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{{Short description|Legendary creature known as the Zmey in Eastern European folklore}}
[[File:Slavic doragon.jpg|thumb|Mikhail Zlatkovsky. Caricature of the revival of [[Slavic Native Faith|paganism in Russia]]. 1977]]
A '''Slavic dragon''' is any [[European dragon|dragon]] in [[Slavic mythology]], including the [[Polish language|Polish]] [[:pl:Żmij|żmij]], [[Russian language|Russian]] ''[[zmei (Russian)|zmei]]'' (or {{Transliteration|ru|zmey}}; {{lang|ru|[[:ru:Змей (мифология)|змей]]}}), [[Ukrainian language|Ukrainian]] {{Transliteration|uk|zmiy}} ({{Lang|uk|[[:uk:Змій (міфологія)|змій]]}}), and its counterparts in other Slavic cultures (See {{section link||Forms}}
below). The physiognomy resembles a combination of the [[Dragon|classical dragon]] and a [[snake]] (as a winged serpent), less often depicted with two legs and/or more than one head. Similar representations include the [[Aztec religion|Aztec]] [[Quetzalcōātl|Quetzalcoatl]] ([[Feathered Serpent]]) or [[Caduceus]] ([[Sumerian religion|Sumerian]] symbol of the god [[Enki]] borrowed into [[Greek mythology]]).

The [[Romanian language|Romanian]] ''[[zmeu]]'' could also be deemed a "Slavic" dragon, but a non-cognate etymology has been proposed.<!--ref name="paliga&teodor2009"/[inline cited below]-->

A ''zmei'' may be beast-like or human-like (assuming dragon form in air, human form on ground),  sometimes wooing women, but often plays the role of chief antagonist in [[Russian literature]]. In the [[Balkans]], the ''zmei'' type is overall regarded as benevolent, as opposed to malevolent dragons known variously as {{interlanguage link|lamia (Slavic folklore){{!}}lamia|bg|Ламя}}'', ''[[Ala (demon)|ala]]'' or ''hala'', or ''aždaja''.

The [[Polish language|Polish]] ''smok'' (e.g. [[Wawel Dragon]] of [[Kraków]]) or the [[Ukrainian language|Ukrainian]] or [[Belarusian language|Belarusian]]<!--?--> ''smok'' (смок), ''tsmok'' (цмок), can also be included. In some Slavic traditions ''smok'' is an ordinary snake which may turn into a dragon with age.

Some of the common motifs concerning Slavic dragons include their identification as masters of weather or water source; that they start life as snakes; and that both the male and female can be romantically involved with humans.

==Nomenclature==
===Etymology===
The Slavic terms descend from [[Proto-Slavic]] ''[[wikt:Reconstruction:Proto-Slavic/zmьjь|*zmьjь]]''. The further derivation that Serbo-Croatian ''zmaj'' "dragon" and ''{{linktext|zemlja}}'' "earth" ultimately descend from the same Proto-Slavic root ''zьm-'', from the [[zero grade]] of [[Proto-Indo-European]] ''[[wikt:Reconstruction:Proto-Indo-European/dʰéǵʰōm|*ǵhdem]]'', was proposed by Croatian [[linguist]] [[Petar Skok]].{{Refn|Skok, Petar (1973), ''Etimologijski rjeinik Hrvatskoga ili Srpskoga jezika'', '''3''', pp. 657–8, Zagreb, Jugoslavenska Akademija Znanosti i Umjetnosti.<ref>Cited in: {{citation|last1=Kerewsky-Halpern|first1=Barbara |title=Watch out for Snakes! Ethnosemantic Misinterpretations and Interpretation of a Serbian Healing Charm |journal=Anthropological Linguistics |volume=25 |number=3 |date=Fall 1983 |publisher=Indiana University |pages=321–322 and note 14}} {{JSTOR|30027675}}</ref>}} Lithuanian scholarship also points out that the connection of the snake (''zmey'') with the earthly realm is even more pronounced in folk incantations, since its name would etymologically mean 'earthly (being); that which creeps underground'.<ref>"Ypatingas gyvatės ir žemės ryšys matomas užkalbėjim ų tekstuose, visoje tautosakos tradicijoje ir rus. змея etim ologijoje — šio žodžio pradinė reikšmė yra 'žeminis, šliaužiantis po žeme' ir kilęs iš земля". Zavjalova, Marija. "Lietuvių ir rusų užkalbėjimų nuo gyvatės pasaulio modelių palyginimas". In: ''Tautosakos darbai''. 1998, t. 9 (16). p. 63.</ref>

The Russian ''zmei'', Ukrainian ''zmiy'' may be rendered "serpent", but a "flying serpent" is always implicit,{{Refn|Belova, O. V.<!--Белова, О.В. --> (2012a) "Letaiet’ zmey k lyudyam Литаить змей к людям [A Serpent Flies to People]". ''Zhivaya Starina'' Живая старина (1): 24–26 and other sources, ''apud'' {{harvp|Kõiva|Boganeva|2020|pp=389–390}}}} and similarly for the Belarussian {{Transliteration|be|zmiej}},{{Refn|Belova, O. V.<!--Белова, О.В. --> (2012a) "Letaiet’ zmey k lyudyam Литаить змей к людям [A Serpent Flies to People]". ''Zhivaya Starina'' Живая старина (1): 24–26 and other sources, ''apud'' {{harvp|Kõiva|Boganeva|2020|pp=389–390}}}} hence "dragon".

There is dissenting opinion that the Romanian ''[[zmeu]]'' may not be a loan word from the Slavic ''zmei'' group of words, but rather an early borrowing from the [[Thracian language]].<ref name="paliga&teodor2009"/>

===Forms===
The forms and spellings are Russian: ''[[zmei (Russian)|zmei]]'' or ''zmey'' {{lang|ru|змей}} (pl. ''zmei'' {{lang|ru|зме́и}}); Ukrainian: ''zmiy'' {{Lang|uk|[[:uk:Змій (міфологія)|змій]]}} (pl. ''zmiyi'' {{lang|uk|змії}}); [[Belarusian language|Belarussian]]: {{Transliteration|be|zmiej}} ([[:bg:Змей|змей]]);{{sfnp|Kõiva|Boganeva|2020|p=388}}  Bulgarian: ''zmei'' {{lang|bg|змей|}} (pl. ''zmeiove'' {{lang|bg|змейове}}; female ''zmeikinya'' {{lang|bg|змейкиня}});<ref name="sedakova1999-zmei-letayushchiy"/> Polish ''zmiy'' {{lang|pl|żmij|italic=yes}} (pl. ''żmije''); Serbo-Croatian ''zmaj'' {{Lang|sr|змај}} (pl. {{Lang|sr|зма̀јеви }});<ref name="sedakova1999-zmei-letayushchiy"/> [[Slovene language|Slovene]]: ''zmaj'' ''zmáj'' or ''zmàj'' (pl. ''zmáji'' or ''zmáji''), or [[Macedonian language|Macedonian]]: ''zmev'' ({{lang|mk|змев}}; pl. ''zmevovi'' {{lang|mk|змевови}}).<ref name="sedakova1999-zmei-letayushchiy"/> the [[Slovene language|Slovene]] ''zmaj'', the [[Slovak language|Slovak]] ''drak'' and ''šarkan'', [[Czech language|Czech]] ''drak'',{{citation needed|date=November 2024}}

==East Slavic zmei==
[[Image:Dobrynya Nikitich rescues Zabava from the Gorynych, 1941.jpg|thumb|''Dobrynya Nikitich rescues Princess Zabava from Zmey Gorynych'', by [[Ivan Bilibin]]]] 
<!--[[Image:Zmei Gorinich (colour fixed).jpg|left|thumb|upright|''Zmei Gorynych'', by [[Viktor Vasnetsov]]]]-->
{{Further|zmei (Russian)}}
In the legends of [[Russia]] and [[Ukraine]], a particular dragon-like creature, [[Zmei (Russian)|Zmey Gorynych]] ({{Langx|ru|[[:ru:Змей Горыныч|Змей Горыныч]]}} or {{Langx|uk|Змій Горинич}}), has [[Polycephaly|three to twelve heads]],<ref name=mccullough/> and
[[Tugarin Zmeyevich]] (literally: "Tugarin Dragon-son"), known as ''zmei-bogatyr'' or "serpent hero", is a man-like dragon who appears in Russian (or [[Kievan Rus]]) heroic literature.<ref name=1911-russlit/> The name "Tugarin" may symbolize Turkic or Mongol [[steppe]]-peoples.<ref>[http://bibliotekar.ru/mif/119.htm Тугарин] // Мифологический Словарь / Ed. [[Yeleazar Meletinsky|Елеазар Мелетинский]]. — М.: Советская Энциклопедия, 1991.</ref>

Both the Russian flying serpent or dragon ({{lang|ru|змей летающий}}; {{Transliteration|ru|zmei letayushchiy}}) and [[fiery serpents|fiery serpent]] ({{Langx|ru|змей Огненный}}; {{Transliteration|ru|zmei ognennyi}}) are considered types of demons, which take on the shape of serpent/dragon in air, and a humanoid on land.<ref name="levkievskaya1999-demonological"/>

===Chudo-Yudo===
The Chudo-Yudo (or Chudo-iudo, {{lang|ru|[[wikt:чудо-юдо|чудо-юдо]]<!--Чудо-Юдо-->}}; pl. ''Chuda-Yuda'') is a multi-headed dragon that appears in some wondertale variants, usually considered to be water-dwelling.<ref name=wigzell/>{{sfnp|Warner|2002|p=22}} Some legends portray him as the brother of [[Koshchey Bessmertny|Koshchey the Deathless]], and thus the offspring of the witch [[Baba Yaga]]; others present him as a personification of the witch in her foulest form.{{sfnp|Dixon-Kennedy|1998|p= 52}} A Chudo Yudo is one of the guardians of the Water of Life and Death, and his name traditionally was invoked in times of drought.{{sfnp|Dixon-Kennedy|1998|p= 52}} He can apparently assume human-like forms and is able to speak and to ride a horse. He has the ability to regenerate any severed heads.<ref name=ivan-bykovich-haney/><ref name=burya-bogatyr-haney/>

The term ''Chudo-Yudo'' may not be a name for a specific type of dragon at all, but rather a fanciful term for a generic "monster". According to this explanation, the term is to be understood as a poetic form of ''chudovishche'' ({{lang|ru|чудовище}}) meaning "monster", with a {{Transliteration|ru|-iudo}} ending appended simply for the rhyme.<ref>{{harvp|Levchin|2014}}, [https://books.google.com/books?id=dIEfAwAAQBAJ&pg=PA161 p. 161, note 39], stating that [[Max Vasmer|Vasmer]] concurs.</ref><ref>{{cite encyclopedia|last= Vasmer|first= Max|title= Etimologicheskiy slovar' russkogo yazyka | script-title= ru:Этимологический словарь русского языка | trans-title= Etymological dictionary of the Russian language | volume= 4 | publisher= Progress<!--Прогресс--> | year= 1973 |url= https://books.google.com/books?id=B65JAQAAIAAJ&q=%D1%87%D1%83%D0%B4%D0%BE |pages= 377–378|language= ru}}</ref> ''Chudo'' in modern Russian means "a wonder", and once also had the meaning of "a giant"; "yudo" may relate to ''Iuda'', the Russian form of the personal name [[Judas Iscariot|"Judas"]], with connotations of uncleanness and the demonic.<ref>
[[Aleksey Khomyakov]] (editor): Материалы для сравнит. словъ. — Saint Petersburg: Изд. Академіи наукъ (Academy of Sciences). — Volume 2.
</ref>

Three- and six-headed ''zmei'', slain by the titular hero in "Ivan Popyalov" ({{lang|ru|Иван Попялов}}, "Ivan Cinders", [[Afanasyev]]'s tale #135)<ref name=ivan-popyalov-ralston>"Ivan Popyalof", {{harvp|Ralston|1880|pp=79–83}}.</ref> appear as six-, nine-, and twelve-headed Chuda-Iuda in the cognate tale #137 "Ivan Bykovich" ({{lang|ru|Иван Быкович}}). The inference is that Chudo-Yudo must also be a dragon, even though the word "serpent" (''zmei'') does not appear explicitly in the latter tale.{{sfnp|Ralston|1880|pp= 83–85}}<ref name=ivan-bykovich-ru/> The six-, nine-, and twelve-headed Chuda-Yuda that appear out of the [[Black Sea]] are explicitly described as ''zmei'' in yet another cognate tale, #136 "[[Storm-Bogatyr, Ivan the Cow's Son]]" ({{lang|ru|Буря-богатырь Иван коровий сын}}). The Storm-Bogatyr possesses a magic sword ([[sword Kladenets]]), but uses his battle club (or [[Mace (bludgeon)|mace]]) to attack them.<ref name=burya-bogatyr-ru/><ref name=burya-bogatyr-levchin/><ref name=burya-bogatyr-haney/>

A Chudo-Yudo's heads have a remarkable healing property: even if severed, he can pick them up and re-attach them with a stroke of his fiery finger, according to one of these tales,<ref name=ivan-bykovich-haney/> comparable to the regenerative power of the [[Lernaean hydra]] that grows its head back.{{sfnp|Ralston|1880|p=83}}<!-- and if every single head isn't cut off or the headless neck isn't covered immediately in ash or burnt.{{cn|date=October 2016}}-->

Folktales often depict Chuda-yuda as living beyond the {{ill|River Smorodina|ru|Смородина (река)}} (the name may suggest "Stench River")—that is, in the realm of the dead, reached by crossing over the {{ill|Kalinov Bridge|ru|Калинов мост}} ("White-hot Bridge").

==Smok==

The terms ''smok'' ("dragon") and ''tsmok'' ("sucker") can signify a dragon, but also just an ordinary snake. There are Slavic folk tales in which a ''smok'', when it reaches a certain age, grows into a dragon (''zmaj'', etc.).{{cn|date=May 2025}}

==Some common themes==

===Snake into dragons===
The folklore that an ancient snake grows into a dragon is fairly widespread in Slavic regions. This is also paralleled by similar lore in China.{{Efn|As {{harvp|Popova|1987|page=56}} points out, the tradition that an ancient snake becomes a dragon is also found in China, recorded for example in the ''{{interlanguage link|Shuyiji (Yin Yun){{!}}''Shuyiji''|zh|述異記 (任昉)}}'' or "Accounts of Strange Things", but in the Chinese version, the snake requires 500 years times 3 for it to evolve into a full dragon. Citation is given to Clébert, Jean Paul (1971) {{plain link|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ge6BAAAAMAAJ&q=chouei |name=''Bestiaire fabuleux''}}, p. 157 }}

In Russian lore, the [[Natrix|grass snake]] ({{lang|ru|уж}}) or some other serpent, lizard, rooster, or carp achieves certain longevity, such as 9 years or 40 years, it transmutes into a flying ''zmei''.<ref name="sedakova1999-zmei-letayushchiy"/>

In Bulgaria is a similar folk belief that the ''smok'' ("[[Aesculapian snake]]"<ref name=manoleva/>) begins its [[Biological life cycle|life-cycle]] as a non-venomous snake but later grows into a ''zmei'' dragon after living 40 years.{{sfnp|MacDermott|1998|p=65}}{{sfnp|Georgieva|1985|p=59}}<ref>{{citation|last1=Popova |first1=Assia |title=La naissance des dragons |journal=Civilisations |volume=37 |number=2 |publisher=Institut de Sociologie de l'Université de Bruxelles |year=1987 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=eK8EAAAAYAAJ&q=smok |page=56}} {{JSTOR|41229340}} {{in lang|fr}}</ref> Or, if the body of a [[decapitated]] snake ({{Transliteration|bg|zmiya}}) is joined to an ox or buffalo horn, it grows into a lamia after just 40 days, according to Bulgarian folk tradition published by {{interlanguage link|Racho Slaveykov|bg|Рачо Славейков}} in the 19th century.{{sfnp|Slaveykov|2014|p=70}}

There are also among the [[East Slavs|East Slavic folk]] the tradition that a [[viper]] transforms into a dragon.{{sfnp|Kmietowicz|1982|p=207}} In Ukrainian folklore the viper needs 7 years to metamorphosize into a dragon, while in Belarusian folklore the requisite time is 100 years, according to one comparison.{{sfnp|Kmietowicz|1982|p=207}}

The weather-making dragon, ''ismeju'' (or ''[[zmeu]]''<ref name=florescu/>), of Romanian [[Scholomance]] folklore is also locally believed to grow out of a snake which has lived for 9 years (belief found at "Hatzeger Thal" or [[Hațeg]]).<ref>{{citation|last1=Schmidt |first1=Wilhelm |title=Das Jahr und seine Tage in Meinung und Brauch der Romänen Siebenbürgens |journal=Österreichische Revue |volume=1| year=1865 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=lcwMAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA211}}; reissued: {{plain link|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=YiYPAAAAQAAJ&pg=PA16 |name=(1866), Hermannstadt, A. Schmiedicke}}</ref>

===Crossbreeds===
There are other accounts of how the ''zmei'' is engendered. A hen-hatched egg unbeknownst to a human may turn into a ''zmei'' (Bulgaria).<ref name="sedakova1999-zmei-letayushchiy"/> Or a dragon may be born when a grass snake is swept up by whirlwind (Bulgaria).<ref name="sedakova1999-zmei-letayushchiy"/> It is also explained as a cross hybrid between a serpent and grass snake (Macedonia), serpent and ram (Serbia), serpent and a ''[[samovila]]''  (Macedonia). A woman may conceive a zmei with a serpent (Macedonia), but may suffer a prolonged period of pregnancy.<ref name="sedakova1999-zmei-letayushchiy"/>

===Weather===

Locally in Ukraine, around [[Lutsk]], the [[rainbow]] is called ''tsmok'' ("sucker") which is said to be a tube that guzzles water from the sea and rivers and carries the moisture up into the clouds.{{Refn|{{citation|last=Chubinski |first=P. P. |script-title=ru:Труды Этнографическо-статистической экспедиции в Западно-Русский край, снаряженной Императорским русским географическим обществом (Юго-Западный отдыел): материалы и изслиедования |title=Trudy Etnografichesko-statisticheskoy ekspeditsii v Zapadno-Russkiy kray, snaryazhennoy Imperatorskim russkim geograficheskim obshchestvom (Yugo-Zapadnyy otdyyel): materialy i izsliyedovaniya |volume=1 |year=1872 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=AvQKAAAAIAAJ |language=ru}}, cited by Dragomanov<ref>Dragomanof, M. (1879), L'Arc-en-ciel", {{plain link|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=FDLlhBALK4AC&pg=RA1-PA41|name=Mélusine}} '''II''', p. 41</ref><ref>{{cite book|last1=Dragomanov|first1=Mikhaïl |last2=Dragomanov |first2=Lydia |title=Travaux sur le folklore slave, suivi de Légendes chrétiennes de l'Ukraine |publisher=Lingva |year=2015 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=NKedCwAAQBAJ&pg=PA67 |page=67|isbn=9781472801029 }}, citing {{harvp|Chubinski|1872}}.</ref>}}<ref>{{cite book|last1=Patai |first1=Raphael |title=On Jewish Folklore |publisher=Wayne State University Press|year=1983|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=F0HYAAAAMAAJ |page=75|isbn=9780814317075 }}</ref>

There is the notion (thought to be inspired by the tornado) of a Slavic dragon that dips its tail into a river or lake and siphons up the water, ready to cause floods.<ref>{{harvp|Kmietowicz|1982|p=207}}: When the monster lowers his tail into the river or lake, he 'takes up' the water which he uses to make floods.</ref>

In Romanian folklore, dragons are ridden by weather-controlling wizards called the [[Solomonari]]. The type of dragon they ride may be the ''[[zmeu]]''{{Efn|Also improperly spelt "ismeju" in this context.}}<ref name=florescu/> or the ''[[balaur]]'', depending on the source.<ref name=marian-balauri>Marian (1879): "Cînd voiesc Solomonarii să se suie în nori, iau friul cel de aur şi se duc la un lac fără de fund sau la o altă apă mare, unde ştiu ei că locuiesc balaurii [With these [golden] reins, the Solomonari rein their dragons called ''balaurii'' that they use instead of horses]", quoted in: Hasdeu, Bogdan Petriceicu; Brâncuș, Grigore (1976) edd., ''{{plain link|name=Etymologicum Magnum Romaniae |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=gAN_9QPRU1gC&q=balaurii}}'' '''3''', p. 438.</ref><ref>{{cite journal|last1=Philippide|first1=Alexandru |title=Travaux sur le title<nowiki>=</nowiki>Rümanische Etymologien |journal=Zeitschrift für romanische Philologie |volume=31 |year=1907|page=96|language=de}}</ref>

The lamia and the hala (explained further below) are also generally perceived as weather dragons or demons.

==Balkan Slavic dragons==
In Bulgarian lore, the ''zmei'' is sometimes described as a scale-covered serpent-like creature with four legs and bat's wings,{{sfnp|Georgieva|1985|p=59}} at other times as half-man, half-snake, with wings and a fish-like tail.{{sfnp|MacDermott|1998|p=65}}

In Bulgaria, this ''zmei'' tends to be regarded as a benevolent guardian creature, while the ''lamya'' and ''hala'' were seen as detrimental towards humans.<ref>{{harvp|MacDermott|1998|p=65}}: "Unlike the lamia and hala which were always malevolent.. zmey was seen mainly as a protector".</ref><ref>{{harvp|Kremenliev|1956|pp=316–317}}: "In the majority of folksongs these creatures [''zmei'', ''[[Samodiva (mythology)|samodivi]]'', ''samovili'', etc.] are quite agreeable,.. The exception is the ''lamiá''".</ref>{{Efn|Kremenliev groups the zmei with the nymphs ''[[Samodiva (mythology)|samodivi]]'' and ''samovili'', which he says are winged serpents.}}

===Zmei lovers===
A fying ''zmei'' may appear as a "mythological lover", i.e., a mythical creature behaving as a suitor and lover of human females.<ref name="sedakova1999-zmei-letayushchiy"/>{{sfnp|Kõiva|Boganeva|2020|p=387}} A favorite topic of folk songs was the male ''zmey''-lover who may marry a woman and carry her to the underworld, or a female ''zmeitsa'' (zmeitza) who falls in love with a shepherd.{{sfnp|Kremenliev|1956|pp=316–317}}{{sfnp|MacDermott|1998|pp=65–66}} When a ''zmei'' falls in love with a woman, she may "pine, languish, become pale, neglect herself.. and generally act strangely", and the victim stricken with the condition could only be cured by bathing in infusions of certain herbs, according to superstition.{{sfnp|MacDermott|1998|pp=65–66}}

In Serbia, there is the example of the epic song ''Carica Milica i zmaj od Jastrepca'' ({{langx|sr|Царица Милица и змај од Јастрепца}}) and its folktale version translated as "The Tsarina Militza and the Zmay of Yastrebatz".<ref>{{citation|editor-last=Karadžić |editor-first=Vuk Stefanović |title=Srpske narodne pjesme |volume=2 |publisher=U štampariji Jermenskoga manastira |year=1845|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=TX0RAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA255 |pages=255–}}</ref>{{sfnp|Petrovitch|1914|pp=23, 129–133}}

'''<big>Zmey of Macedonian fairy tales</big>'''

In most Macedonian tales and folk songs they are described as extremely intelligent, having hypnotizing eyes. However, sometimes Zmey's could be men who would astrally project into the sky when there is a storm to battle the Lamia, a female evil version that wants to destroy the wheat. They were also known as guardians of the territory, and would even protect the people in it. Hostile behaviour was shown if another zmey comes into his territory. They could change their appearance in the form of a smoke, strong spark, fire bird, snake, cloud but almost afterwards he would gain the form of a handsome man and enter the chambers of a young maiden. They fell in love with women who were conceived on the same night as them, or born in the same day as them. He usually guards the girl from a small age and his love lasts forever. Some girls get sick by loving a zmey, and symptoms include paleness, shyness, antisocial behaviour, watery eyes, quietness and hallucinations. They didn't live a long life, because it resulted in suicide. Zmeys would kidnap girls and lead them into their mountain caves where she would serve him.

===Benevolent zmei of the Balkans===

There is a pan-Balkan notion that the ''zmei'' (known by various cognates) is a sort of "guardian-spirit dragon" against the "evil" types of dragon, given below.{{sfnp|Pócs|1989|p=18}}<ref>{{harvp|Plotnikova|2001|p=306}}: Bulgarian lamia is the "enemy of the kind dragon (zmej)", and a list is given of the "corresponding demon, in "other parts of these Balkan Slavic zones". Also Plotnikova (2006), "{{plainlink|https://books.google.com/books?id=KW7IAAAAQBAJ&pg=PA216|Balkan Demon's Protecting Places}}", p. 216.</ref> One explanation is that the Balkan ''zmej'' symbolized the [[patriotism|patriotic]] dragon fighting the Turkish dragon, a way to vent the local population's frustration at not being able to overthrow the long-time [[Ottoman Empire|Turkish rule]].{{sfnp|Kmietowicz|1982|p=208}}

===Zmaj of Serbian fairy tales===
[[File:Herotaleslegends-petrovitch-p222-dragon-of-pavilion.jpg|thumb|Serbian tale "A Pavilion Neither in the Sky nor on the Earth".<!-- captioned "Sitting with the sleeping dragon's head on her knee".--> {{right|{{small|—Painting by William Sewell}}}}]]

The zmaj dragon in Serbian fairy tales nevertheless have sinister roles in a number of instances. In the well-known tale<ref name=bing&harrington/> "A Pavilion Neither in the Sky nor on the Earth" the youngest prince succeeds in killing the dragon (''zmaj'') that guards the three princesses held captive.{{Refn|group="lower-alpha"|This tale was set down in writing by Prince [[Mihailo Obrenović|Michael Obrenović III]] based on a childhood tale he heard, and submitted to the folklore collector Vuk Karadžić<ref>{{citation|editor-last=Karadžić |editor-first=Vuk Stefanović |title=Čardak ni na nebu ni na zemlji |script-title=sr:Чардак ни на небу ни на земљи |work=Srpske narodne pripovijetke Српске народне приповиjетке |year=1870 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=AmlcAAAAcAAJ&pg=PA7 |pages=7–10}} {{wikisourcelang-inline|Srpske narodne pripovijetke|sr|Srpske narodne pripovijetke}}</ref>}}{{sfnp|Petrovitch|1914|pp=220–224}}

[[Vuk Karadžić]]'s collection of folktales have other examples. In "[[The Nine Peahens and the Golden Apples|The Golden Apple-tree and the Nine Peahens]]", the dragon carries away the peahen maiden who is the hero's lover.<ref>{{harvp|Karadžić|1870}}, "Zlatna jabuka i devet paunica Златна јабука и девет пауница", pp. 15–26</ref>{{sfnp|Petrovitch|1914|pp=220–224}} In "[[Baš Čelik]]" the hero must contend with a dragon-king.<ref>{{harvp|Karadžić|1870}}, "Baš Čelik Баш-Челик", pp. 185–205</ref><ref>"Bash Tchelik or Real Steel".</ref>

===Lamia===
The {{interlanguage link|lamia (Slavic folklore){{!}}''lamia''|bg|Ламя}} or ''lamya''<!-- also lam′a--> ({{langx|bg|ламя}}), derived from the Greek [[lamia]],{{sfnp|Kremenliev|1956|p=317}} is also seen as a dragon-like creature in Bulgarian ethnic population, currently inhabiting Bulgaria, with equivalents in Macedonia (''lamja'', ''lamna''; {{lang|mk|[[wikt:ламја|ламја]]}}), and South-East Serbian areas ({{lang|sr|lamnia}}<!--lam′a--> {{lang|sr|ламња}}).{{sfnp|Plotnikova|2001|p=306}}

The Bulgarian lamia is described as reptile- or lizard-like and covered with scales, with 3–9 heads which are like dog's heads with sharp teeth.{{sfnp|MacDermott|1998|p=64}}{{sfnp|Kmietowicz|1982|p=207}} It may also have sharp claws, [[Patagium|webbed wings]], and the scales may be yellow color.{{sfnp|Kmietowicz|1982|p=207}}

The Bulgarian lamia dwells in the bottoms of the seas and lakes, or sometimes mountainous caverns,{{sfnp|Kmietowicz|1982|p=207}} or tree holes{{Efn|To hide from St. Ilya (Elijah)}}<ref>{{harvp|Boyadzhieva|1931|p=31}} Boyadzhieva (1931), cited by {{harvp|Plotnikova|2001|p=306}}</ref> and can stop the supply of water to the human population, demanding [[human sacrifice|sacrificial offerings]] to undo its deed.{{sfnp|Kmietowicz|1982|p=207}}{{sfnp|MacDermott|1998|p=64}} The lamia, bringer of drought, was considered the adversary of St. Ilya ([[Elijah]]) or a benevolent zmei.{{sfnp|MacDermott|1998|p=64}}

In the Bulgarian version of [[Saint George and the Dragon]], the dragon was a ''lamia''.{{sfnp|MacDermott|1998|p=64}} Bulgarian legends tell of how a hero (actually a double of St. George, denoted as "George of the Flowers", ''Cveten Gǝorgi'', {{langx|bg|цветен Гьорги}}<ref name=cigan/>) cuts off the heads of the three- or multi-headed Lamia, and when the hero accomplishes its destruction and sever all its heads, "rivers of fertility" are said to flow.{{sfnp|MacDermott|1998|p=64}}<ref name=oxenford>{{cite journal|last=Oxenford |first=John |author-link=John Oxenford |title=The Bogies of Bulgarian Song |journal=Macmillan's Magazine |volume=XXXIV |year=1876 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ZzcFAAAAQAAJ&pg=PA552 |page=552}}, after [[Auguste Dozon]].</ref><ref name=cigan>{{cite thesis|last=Cigán |first=Ing. Mgr. Michal |title=Anthropological and Philological Analysis of Social and Gender Relations in Indo-European Myths Priest-King of the Warriors and Witch-Queen of the Others |publisher=Masaryk University |year=2016 |url=https://is.muni.cz/th/344582/ff_d/thesis-phd-cigan.txt}}</ref> This song about St. George's fight with the lamia occurs in ritual spiritual verse supposed to be sung around [[St. George's day]].{{Refn|group="lower-alpha"|Marinov's example collected from Veslov was being sung around Christmas but the informant stated that it is supposed be sung on St. George's Day.<ref>{{harvp|Marinov|1981|p=596}}</ref>}}<ref>{{harvp|Marinov|1981|p=596}}<!--cited by {{harvp|Ito|2015|p=271}}--></ref>

One of the versions collected by ethnologist {{interlanguage link|Dimitar Marinov|bg|Димитър Маринов}} begins: "{{lang|bg|Тръгнал ми е цветен Гьорги/Да обиди нивен сънор/На път среща сура ламя..}} (George of the Flowers fared out / Going around his congregation /On the road he met the [[fallow (color)|fallow]] lamia..)".<ref name=marinov-st-george-song-Vlesovo/>{{Efn|The adjective ''sura'' ({{lang|bg|сура}}) has been translated ''fauve'' in French by [[Auguste Dozon]],<ref>{{harvp|Dozon|1873|p=227}}: "''sura lamia'', la fauve lamie".</ref> which is rather vague; Oxenford following Dozon, gave the color of the lamia as "[[fallow (color)|fallow]]".<ref name=oxenford/>}} Another version collected by Marinov substitutes "Yuda-[[Samodiva (mythology)|Samodiva]]" in the place of the lamia.<ref name=cigan/> Three rivers gush out of the dragons head-stumps: typically one of corn, one of red wine, and one of milk and honey. These benefitted the crop-growers, [[vineyard]] growers ([[winemakers]]), and the [[beekeepers]] and shepherds, respectively.<ref name=marinov-st-george-song-Vlesovo/><ref name=oxenford/><ref name=cigan/>
.

===Other evil Balkan dragons===
There is some overlap or conflation of the lamia and the ''hala'' (or ''halla''), although the latter is usually conceived of as a "whirlwind".{{sfnp|Kmietowicz|1982|p=207}}{{sfnp|Georgieva|1985|pp=62–63}} Or it might be described as regional differences. The ''lamia'' in Eastern Bulgaria is the adversary of the benevolent zmei,<ref name="beneovska-Sabkova">Benovska-Sabkhova, Milena<!--Беновска-Събкова, Милена--> (1995) ''Змеят в българския фолклор'' [Serpents in Bulgarian Folklore], pp. 47–50, cited by {{harvp|Plotnikova|2001|p=306}}</ref> and the ''hala'' or ''[[Ala (demon)|ala]]'' takes its place in Western Bulgaria.{{sfnp|Plotnikova|2001|p=306}}{{sfnp|Pócs|1989|p=18}}

This motif of hero against the evil dragon (lamia, ala/hala, or aždaja) is found more generally throughout the [[Balkan Slavs|Balkan Slavic]] region.<ref name=zlatar>{{cite book|last=Zlatar |first=Zdenko |title=The Slavic Epic: Gundulić's Osman |publisher=[[Peter Lang (publisher)|Peter Lang]] |year=1995 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=EpxiAAAAMAAJ&q=Lamija |page=270|isbn=9780820423807 }}</ref> Sometimes this hero is a saint (usually St. George).<ref name=zlatar/> And after the hero severs all its (three) heads, "three rivers of wheat, milk, and wine" flow out of the stumps.<ref name=zlatar/>{{Efn|As "rivers of fertility" flows from the slain dragon in the Bulgarian version, as already noted.}}

===Hala===
{{main|Ala (demon)}}
The demon or creature known as ''hala'' (or [[Ala (demon)|ala]]<!--''aždaja'' below-->), whose name derived from the Greek word for "hail" took the appearance of a dense [[mist]] or [[fog]], or a black cloud.{{sfnp|MacDermott|1998|p=64}}{{sfnp|Kmietowicz|1982|p=207}} Hala was believed to be the cause of strong winds and whirlwind in Eastern Bulgaria,{{sfnp|MacDermott|1998|p=64}} whereas the lamya was blamed as the perpetrator in Southwestern Bulgarian lore.<ref>{{harvp|Plotnikova|2001|p=306}} citing {{harvp|Boyadzhieva|1931|p=213}}</ref> In Western Bulgarian tradition, the ''halla'' itself was regarded as the whirlwind, which guarded clouds and contained the rain,{{sfnp|Georgieva|1985|p=63}} but was also regarded as a type of dragon,{{sfnp|Plotnikova|2001|p=306}}{{sfnp|Pócs|1989|p=18}} alongside the folklore that the ''smok'' (roughly equated with "grass snake" but actually the [[Aesculapian snake]]{{Refn|group="lower-alpha"|''Smok'' was crudely translated as "grass snake" by Zhelyazkova,{{sfnp|Georgieva|1985|p=63}} but grass snake (''[[Natrix]]'' spp.) in Bulgarian is actually ''vodnitsa'' {{lang|bg|водница}}<ref name=manoleva/> or ''vodna zmiya'' {{lang|bg|водна змия}} literally 'water snake'.}}<ref name=manoleva/>) was a crag-dwelling whirlwind.{{sfnp|Georgieva|1985|p=63}}

These ''hala'' were also known in East and Central [[Serbia]].{{sfnp|Plotnikova|2001|p=306}} Similar lore occur in [[Croatia]], [[Bosnia and Herzegovina]], [[Montenegro]].{{citation needed|date=January 2018}}

===Aždaja===
The demon ''hala'' was also called by other names regionally, in some parts of Bulgaria they were known as ''aždarha'' ({{langx|bg|аждарха}}) or ''ažder'' ({{lang|bg|аждер}}), in [[Macedonian language|Macedonian]] as ''aždaja'' or ''ažder'' ({{lang|mk|[[wikt:аждаја|аждаја]], [[wikt:аждер|аждер]]}}), in [[Bosnian language|Bosnian]] and [[Serbian language|Serbian]] as ''aždaja''<!-- or ''aždraja'' (аждраја)--> ({{lang|sr|[[wikt:аждаја|аждаја]]}}).{{Efn|Or ''aždraja'' ({{lang|sr|[[wikt:аждраја|аждраја]]}}).}}{{sfnp|Plotnikova|2001|p=306}}{{sfnp|Pócs|1989|p=18}}

The word ''{{linktext|aždaja}}'' or ''{{linktext|aždaha}}'' is borrowed from [[Persian language|Persian]] ''azdahā'' ({{lang|fa|اژدها}}),<ref>{{cite book|last=Afnan |first=Elham |chapter=Finding Myself: Loanwords as Aids to Identity-Building |title=Identity Issues: Literary and Linguistic Landscapes |publisher=Cambridge Scholars Publishing |year=2010 |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=joonBwAAQBAJ&pg=PA221 |pages=221–222|isbn=9781443825955 }}</ref> and has its origins in the [[Persian mythology|Indo-Iranian mythology]] surrounding the dragon ''[[Azhdaha|azidahā]]''.<ref name=zlatar/> As an example, in some local Serbian icons, [[St. George]] is represented as slaying the aždaja and not a ''zmaj''.<ref>{{harvp|Marjanić|2010}}, p. 132–133, note 16, citing Banović, Stjepan (1918), "Vjerovanja (Zaostrog u Dalmaciji)", ''Zbornik za narodni život i običaje Južnih Slavena'' '''23''', p. 213.</ref>

===Pozoj===
A ''pozoj'' is a dragon of legends in Croatia.{{Refn|group="lower-alpha"|[[Vatroslav Jagić]] for one seemed to equate ''pazoj'' with ''lintvern''.{{sfnp|Marks|1990|p=325}}}} In [[Međimurje County]], the [[Čakovec]] ''pozoj'' was said to dwell beneath the city, with its head under the church and tail under the town square, or vice versa, and it could only be gotten rid of by a ''grabancijaš'' (a "wandering scholar", glossed as a "[[black magic|black [magic]]] student").{{sfnp|Marjanić|2010|p=130}}

The ''pozoj'' is also known in [[Slovenia]], and according to legend there is one living underneath [[Zagreb]], causing an earthquake whenever it shrugs.{{sfnp|Marks|1990|p=332}} Poet {{interlanguage link|Matija Valjavec|sl}} (1866) has published some tales concerning the pozoj in the ''[[Slovenski glasnik]]'' magazine, which also connected the creature to the ''črne škole dijak'' ("black school student"),<ref>"XI. Pozoj" in: {{citation|last=Valjavec |first=Matija |title=Národne stvarí priče , navade, stare vere |journal=Slovenski glasnik |volume=12 <!--Dvanajsti zvezek--> |year=1866 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ngULAQAAMAAJ |pages=309–310}}, "five legends" according to {{harvp|Marks|1990|p=325}}'s count.</ref> which other Slovene sources call ''črnošolec'' ("sorcerer's apprentice"),{{sfnp|Kropej|2012|p=111}} and which some equate with a ''grabancijaš dijak''<ref>Grafenauer, Ivan (1956), p. 324, cited by {{harvp|Kropej|2012|p=111}}</ref>

Dragons in Slovenia are generally negative in nature, and usually appear in relation with [[St. George]].<ref>{{Cite web|date=2015-01-15|title=The Legend of the Ljubljana Dragon|url=http://www.ljubljana-slovenia.com/legend-ljubljana-dragon|access-date=2021-11-09|website=Ljubljana|language=en-US}}</ref> The Slovene god-hero [[Kresnik (deity)|Kresnik]] is known as a [[dragonslayer]].<ref name=copeland/>

==Representations==
[[File:Coat of Arms of Moscow.svg|right|thumb|upright|[[Coat of arms of Moscow]]|120px]]

There are natural and man-made structures that have dragon lore attached to them. There are also representations in sculpture and painting. In [[iconography]], [[Saint George and the Dragon]] is prominent in Slavic areas. The dragon is a common motif in [[heraldry]], and the [[coat of arms]] of a number of cities or families depict dragons.

The [[Dragon Bridge (Ljubljana)|Dragon Bridge]] ({{langx|sl|Zmajski most}}) in [[Ljubljana]], [[Slovenia]] depicts dragons associated with the city or said to be the city's guardians,<ref>{{Cite web|date=2016-09-17|title=Slovenia's Ljubljana Dragon - Where Dragons are Part of History|url=https://decideyouradventure.com/ljubljana-dragons-part-history/|access-date=2021-11-09|website=Decide Your Adventure|language=en-US}}</ref> and the city's coat of arms features a dragon (representing the one slain by Kresnik).<ref name=copeland/>

The [[coat of arms of Moscow]] also depicts a [[St George]] (symbolizing [[Christianity]]) killing the Dragon (symbolizing the [[Golden Horde]]).<ref>Soboleva, N. A.<!--Н.А.Соболевой--> (1998), Yu.A. Polyakova (preface), ''{{plain link|name=Гербы городов России |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=uFVmAAAAMAAJ}}'', [''Coats of arms of Russian cities''], Moscow, Profizdat, p. 70. {{ISBN|9785255013319}}.</ref><ref>Soboleva, N. A.<!--Н.А.Соболевой--> (2002), ''{{plain link|name=Российская государственная символика: история и современность|url=https://books.google.com/books?isbn=5691009907}}'' [''Russian State Symbols: History and Modernity''], Moscow, Vlados<!--ВЛАДОС-->, p. 43. {{ISBN|9785691009907}}.</ref>{{Request quotation|date=January 2018}}

Some prehistoric structures, notably the [[Serpent's Wall]] near [[Kyiv]], have been associated with dragons as symbols of foreign peoples.{{citation needed|date=October 2016}}

===In popular culture===
* ''[[Ilya Muromets (film)|Ilya Muromets]]'' (1956 film), Zmey Gorynych, or as 'Zuma the Fire Dragon' in the English version. 
* {{interlanguage link|Dobrynya Nikitich (Soyuzmultfilm){{!}}''Dobrynya Nikitich&''|ru|Добрыня Никитич (мультфильм)}} (1965 animation, [[Soyuzmultfilm]])
* {{interlanguage link|Čardak ni na nebu ni na zemlji (animation){{!}}''Čardak ni na nebu ni na zemlji''|sr|Чардак ни на небу ни на земљи}} ("A Pavilion Neither in the Sky nor on the Earth", 1978 animation)

==See also==
[[Image:Blason ville si Ljubljana (Slovénie).svg|thumb|upright|Coats of arms of [[Ljubljana]]|120px]]
* [[Chuvash dragon]]
* [[Smok Wawelski]] – dragon of [[Kraków]]
* [[Krepel (mythology)|Krepel]] – dragon of [[Bytom]]
* [[Zahhak]] (or ''Aži Dahāka'') – Iranian dragon
* [[žaltys]]
* [[zduhać]]
* [[Zilant]] – dragon of [[Kazan]]
* [[Zirnitra]] – Wendish dragon and god of sorcery
* [[Dobrynya Nikitich and Zmey Gorynych]] (2006 animated feature film)
* [[Mavrud]] wine - story of a lion or lamya defeated by hero
* Coats of arms of [[Ljubljana]]
* [[Serpent's Wall]], according to a legend, plowed by a dragon

==Explanatory notes==
{{notelist}}

==References==
=== Citations ===
{{reflist|30em|refs=
<ref name=1911-russlit>{{Cite EB1911|author=W. R. M. |author-link=William Richard Morfill |wstitle=Russian Literature|volume=23 |pages=914-915}}</ref>

<ref name=bing&harrington>{{citation|last1=Bing |first1=Judith |last2=Harrington |first2=J. Brooke |title=A Study of Words and Buildings: The Čardaks of Former Yugoslavia |editor-last=Cornwell |editor-first=Neil |editor-link=<!--Neil Cornwell--> |work=Architectural Elements of Traditional Settlements |publisher=International Association for the Study of Traditional Environments |year=1996 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=FbdQAQAAMAAJ&q=dragons |page=38}}</ref>

<ref name=burya-bogatyr-ru>{{Wikisourcelang-inline|ru|Народные русские сказки (Афанасьев)/Буря-богатырь Иван коровий сын|Буря-богатырь Иван коровий сын}}</ref>
<ref name=burya-bogatyr-levchin>{{cite book|last=Levchin |first=Sergei |chapter=Blast Bogatyr Ivan the Cow's Son |title=Russian Folktales from the Collection of A. Afanasyev: A Dual-Language Book |location=Mineola, New York |publisher=Dover |year=2014 |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=7XhpAwAAQBAJ&pg=PA153 |pages=153–|isbn=9780486782980 }}</ref>
<ref name=burya-bogatyr-haney>"{{plainlink|name=#136. Storm-Bogatyr, Ivan the Cow's Son |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=IQQbBwAAQBAJ&pg=PT401}}", {{harvp|Afanas'ev|Haney|2015}}.</ref>

<ref name=copeland>{{cite journal|last=Copeland |first=Fanny S. |author-link=<!--Fanny S. Copeland--> |title=Slovene Myths |journal=The Slavonic and East European Review |volume=11 |number=33 |date=April 1933|pages=637–638, 645, 646}}</ref>

<ref name=florescu>{{cite book|last1=Florescu |first1=Radu R |author-link=Radu Florescu |last2=McNally |first2=Raymond T. |title=Dracula, Prince of Many Faces: His Life and His Times |publisher=Little, Brown |year=2009|isbn=9780316092265 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Zot08bJa3FAC&pg=PT217 |quote=''Ismeju'' [the correct Romanian spelling is ''Zmeu'', another word for dragon}} {{isbn|9-780-3160-9226-5}}</ref>

<ref name=ivan-bykovich-ru>{{Wikisourcelang-inline|ru|Народные русские сказки (Афанасьев)/Иван Быкович|Иван Быкович}}</ref>
<ref name=ivan-bykovich-haney>{{cite book|ref={{SfnRef|Afanas'ev|Haney|2015}}|last=Haney |first=Jack V. |chapter=Ivan, the Bull's Son |title=The Complete Folktales of A. N. Afanas'ev |volume=1 |publisher=Univ. Press of Mississippi |year=2015 |isbn=9781626743151 |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=IQQbBwAAQBAJ&pg=PT415}}</ref>

<ref name="levkievskaya1999-demonological">Levkievskaya (1999) "{{URL|1=https://books.google.com/books?id=VYw-AQAAIAAJ&q="вид змея" |2="''Demonologiya narodnaya''" Демонология народная}} [[Demonological folklore]], ''Slavyanskiye drevnosti'' '''2''':</ref>

<ref name=manoleva>{{cite journal|last=Manoleva |first=A. |author-link=<!--Августа Манолева--> |title=Naimenovaniya na zmeyata i vilovete zmii v selo Korten, Novozagorsko |script-title=bg:Наименования на змнята и виловете змии Новозагорско в с[ело] Кортен, Новозагорско |trans-title=Snake names and snake jokes in the village of Korten, Nova Zagora |script-journal=bg:Български език |volume=37 |year=1981 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=H75gAAAAMAAJ |pages=312–314 |language=bg}}</ref>

<ref name=marinov-st-george-song-Vlesovo>{{harvp|Marinov|1981}} ''Narodna vyara i religiozni narodni obichai]'', p. 596 Song collected from Vlesovo near [[Burgas]].<!--cited by {{harvp|Ito|2015|p=271}}--></ref>

<ref name=mccullough>{{cite book|last=McCullough |first=Joseph A. |title=Dragonslayers: From Beowulf to St. George |publisher=Osprey Publishing |year=2013|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=NKedCwAAQBAJ&pg=PA67 |page=67|isbn=9781472801029 }}</ref>

<ref name="paliga&teodor2009">"{{cite book|last1=Paliga |first1=Sorin |author1-link=Sorin Paliga |last2=Teodor |first2=Eugen S. |author2-link=<!--Eugen S. Teodor--> |title=Lingvistica şi arheologia slavilor timpurii: o altă vedere de la Dunărea de Jos |location=Târgovişte |publisher=Editura Cetatea de Scaun |date=2009 |url=https://www.academia.edu/356240 |page=229 |isbn=<!--6065370045, -->9786065370043 |language=ro}}</ref>

<ref name="sedakova1999-zmei-letayushchiy">{{cite encyclopedia|last=Sedakova |first=I.A. |author-link=:ru:Седакова, Ирина Александровна |entry=Zmei letayushchiy |script-entry=ru:Змей летающий |editor-last=Tolstoy |editor-first=Nikita Ilyich |editor-link=:ru:Толстой, Никита Ильич |title=Slavyanskiye drevnosti: Etnolingvisticheskiy slovar |script-title=ru:Славянские древности: Этнолингвистический словарь |trans-title=Slavic Antiquities: Ethnolinguistic Dictionary |volume=2 |location=Moscow |publisher=Mezhdunarodnyye otnosheniya<!--Международные отношения--> |date=1999 |entry-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=VYw-AQAAIAAJ&q=змей+летающий |pages=330–331 |isbn=5-7133-0982-7}}<!-- alt URL: https://books.google.com/books?id=y4IdAQAAMAAJ --></ref>

<ref name=wigzell>{{citation|last=Wigzell |first=Faith |title=Folklore and Russian Literature |editor-last=Cornwell |editor-first=Neil |editor-link=<!--Neil Cornwell--> |work=The Routledge Companion to Russian Literature |publisher=Routledge |year=2002 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=SKhZAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA37 |pages=3738}} {{isbn|9-781-1345-6907-6}}</ref>

}}

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* {{cite journal|last=Boyadzhieva |first=Yordanka |author-link=<!--Бояджиева, Йорданка--> |title=Kyustendilskite polchani i tekhniyat govor |script-title=bg:Кюстендилските полчани и техният говор |trans-title=Kyustendil citizens and their speech |script-journal=bg:ИССФ (Известия на Семинара по славянска филология) |volume=7 |year=1931 |language=bg}}
*{{cite book |last=Dixon-Kennedy |first=Mike |title=Encyclopedia of Russian and Slavic Myth and Legend |date=1998 |publisher=ABC-CLIO |location=Santa Barbara, California |isbn=9781576070635 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=eD5AkdM83iIC }}
* {{cite journal|last=Dozon |first=Auguste |author-link=Auguste Dozon |title=Deuxième rapport sur une mission littéraire en Macédonie |journal=Archives des missions scientifiques et littéraires |series=3e serie |volume=1 |year=1873 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=q_A0AQAAMAAJ&pg=PA227 |pages=193–246|language=fr}}
*{{cite book|last=Georgieva |first=Ivanička |author-link=:bg:Иваничка Георгиева |translator=Vessela Zhelyazkova |title=Bulgarian Mythology |publisher=Svyat Publishers |year=1985 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Pc4oAAAAYAAJ&q=halla }} [Translation of {{harvp|Georgieva|1983}}]
**{{cite book|last=Georgieva |first=I. |title=Bŭlgarska narodna mitologiya |script-title=bg:Българска народна митология |year=1983 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=RVAcAAAAMAAJ&q=%D0%A5%D0%B0%D0%BB%D0%B0 |language=bg}}
*{{cite book|last1=Kmietowicz |first1=Frank A. |title=Slavic Mythical Beliefs |place=Windsor, Ontario |publisher=F. Kmietowicz |year=1982 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=uBkRAQAAIAAJ |pages=206–209}}
*{{citation|last=Kremenliev |first=Boris |title=Some Social Aspects of Bulgarian Folksongs |journal=The Journal of American Folklore, Slavic Folklore: A Symposium |volume=69 |number=273 |year=1956 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=hUETAAAAIAAJ&q=Zmei |pages=310–319}}. {{JSTOR|537147}}
*{{citation|last=Kropej |first=Monika |author-link=:sl:Monika Kropej |title=Some Social Aspects of Bulgarian Folksongs |journal=The Journal of American Folklore, Slavic Folklore: A Symposium |publisher=Založba ZRC |year=2012 |url=https://www.academia.edu/7119416 |pages=108–}}
*{{citation|last=Marks |first=Ljiljana |title=Legends about the ''Grabancijaš Dijak'' in the 19th Century and in Contemporary Writings |journal=Acta Ethnographica Hungarica |volume=54 |number=2 |year=1990 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=SkwqAQAAIAAJ&q=%22solomonar%22 |pages=319–336|doi=10.1556/AEthn.54.2009.2.5 |url-access=subscription }}
*{{cite book|last=MacDermott |first=Mercia |title=Bulgarian Folk Customs |publisher=Jessica Kingsley Publishers |year=1998 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=gh4IE6toGJMC&pg=PA64 |pages=64–66 |isbn=978-1-8530-2485-6}}
*{{cite journal|last1=Marjanić |first1=Suzana |title=Dragon and Hero, or How to Kill a Dragon –on the Example of the Legends of Međimurjeabout the Grabancijaš and the Dragon |journal=[[Studia mythologica Slavica]] |year=2010 |volume=13 |url=http://sms.zrc-sazu.si/pdf/13/SMS_13_09_Marjanic.pdf |page=270|doi=10.3986/sms.v13i0.1644 |doi-access=free }}
* {{cite book|last=Marinov |first=Dimitar |author-link=:bg:Димитър Маринов |others=Veleva, Maria G. |title=Narodna vyara i religiozni narodni obichai |script-title=bg:Народна вяра и религиозни народни обичаи |trans-title=Folk Beliefs and Religious Folk Customs |place=Sophia |publisher=Nauka i izkustvo |year=1981 |orig-year=1914 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=oEoeAAAAMAAJ&q=%D0%BB%D0%B0%D0%BC%D1%8F|language=bg}}
*{{citation|ref={{SfnRef|Petrovitch|1914}}|last=Petrovitch |first=Woislav M.  |others=William Sewell; Gilbert James (illustrators) |title=Hero tales and legends of the Serbians |publisher=George G. Harrap |orig-year=1914 |year=1921|url=https://archive.org/stream/herotaleslegends00petr#page/n7/mode/2up }}
*{{citation|last=Plotnikova |first=Anna |title=Ethnolinguistic phenomena in Boundary Balkan Slavic areas |journal=Славянская диалектная лексика и лингвогеография |volume=7 |year=2001 |url=http://inslav.ru/images/stories/pdf/ISD-07-2001.pdf |pages=301–308}}<!--[https://books.google.com/books?id=uW8XAQAAIAAJ] -->
*{{cite book|last=Pócs |first=Éva |author-link=Éva Pócs |title=Fairies and Witches at the Boundary of South-Eastern and Central Europe |series=FF Communications 243|year=1989|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=jEyBAAAAMAAJ&q=azdaha |pages=18, 33|isbn=9789514105975 }}
*{{cite book|last=Ralston |first=William Ralston Shedden |author-link=William Ralston Shedden-Ralston |title=Russian Folk-tales |location=New York |publisher=R. Worthington |year=1880  |isbn=9780608322001 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=LTMYAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA83}}
*{{cite book|last=Slaveykov |first=Racho  |author-link=:bg:Рачо Славейков |translator-last=Cheshmedzhieva-Stoycheva |translator-first=Desislava  |translator-link=<!--Desislava Cheshmedzhieva-Stoycheva--> |title=Bulgarian Folk Traditions and Beliefs |publisher=BookBaby |year=2014 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=4jdeDQAAQBAJ |isbn=978-9548898508}} [Translation of {{harvp|Slaveykov|2005}}]
**{{cite book|last=Slaveykov |first=Racho  |author-link=:bg:Рачо Славейков |title=Bŭlgarski narodni obichai i vyarvaniya |script-title=bg:Български народни обичаи и вярвания |publisher=Sirius |year=2005 |isbn=9789548582254 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=OQ7aAAAAMAAJ }}
*{{cite book|last=Warner |first=Elizabeth |title=Russian Myths|location=Armonk, New York |publisher=University of Texas Press  |year=2002 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=_PoesCeU0iUC&pg=PA67 |isbn=978-0-2927-9158-9 }}

{{refend}}

==Further reading==
* Baeva, Virha. "[https://www.ceeol.com/search/article-detail?id=376550 Loved by a Dragon: Topoi and Idiosyncrasies in Oral Narratives from Bulgaria]". In: ''Études balkaniques'' 1 (2016): 128-150.
*"Zmeys and Zmeyitsas (Bulgarian)". In: Sherman, Josepha (2008). ''Storytelling: An Encyclopedia of Mythology and Folklore''. Sharpe Reference. p.&nbsp;522. {{ISBN|978-0-7656-8047-1}}

{{Slavic mythology}}

[[Category:Slavic legendary creatures|Dragons]]
[[Category:Bulgarian folklore]]
[[Category:Russian mythology]]
[[Category:European dragons]]
[[Category:Characters in bylinas]]
[[Category:Slovene mythology]]
[[Category:Mythical many-headed creatures]]
[[Category:Ukrainian folklore]]
[[Category:North Macedonia folklore]]