspan="2" |[[Stop consonant|Stop]]/<br>[[Affricate consonant|Affricate]]
!<small>[[Voicelessness|voiceless]]</small>
|{{IPA link|p}}
|{{IPA link|t}}
|{{IPA link|t͡s}}
|({{IPA link|t͡ʃ}})
|({{IPA link|t͡ɕ}})
|{{IPA link|k}}
|-
!<small>[[Aspirated consonant|aspirated]]</small>
|{{IPA link|pʰ}}
|{{IPA link|tʰ}}
|{{IPA link|t͡sʰ}}
|{{IPA link|t͡ʃʰ}}
|
|{{IPA link|kʰ}}
|-
! rowspan="2" |[[Fricative consonant|Fricative]]
!<small>[[Voicelessness|voiceless]]</small>
|{{IPA link|f}}
|{{IPA link|θ}}
|{{IPA link|s}}
|{{IPA link|ʃ}}
|
|{{IPA link|x}}
|-
!<small>[[Voice (phonetics)|voiced]]</small>
|{{IPA link|v}}
|{{IPA link|ð}}
|{{IPA link|z}}
|{{IPA link|ʒ}}
|
|{{IPA link|ɣ}}
|-
! colspan="2" |[[Nasal consonant|Nasal]]
|{{IPA link|m}}
|{{IPA link|n}}
|
|
|{{IPA link|ɲ}}
|
|-
! colspan="2" |[[Lateral consonant|Lateral]]
|
|{{IPA link|l}}
|
|
|{{IPA link|ʎ}}
|
|-
! colspan="2" |[[Trill consonant|Trill]]
|
|{{IPA link|r}}
|
|
|
|
|}

* The voiced-prenasalization of stop consonant sounds of /{{IPA link|p}}, {{IPA link|t}}, {{IPA link|t͡s}}, {{IPA link|k}}/ as [{{IPA link|ᵐb}}, {{IPA link|ⁿd}}, {{IPA link|ⁿd͡z}}, {{IPA link|ᵑɡ}}] may also occur within segments. When before front vowels /{{IPA link|i}}, {{IPA link|e}}/, the phonetic sequence [{{IPA link|ᵑɡ}}] is then palatalized as [{{IPA link|ᶮɟ}}].
* /{{IPA link|k, kʰ, x, ɣ}}/ are heard as palatal sounds [{{IPA link|c, cʰ, ç, j}}] when preceding front vowels /{{IPA link|i}}, {{IPA link|e}}/. /{{IPA link|n}}, {{IPA link|l}}/ may also be heard as [{{IPA link|ɲ}}, {{IPA link|ʎ}}] in this same position.
* [{{IPA link|t͡ɕ}}] may also occur as phonemic among dialects.
* /{{IPA link|t͡ʃʰ}}/ may also be heard as [{{IPA link|t͡ʃ}}] among speakers.

=== Vowels ===
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center"
!
![[Front vowel|Front]]
![[Central vowel|Central]]
![[Back vowel|Back]]
|- align="center"
![[Close vowel|Close]]
|{{IPA link|i}}
|
|{{IPA link|u}}
|- align="center"
![[Mid vowel|Mid]]
|{{IPA link|e}}
|
|{{IPA link|o}}
|- align="center"
![[Open vowel|Open]]
|
|{{IPA link|a}}
|
|}

* /{{IPA link|i}}, {{IPA link|u}}/ are heard as non syllabic {{IPA|[i̯, u̯]}} when following consonants and preceding other vowels.
* /{{IPA link|o}}/ and /{{IPA link|e}}/ in weak positions can both be heard as [{{IPA link|ə}}].<ref>Haralambopoulos, A. L. (1980) Fōnologikī analysī tīs tsakōnikīs dialektou [Phonological analysis of the Tsakonian↵dialect]. Thessaloniki: Aristotle University Publ., 195 p. (Aristoteleio Panepistīmeio Thessalonikīs, Epistīmonikī↵Epetīrida tīs Filosofilkīs Scholīs [Aristotle University of Thessaloniki. Scholarly papers of the Faculty↵of Philosophy]. Appendix. No. 30).</ref>

=== Phonological history ===

==== Vowels ====
*'''A''' {{IPA|/a/}} can appear as a reflex of Doric {{IPA|/aː/}}, in contexts where Attic had ''η'' {{IPA|[ɛː]}} and Modern Greek has {{IPA|/i/}}: ''αμέρα'' "day" {{IPA|/aˈmera/}} corresponding to Modern ''ημέρα'' {{IPA|/iˈmera/}} "day", ''κρέφτα'' "thief" {{IPA|[ˈkrefta]}} corresponding to Modern ''κλέφτης'' {{IPA|[ˈkleftis]}}.
*'''Ε''' {{IPA|/e/}} > {{IPA|/i/}} before vowels: e.g. ''βασιλλία'' {{IPA|/vasiˈlia/}} "king" < ''βασιλέα'' {{IPA|/vasiˈlea/}}. This sound change is absent from Propontis Tsakonian. As a result of this sound change in combination with the prior palatalization of {{IPA|/mi ni/}} and {{IPA|/li/}} into {{IPA|[ɲi]}} and {{IPA|[ʎi]}}, the palatal allophones {{IPA|[ɲ]}} {{IPA|[ʎ]}} became phonemic. Minimal pairs example: ''εννία'' "nine" {{IPA|/eˈnia/}} from Ancient Greek ''ἐννέα'' VS ''νία'' {{IPA|/eˈɲia/}} "one fem." from Ancient Greek ''μία''. 
*'''O''' occasionally {{IPA|[o]}} > {{IPA|[u]}}: ''ου(ι)θί'' {{IPA|/u(i)ˈθi/}} < ''όφις'' {{IPA|/ˈopʰis/}} "snake", ''τθούμα'' {{IPA|[ˈtʰuma]}} < ''στόμα'' {{IPA|/ˈstoma/}} "mouth". Final {{IPA|[o]}} > {{IPA|[e]}} after coronals and front vowels: ''όνος'' {{IPA|[ˈonos]}} > ''όνε'' {{IPA|[ˈone]}} "donkey", ''πόρος'' {{IPA|/ˈporos/}} > ''πόρε'' {{IPA|/ˈpore/}} "door", ''γραφτός'' {{IPA|/ɡrafˈtos/}} > ''γραφτέ'' {{IPA|[ɣrafˈte]}} "written", ''χρέος'' {{IPA|/ˈkʰreos/}} > ''χρίε'' {{IPA|/ˈxrie/}}, but ''λύκος'' {{IPA|/ˈlykos/}} > ''λιούκο'' {{IPA|/ˈʎuko/}} "wolf" and ''θερμόν'' {{IPA|/ˈtʰerˈmon/}} > ''σχομό'' {{IPA|/ʃoˈmo/}} "food".
*'''Υ''' Reflected as {{IPA|/i/}} in most Modern Greek dialects, this was {{IPA|[u]}} in Doric and {{IPA|[y]}} in Attic. In Southern and Northern Tsakonian, that {{IPA|/u/}} was fronted to {{IPA|[y]}}, and then backed to {{IPA|/u/}} again. The palatalization of numerous consonants before front vowels that took place right before the backing of {{IPA|/y/}} to {{IPA|/u/}} gives the flawed impression that {{IPA|/y/}} was diphthongized into {{IPA|/ju/}}. Examples: ''λύκος'' {{IPA|/ˈlykos/}} ''νύκτα'' {{IPA|/ˈnykta/}} ''κρύπτων'' {{IPA|/ˈkryptoːn/}} ''τύ'' {{IPA|/ˈty/}}> {{IPA|/ˈʎyko/}} {{IPA|/ˈɲytʰa/}} {{IPA|/ˈkrʲyfu/}} {{IPA|/eˈcy/}}> ''λιούκο'' {{IPA|/ˈʎuko/}} "wolf" ''νιούτθα'' {{IPA|/ˈɲutʰa/}} "night" ''γκρζιούφου'' {{IPA|/ˈɡʒufu/}} "hide (participle)" ''εκιού'' {{IPA|/eˈcu/}} "you". As seen from the following equivalent words, <Υ> was never fronted in Propontis Tsakonian, but rather remained {{IPA|/u/}}: {{IPA|/ˈukʰo/}} "wolf, {{IPA|/ˈnutʰa/}} "night", {{IPA|/eˈtu/}} "you". Any minor divergences from this model can be attributed to either internal dialectal borrowings or to borrowings from other Hellenic languages such as [[Maniot Greek]] or [[Standard Modern Greek]].
*'''Ω''' {{IPA|/ɔː/}} in Ancient Greek (Severe Doric {{IPA|/oː/}}), regularly goes to {{IPA|/u/}}: ''εζού'' {{IPA|/eˈzu/}} "I" Ancient Greek ''ἐγώ'' {{IPA|/eɡɔː/}}, ''αού'' {{IPA|[au]}} "say (participle)" < ''λαλών'' {{IPA|/laˈlɔːn/}}. This shift is absent from Propontis Tsakonian.

==== Consonants ====
Tsakonian in some words preserves the pre-classical Greek {{IPA|[w]}}-sound, represented in some Ancient Greek texts by the [[digamma]] ''(ϝ)''. In Tsakonian, this sound has become a fricative {{IPA|[v]}}: ''βάννε'' {{IPA|[ˈvane]}} "sheep", corresponding to Ancient ''ϝαμνός'' {{IPA|[wamˈnos]}} (Attic ''ἀμνός'').

Tsakonian has extensive changes triggered by palatalisation:
*{{IPA|[k]}} > {{IPA|[tɕ]}} : ''κύριος'' {{IPA|[ˈkyrios]}} > ''τζιούρη'' {{IPA|[ˈtɕuri]}}, occasionally {{IPA|[ts]}}: ''κεφάλι'' {{IPA|[keˈfali]}} > ''τσουφά'' {{IPA|[tsuˈfa]}}
*{{IPA|[ɡ]}} > {{IPA|[dz]}} : ''αγγίζων'' {{IPA|[aŋˈɡizɔːn]}} > ''αντζίχου'' {{IPA|[anˈdzixu]}}
*{{IPA|[p]}} > {{IPA|[c]}} : ''πηγάδι'' {{IPA|[piˈɣaði]}} > ''κηγάδι'' {{IPA|[ciˈɣaði]}}
*{{IPA|[t]}} > {{IPA|[c]}} : ''τυρός'' {{IPA|[tyˈros]}} > ''κιουρέ'' {{IPA|[cuˈre]}}, occasionally {{IPA|[ts]}}: ''τίποτα'' {{IPA|[ˈtipota]}} > ''τσίπτα'' {{IPA|[ˈtsipta]}}, ''πίτα'' {{IPA|[ˈpita]}} > ''πίτσα'' {{IPA|[ˈpitsa]}} 
*{{IPA|[m]}} > {{IPA|[n]}} : ''Μιχάλης'' {{IPA|[miˈxalis]}} > ''Ν(ν)ιχάλη'' {{IPA|[niˈxali]}}
*{{IPA|[n]}} > {{IPA|[ɲ]}} : ''ανοίγων'' {{IPA|[aˈniɣɔːn]}} > ''ανοίντου'' {{IPA|[aˈɲindu]}}
*{{IPA|[l]}} > {{IPA|[ʎ]}} : ''ηλιάζων'' {{IPA|[iliˈazɔːn]}} > ''λιάζου'' {{IPA|[ˈʎazu]}}
*{{IPA|[r]}} > {{IPA|[ʒ]}} : ''ρυάκι'' {{IPA|[ryˈaki]}} > ''ρζάτζι'' {{IPA|[ˈʒatɕi]}}. This sound appears to have been a [[Alveolar trill#Raised alveolar non-sonorant trill|fricative trill]] in the 19th century, and {{IPA|[ʒ]}} survived latterly only in women's usage in Southern Tsakonian. A similar change occurred with palatalised {{IPA|[rʲ]}} in [[Polish language|Polish]] and [[Czech language|Czech]], whereas [[Proto-Norse language#Consonants|in other languages]] it [[Rhotacism (sound change)#Linguistic shift|went in the reverse]].

Word-initial {{IPA|[r]}} > {{IPA|[ʃ]}}: ''*ράφων'' {{IPA|[ˈrafɔːn]}} > ''σχάφου'' {{IPA|[ˈʃafu]}}

Word-final {{IPA|[s]}} > {{IPA|[r]}}, which reflects an earlier process in Laconian; in Tsakonian, it is a liaison phoneme: ''τίνος'' {{IPA|[ˈtinos]}} > ''τσούνερ'' {{IPA|[ˈtsuner]}}

In Southern Tsakonian, {{IPA|[l]}} is deleted before back and central vowels: ''λόγος'' {{IPA|[ˈloɣos]}} > Northern ''λόγo'' {{IPA|[ˈloɣo]}}, Southern ''όγo'' {{IPA|[ˈoɣo]}}; ''λούζων'' {{IPA|[ˈluzɔːn]}} > Northern ''λούκχου'' {{IPA|[ˈlukʰu]}}, Southern ''ούκχου'' {{IPA|[ˈukʰu]}};

Occasionally {{IPA|[θ]}} > {{IPA|[s]}}, which appears to reflect an earlier process in Laconian, but in others {{IPA|[θ]}} is retained though the word is absent in Standard Greek: ''θυγάτηρ'' {{IPA|[θyˈɣatir]}} > ''σάτη'' {{IPA|[ˈsati]}}, but Ancient ''θύων'' {{IPA|[ˈθiɔːn]}} (Modern equivalent: ''σφάζω'' {{IPA|[ˈsfazo]}}) > ''θύου'' {{IPA|[ˈθiu]}}

Tsakonian avoids clusters, and reduces them to aspirated or prenasalised stops and affricates:
*{{IPA|[ðr, θr, tr]}} > {{IPA|[tʃ]}}: ''δρύας, άνθρωπος, τράγος'' {{IPA|[ˈðryas, ˈanθropos, ˈtraɣos]}} > ''τσχούα, άτσχωπο, τσχάο'' {{IPA|[ˈtʃua, ˈatʃopo, ˈtʃao]}}
*{{IPA|[sp, st, sθ, sk, sx]}} > {{IPA|[pʰ, tʰ, tʰ, kʰ, kʰ]}}: ''σπείρων, ιστός, επιάσθη, ασκός, ίσχων'' {{IPA|[ˈspirɔːn, isˈtos, epiˈasθi, asˈkos, ˈisxɔːn]}} > ''πφείρου, ιτθέ, εκιάτθε, ακχό, ίκχου'' {{IPA|[ˈpʰiru, iˈtʰe, eˈcatʰe, aˈkʰo, ˈikʰu]}}
*{{IPA|[mf, nθ, ŋx]}} > {{IPA|[pʰ, tʰ, kʰ]}}: ''ομφαλός, γρονθία, ρύγχος'' {{IPA|[omfaˈlos, ɣronˈθia, ˈryŋxos]}} > ''απφαλέ, γροτθία, σχούκο'' {{IPA|[apʰaˈle, ɣroˈtʰia, ˈʃukʰo]}}
*{{IPA|[ks]}} > {{IPA|[ts]}}: ''ξερός'' {{IPA|[kseˈros]}} > ''τσερέ'' {{IPA|[tseˈre]}}
*{{IPA|[kt, xθ]}} > {{IPA|[tʰ]}}: ''δάκτυλο, δεχθώ'' {{IPA|[ˈðaktylo, ðexˈθɔː]}} > ''δάτθυλε, δετθού'' {{IPA|[ˈðatʰile, ðeˈtʰu]}}
*{{IPA|[l]}} after consonants often goes to {{IPA|[r]}}: ''πλατύ, κλέφτης, γλώσσα, αχλάδες'' {{IPA|[plaˈty, ˈkleftis, ˈɣlɔːsa, aˈxlaðes]}} > ''πρακιού, κρέφτα, γρούσα, αχράε'' {{IPA|[praˈcu, ˈkrefta, ˈɣrusa, aˈxrae]}}
*{{IPA|[rp, rt, rk, rð]}} > {{IPA|[mb, nd, ŋɡ, nd]}}: ''σκορπίος, άρτος, άρκα, πορδή'' {{IPA|[skorˈpios, ˈartos, ˈarka, porˈði]}} > ''κχομπίο, άντε, άγκα, πφούντα'' {{IPA|[kʰomˈbio, ˈande, ˈaŋɡa, ˈpʰunda]}}

In the common verb ending ''-ζω'', {{IPA|[z]}} > {{IPA|[nd]}} : ''φωνάζων'' {{IPA|[foˈnazɔːn]}} > ''φωνιάντου'' {{IPA|[foˈɲandu]}} <!-- Is it 'zd' > 'zð' > 'rð' > 'nd'? How come the reflexes of ζ are so varied (nd, z, x)? -->

{{IPA|[z, v]}} are added between vowels: ''μυία, κυανός'' {{IPA|[myˈia, kyaˈnos]}} > ''μούζα, κουβάνε'' {{IPA|[ˈmuza, kuˈvane]}}

{{IPA|[ɣ, ð]}} often drop out between vowels: ''πόδας, τράγος'' {{IPA|[ˈpoðas, ˈtraɣos]}} > ''πούα, τσχάο'' {{IPA|[ˈpua, ˈtʃao]}}

===Prosody===
{|
!Original song – Tsakonian<ref>This song in its original (polytonic) Tsakonian form is taken from a book called «ΚΛΕΦΤΙΚΑ ΔΗΜΟΤΙΚΑ ΤΡΑΓΟΥΔΙΑ» (KLEPHTIC DEMOTIC SONGS) by N. G. Politou. It can be found in the last few pages of the book under the «ΤΡΑΓΟΥΔΙΑ ΕΙΣ ΕΛΛΗΝΙΚΑΣ ΔΙΑΛΕΚΤΟΥΣ» (SONGS IN GREEK DIALECTS) section on page 269.</ref>!!Roman Transliteration!![[International Phonetic Alphabet|IPA]] transcription{{citation needed|date=June 2015}}
|-
|<poem>Πουλάτζι ἔμα ἐχα τθὸ κουιβί τσαὶ μερουτέ νι ἔμα ἐχα
ταχίγα νι ἔμα ζάχαρι ποϊκίχα νι ἔμα μόσκο,
τσαί ἁπό τὸ μόσκο τὸ περσού τσαὶ ἁπὸ τὰ νυρωδία
ἑσκανταλίστε τὁ κουιβί τσ' ἑφύντζε μοι τ' αηδόνι.
Τσ' ἁφέγκι νι ἔκει τσυνηγού μὲ τὸ κουιβί τθὸ χέρε.
Ἔα πουλί τθὸν τόπο ντι ἔα τθα καϊκοιτζίαι,
να ἄτσου τὰ κουδούνια ντι νἁ βάλου ἄβα τσαινούρτζα.</poem>
|<poem>Poulátzi éma ékha tʰo kouiví tse merouté ni éma ékha
takhíga ni éma zákhari poïkíkha ni éma mósko
tse apó to mósko to persoú tse apó ta nirodía
eskantalíste to kouiví ts' efíntze mi t' aïdóni.
Ts' aféngi ni éki tsinigoú me to kouiví tʰo khére
Éa poulí tʰon tópo nti, éa tʰa kaïkitzíe
na átsou ta koudoúnia nti na válou áva tsenoúrtza.</poem>
|<poem>{{IPA|puˈlatɕi ˈema ˈexa tʰo kwiˈvi tɕe meruˈte ɲ ˈema ˈexa
taˈçiɣa ɲ ˈema ˈzaxaʒi po.iˈkixa ɲ ˈema ˈmosko
tɕ aˈpo to ˈmosko to perˈsu tɕ aˈpo ta ɲiroˈði.a
eskandaˈʎiste to kwiˈvi tɕ eˈfidze mi t a.iˈðoɲi
tɕ aˈfeɲɟi ɲ ˈeki tɕiɲiˈɣu me to kwiˈvi tʰo ˈçere
ˈe.a puˈʎi tʰon ˈdopo di ˈe.a tʰa ka.ikiˈtɕi.e
n ˈatsu ta kuˈðuɲa di na ˈvalu ˈava tɕeˈnurdza}}</poem>
|}
{|
! Modern Greek!!Modern Greek pronunciation (Roman guideline)||IPA transcription (see [[Modern Greek phonology|Greek phonology]])
|-
|<poem>Πουλάκι είχα στο κλουβί και μερομένο το είχα.
το τάιζα ζάχαρη και το πότιζα μόσχο
και από τον πολύ τον μόσχο και την μυρωδιά του
εσκανταλίστη και το κλουβί και μου έφυγε τ' αηδόνι
Κι' ο αφέντης το κυνηγάει με το κλουβί στο χέρι:
Έλα πουλί στον τόπο σου, έλα στην κατοικία σου
ν' αλλάξω τα κουδούνια σου να βάλω άλλα καινούργια</poem>
|<poem>Pouláki íkha sto klouví ke meroméno to íkha
to táïza zákhari ke to pótiza móskho
ke apó ton polí ton móskho ke tin mirodiá tou
eskantalísti ke to klouví ke mou éfige t' aïdóni.
Ki' o aféntis to kinigáï me to klouví sto khéri
Éla poulí ston tópo sou, éla stin katikía sou
n' allákso ta koudoúnia sou na válo álla kenoúrgia.</poem>
|<poem>{{IPA|puˈlaci ˈixa sto kluˈvi ce meroˈmeno to ˈixa
to ˈta.iza ˈzaxari ce to ˈpotiza ˈmosxo
c aˈpo tom boˈli tom ˈmosxo ce tim miroˈðja tu
eskandaˈlisti ce to kluˈvi ce mu ˈefiʝe t a.iˈðoni
c o aˈfendis to ciniˈɣa.i me to kluˈvi sto ˈçeri
ˈela puˈli ston ˈdopo su ˈela stiŋ ɡatiˈci.a su
n alˈakso ta kuˈðuɲa su na ˈvalo ˈala ceˈnurʝa}}</poem>
|}

;English translation
<poem>I had a bird in a cage and I kept it happy
I gave it sugar and wine-grapes
and from the great amount of grapes and their essence,
the nightingale got naughty [possibly means it got drunk] and escaped.
And its master now runs after it with the cage in his hands:
Come my bird back where you belong, come to your house
I will remove your old bells and buy you new ones.</poem>

===Phonotactics===
Tsakonian avoids consonant clusters, as seen, and drops final {{IPA|[s]}} and {{IPA|[n]}}; as a result, syllable structure tends more to CV than in Standard Modern Greek. (The use of digraphs in tradition spelling tends to obscure this). For instance, ancient {{IPA|[hadros]}} "hard" goes to Tsakonian {{IPA|[a.tʃe]}}, where {{IPA|/t͡ʃ/}} can be considered a single phoneme; it is written traditionally with a trigraph as ''ατσχέ'' (=''atskhe'').

== Writing system ==
Traditionally, Tsakonian used the standard Greek alphabet, along with digraphs to represent certain sounds that either do not occur in Demotic Greek, or that do not commonly occur in combination with the same sounds as they do in Tsakonian. For example, the {{IPA|[ʃ]}} sound, which does not occur in standard Greek, occurs in Tsakonian, and is spelled as ''σχ'' (much like [[German language|German]] ''sch''). Another sound recalls [[Czech language|Czech]] ''ř''. [[Thanasis Costakis]] invented an orthography using dots, ''[[spiritus asper]]'', and [[caron]] for use in his works, which has been used in his grammar and several other works. That is more like the [[Czech language|Czech]] usage of the  [[háček]] (such as ''š''). Lastly, unpalatalized ''n'' and ''l'' before a front vowel can be written double to contrast with a palatalised single letter; essentially the opposite of [[Spanish language|Spanish]] [[ñ]] and ll (e.g. in Southern Tsakonian ''ένει'' {{IPA|[eɲi]}} "I am", ''έννι'' {{IPA|[eni]}} "he is" – the former corresponds to Northern Tsakonian ''έμι'' {{IPA|[emi]}} and Standard Greek ''είμαι'' {{IPA|[ime]}}).
{| class="wikitable"
|-
! colspan="3" s | '''Transcribing Tsakonian'''<ref>Sources: Nicholas, Houpis, Costakis</ref>
|-
!Digraphs
!Costakis
!IPA
|-
|σχ
|{{lang|tsd|σ̌}}
|{{IPA|ʃ}}
|-
|τσχ
|{{lang|tsd|σ̓}}
|{{IPA|tʃ}}
|-
|ρζ
|ρζ
|{{IPA|rʒ}}
|-
|τθ
|{{lang|tsd|τ̔}}
|{{IPA|tʰ}}
|-
|κχ
|{{lang|tsd|κ̔}}
|{{IPA|kʰ}}
|-
|πφ
|{{lang|tsd|π̔}}
|{{IPA|pʰ}}
|-
|τζ
|(Κ) τζ̌ – τζ & τρζ̌ — τρζ<br>(Λ) τζ̌ – τζ
|(K) {{IPA|tɕ, trʒ}}<br>(L) {{IPA|tɕ}} {{IPA|d͡ʒ}}
|-
|νν
|{{lang|tsd|ν̇}}
|n (not {{IPA|ɲ}})
|-
|λλ
|λ̣
|l (not {{IPA|ʎ}})
|-
|}
:Note: ''(K)'' is for the northern dialect of Kastanitsa and Sitaina, ''(Λ)'' and ''(L)'' for the southern which is spoken around Leonidio and Tyros.

==Grammar==
Tsakonian has undergone considerable morphological changes: there is minimal case inflection.

The present and imperfect indicative in Tsakonian are formed with participles, like English but unlike the rest of Greek: Tsakonian ''ενεί αού, έμα αού'' "I am saying, I was saying" ≈ Greek ''ειμί λαλών, ήμην λαλών''.
{| class="wikitable"
! colspan="3" | Tsakonian !! rowspan="2" | English
|-
! Masculine !! Feminine !! Neuter
|-
| colspan="3" | Ένει ''Ení'' || I am
|-
| colspan="3" | Έσει ''Esí'' || you are
|-
| colspan="3" | Έννι ''Éni'' || he/she/it is
|- 
| colspan="3" | Έμε ''Éme'' || we are
|-
| colspan="3" | Έτθε ''Éthe'' || you are
|-
| colspan="3" | Είνι ''Íni'' || they are
|-
| colspan="3" | Έμα ''Éma'' || I was
|-
| colspan="3" | Έσα ''Ésa'' || you were
|-
| colspan="3" | Έκη ''Éki'' || he/she/it was
|-
| colspan="3" | Έμαϊ ''Émaï'' || we were
|-
| colspan="3" | Έτθαϊ ''Éthaï'' || you were
|-
| colspan="3" | Ήγκιαϊ ''Ígiaï'' || they were
|-
| ένει φερήκχου ''feríkhou'' || ένει φερήκχα ''feríkha'' || ένει φερήκχουντα ''ferikhouda'' || I bring
|-
| έσει φερήκχου ''feríkhou'' || έσει φερήκχα ''feríkha'' || έσει φερήκχουντα ''ferikhouda'' || you bring
|-
| έννι φερήκχου ''feríkhou'' || έννι φερήκχα ''feríkha'' || έννι φερήκχουντα ''ferikhouda'' || he/she/it brings
|-
| colspan="2" | έμε φερήκχουντε ''feríkhude''  || έμε φερήκχουντα ''feríkhuda'' || we bring
|-
| colspan="2" | έτθε φερήκχουντε ''feríkhude'' || έτθε φερήκχουντα ''feríkhuda'' || you bring
|-
| colspan="2" | είνι φερήκχουντε ''feríkhude'' || έμε φερήκχουντα ''feríkhuda'' || they bring
|}

Note that participles change according to the gender of the subject of the sentence.

Tsakonian has preserved the original inflection of the aorist indicative.
{| class="wikitable"
! Tsakonian !! English
|-
|ενέγκ'''α''' ''enég'''a''''' || I brought
|-
|ενέντζ'''ερε''' ''enédz'''ere''''' || you brought
|-
|ενέντζ'''ε''' ''enédz'''e''''' || he/she/it brought
|-
|ενέγκ'''αμε''' ''enég'''ame''''' || we brought
|-
|ενέγκ'''ατε''' ''enég'''ate''''' || you brought
|-
|ενέγκ'''αϊ''' ''enég'''aï''''' || they brought
|}

=== Morphology ===
Another difference between Tsakonian and the common Demotic Greek dialect is its verb system – Tsakonian preserves different archaic forms, such as participial [[periphrasis]] for the present tense. Certain [[complement (linguistics)|complementisers]] and other adverbial features present in the standard Modern Greek dialect are absent from Tsakonian, with the exception of the Modern {{lang|el|που}} ({{IPA|/pu/}}) relativiser, which takes the form {{lang|tsd|πφη}} ({{IPA|/pʰi/}}) in Tsakonian (note: traditional Tsakonian orthography uses the [[digraph (orthography)|digraph]] {{angbr|{{lang|tsd|πφ}}}} to represent [[aspirated consonant|aspirated]] {{IPA|/pʰ/}}). Noun morphology is broadly similar to Standard Modern Greek, although Tsakonian tends to drop the nominative, final {{lang|el|-ς}} ({{Transliteration|el|-s}}) from masculine nouns, thus Tsakonian {{lang|tsd|ο τσχίφτα}} {{Transliteration|tsd|o tshífta}} for Standard {{lang|el|o τρίφτης}} {{Transliteration|el|o tríftis}} {{gloss|grater}}.

==Sample texts==
{| class="wikitable"
! scope="col" | [[English language|English]]
! scope="col" | [[Modern Greek]]
! scope="col" | Tsakonian ([[Greek alphabet]])
! scope="col" | Tsakonian ([[Latin script]])
! scope="col" | Tsakonian (Costakis Notation)
|-
|Where is his/her/its room? || Πού είναι το δωμάτιό του/της; || Κιά έννι το όντα σι; || ''Kiá éni to óda si?'' || {{lang|grc|κιά έν̇ι το όντα σι;}}
|-
|Where is the beach? || Πού είναι η παραλία; || Κιά έννι το περιγιάλλι; || ''Kiá éni to perigiáli?'' || {{lang|grc|κιά έν̇ι το περιγιάλ̣ι;}}
|-
|Where is the bar? || Πού είναι το μπαρ; || Κιά έννι το μπαρ; || '' Kiá éni to bar?'' || {{lang|grc|κιά έν̇ι το μπαρ;}}
|-
|Don't touch me there! || Μη μ' αγγίζεις εκεί! || Μη' μ' αντζίζερε όρπα! || ''Mi m' andzízere órpa!'' || {{lang|grc|Μη με ατζίζερε όρπα!}}
|}

==See also==
*[[Tsakonia]]

==Notes==
{{Reflist}}

==References==
*{{cite book |author=Costakis, Athanasios (Thanasis) P. |url=https://www.tsakonianarchives.gr/sintomi_grammatiki_tsakonikis_dialektou/ |title=Σύντομη Γραμματική της Τσακωνικής Διαλέκτου (Brief Grammar of the Tsakonian Dialect) |location=Athens |publisher=Institut Français d'Athènes |year=1951}}
*{{cite book |author=Horrocks, Geoffrey |title=Greek: A history of the language and its speakers, 2nd ed. |location=Hoboken, NJ |publisher=Wiley Blackwell |year=2014 |isbn=978-1-118-78515-7}}
*{{cite journal |author=Nicholas, Nick |title=The Story of pu: The grammaticalisation in space and time of a Modern Greek complementiser |year=1999 |version=Final |url=http://www.tlg.uci.edu/~opoudjis/Work/thesis.html |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://archive.today/20121212082414/http://www.tlg.uci.edu/~opoudjis/Work/thesis.html |archive-date=2012-12-12}}
*{{cite book |author=Pernot |first=Hubert |title=Introduction à l'étude du dialecte tsakonien |location=Paris |publisher=[[Les Belles Lettres]] |year=1934}}
*{{cite journal |last=Nicholas |first=Nick |title=A critical lexicostatistical examination of Ancient and Modern Greek and Tsakonian. |journal=Journal of Applied Linguistics and Lexicography |issue=1 |year=2019 |volume=1 |pages=18–68 |doi=10.33910/2687-0215-2019-1-1-18-68 |url=https://journall.org/index.php/main/article/view/9|doi-access=free}}

==Further reading==
*Blažek, Václav. "[http://hdl.handle.net/11222.digilib/114952 Glottochronological analysis of the Greek lexicon: Modern, Tsakonian, Old and Mycenaean Greek]. In: ''Graeco-Latina Brunensia''. 2010, vol. 15, iss. 1, pp.&nbsp;17–35. {{ISSN|2336-4424}}

==External links==
{{incubator|code=tsd}}
*[http://www.projethomere.com/travaux/dialectes_grecs/tsakonien/tsakonien1.htm Projet Homere] (text sample and audio files)
*[http://www.opoudjis.net/Work/tsakbib.html Tsakonian Bibliography]
*[https://web.archive.org/web/20040502012844/http://www.christusrex.org/www1/pater/JPN-tsakonian.html The Lord's Prayer in Tsakonian] (text sample)
*[http://arcadia.ceid.upatras.gr/arkadia/realaudio/leitourgia.rm Church Service in Tsakonian] {{Webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060713064946/http://arcadia.ceid.upatras.gr/arkadia/realaudio/leitourgia.rm |date=2006-07-13 }} ([[RealAudio]])

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