View source for Leonese language

{{Short description|Set of certain vernacular Romance dialects}}
{{About|the dialects in León, Zamora, and Salamanca provinces|the wider linguistic area|Asturleonese language}}
{{More citations needed|date=January 2016}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=October 2022}}
{{Use British English|date=January 2017}}
{{Infobox language
| name             = Leonese
| ethnicity        = [[Leonese people|Leonese]]
| nativename       = {{lang|ast-ES|Llionés, Ḷḷionés, Lionés}}
| states           = [[Spain]], [[Portugal]]
| region           = Provinces of [[Province of León|León]] (north and west), [[Province of Zamora|Zamora]] (north-west) in [[Castile and León|Castilla y León]], in [[Spain]],<ref>{{cite conference |url=https://diarium.usal.es/joluin/files/2013/12/leonessalamanca.pdf |title=El leonés en Salamanca cien años después |first=José Luis |last=Herrero Ingelmo |date=March 2006 |conference=Ramón Menéndez Pidal y ''El dialecto leonés'' |editor1-first=José Ramón |editor1-last=Morala Rodríguez |book-title=Ramón Menéndez Pidal y ''El dialecto leonés'' (1906–2006) |publisher=Instituto Castellano y Leonés de la Lengua |location=León, Spain |pages=207–235 |isbn=978-84-935774-5-2 |language=es |trans-title=Ramón Menéndez Pidal and ''The Leonese dialect'' |series=Beltenebros}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Llorente Maldonado de Guevara |first1=Antonio |editor1-last=Alvar López |editor1-first=Manuel |editor1-link=Manuel Alvar |title=Lenguas peninsulares y proyección hispánica |date=1986 |publisher=[[Friedrich Ebert Foundation|Fundación Friedrich Ebert]]; Instituto de Cooperación Iberoamericana |location=Madrid |isbn=9788439872092 |pages=107–131 |language=es |chapter=Las hablas vivas de Zamora y Salamanca en la actualidad}}</ref><ref name="BorregoNietoManual">{{cite book |last1=Borrego Nieto |first1=Julio |editor1-last=Alvar López |editor1-first=Manuel |title=Manual de dialectología hispánica: el español de España |date=1996 |publisher=Editorial Ariel |location=Barcelona, Spain |isbn=978-84-344-8217-3 |pages=139–158 |chapter=Leonés}}</ref> and the parishes of Riudenor (Rio de Onor) and Deilon (Deilão) in northeastern Portugal.{{sfn|Menéndez Pidal|1906}}<ref>{{cite conference |author1-last=Segura da Cruz |author1-first=Luísa |author2-last=Saramago |author2-first=João |author3-last=Vitorino |author3-first=Gabriela |title=Os dialectos leoneses em território português: coesão e diversidade |book-title=Variação Linguística no Espaço, no Tempo e na Sociedade |publisher=Associação Portuguesa de Linguística |location=Miranda do Douro |pages=281–293 |date=September 1993 |conference=Encontro Regional da Associação Portuguesa de Linguística}}</ref>
| speakers         = 20,000–50,000
| ref              = {{sfn|González Riaño|García Arias|2008}}<ref name=RSP>{{cite book |last=Sánchez Prieto |first=Raúl |date=2008 |chapter=La elaboración y aceptación de una norma lingüística en comunidades dialectalmente divididas: el caso del leonés y del frisio del norte |editor1-last=Sánchez Prieto |editor1-first=Raúl |editor2-last=Veith |editor2-first=Daniel |editor3-last=Martínez Areta |editor3-first=Mikel |title=Mikroglottika Yearbook 2008 |publisher=Peter Lang |hdl=10366/19373 |isbn=978-3-631-58027-1 |language=es |volume=1 |chapter-url=https://gredos.usal.es/bitstream/handle/10366/19373/DFM_elaboracionaceptacion.pdf |pages=145–153}}</ref>
| date             = 2008
| familycolor      = Indo-European
| fam2             = [[Italic languages|Italic]]
| fam3             = [[Latino-Faliscan languages|Latino-Faliscan]]
| fam4             = [[Latin]]
| fam5             = [[Romance languages|Romance]]
| fam6             = [[Italo-Western languages|Italo-Western]]
| fam7             = [[Western Romance languages|Western]]
| fam8             = [[Ibero-Romance languages|Ibero-Romance]]
| fam9             = [[West Iberian languages|West Iberian]]
| fam10            = [[Asturleonese language|Asturleonese]]
| nation           = As of 2010, has special status in the [[Spain|Spanish]] [[autonomous community of Spain|autonomous community]] of [[Castile and León]]
| ancestor         = [[Old Latin]]
| ancestor2        = [[Vulgar Latin]]
| ancestor3        = [[Proto-Romance language|Proto-Romance]]
| ancestor4        = [[Old Leonese language|Old Leonese]]
| dia1             = [[Bercian dialect|Bercian]]
| dia2             = [[Paḷḷuezu dialect|Palluezu]]
| isoexception     = dialect
| glotto           = leon1250
| glottorefname    = Leonese
| lingua           = 51-AAA-cc
| notice           = IPA
| iso2             = ast
| iso3             = ast
| ietf             = ast-u-sd-escl
| map              = Lang Status 60-DE.svg
| mapcaption       = {{center|Astur-Leonese is classified as Definitely Endangered by the [[UNESCO]] ''[[Atlas of the World's Languages in Danger]]''}}
| dia3             = [[Riunorese Leonese|Riunorese]]
}}

'''Leonese''' (''llionés, ḷḷionés, lionés'') is a set of vernacular [[Romance languages|Romance language varieties]] spoken in northern and western portions of the [[historical region]] of [[León (historical region)|León]] in [[Spain]] (the modern provinces of [[Province of León|León]], [[Province of Zamora|Zamora]], and [[Province of Salamanca|Salamanca]]), the village of Riudenore (in both [[Spain]] and [[Portugal]]) and Guadramil in [[Portugal]], sometimes considered another language.  In the past, it was spoken in a wider area, including most of the historical region of Leon. The current number of Leonese speakers is estimated at 20,000 to 50,000.{{sfn|González Riaño|García Arias|2008}}<ref name=RSP />{{sfn|García Gil|2008|p=12}} [[Spanish language|Spanish]] is now the predominant language in the area.

Leonese forms part of the [[Asturleonese language|Asturleonese]] linguistic group along with dialects of [[Asturian language|Asturian]]. The division between Asturian and Leonese is extra-linguistic, as the main divisions within the Asturleonese complex are between eastern and western varieties, rather than between varieties spoken in [[Asturias]] and Leon.

== Name ==
Menéndez Pidal used "Leonese" for the entire linguistic area, including Asturias. This designation has been replaced by Ibero-Romance scholars with "Asturian-Leonese", but "Leonese" is still often used to denote Asturian-Leonese by non-speakers of Asturian or Mirandese.{{sfn|Menéndez Pidal|1906}}{{sfn|Morala Rodríguez|2009}} Sometimes the language as a whole is simply called "Asturian" for several reasons, such as the Leonese dialects being on the brink of extinction, or the widespread ignorance of its very existence (even in León), as well as their lack of recognition and institutional support (as opposed to their Asturias counterparts).

== Leonese and Asturleonese ==
In a narrow geographical sense, Leonese is distinct from the dialects grouped under the [[Asturian language]].<ref name="Krüger, Fritz 2006">{{cite book |last=Krüger |first=Fritz |date=2006 |title=Estudio fonético-histórico de los dialectos españoles occidentales |location=Zamora, Spain |publisher=Instituto de Estudios Zamoranos "Florián de Ocampo" |isbn=84-96100-13-8 |page=13 |translator1-first=M.ª Teresa |translator1-last=Sánchez Nieto |translator2-first=María |translator2-last=González Martínez |orig-date=1914 |language=es |editor-first=Juan Carlos |editor-last=González Ferrero}}</ref> However, the division between Leonese and Asturian is due to the distinctly different identities of both areas, separated by a mighty mountain range, while the dialects have enough common traits to consider them part of a single language, [[Astur-Leonese languages|Astur-Leonese]] or Asturian-Leonese.<ref name="Agard" /> The principle [[Isogloss|isoglosses]] in this region do not divide Asturias and Leon, dialectal areas (western, central, eastern) are in fact shaped along a north-south axis (thus encompassing lands both north and south of the [[Cantabrian Mountains|mountains]], both in [[Asturias]] and in [[Castile and León]]).<ref name="Agard" /> In the west of Asturias and Leon, dialects of Asturo-Leonese begin to [[dialect continuum|transition]] into the closely related [[Galician language]], with the westernmost variants effectively constituting dialects of Galician.<ref name="Agard">{{cite book |last1=Agard |first1=Frederick B. |editor1-last=Garza Cuarón |editor1-first=Beatriz |editor2-last=Levy Podolsky |editor2-first=Paulette |title=Homenaje a Jorge A. Suárez: lingüística indoamericana e hispánica |date=1990 |publisher=El Colegio de México |url=https://muse.jhu.edu/pub/320/edited_volume/chapter/2581039#ch04.ftn.001 |access-date=10 May 2024 |chapter=The Place Of Aragonese And Asturo-leonese In Iberian Romance|pages=69–84 }}</ref>  

On the other hand, [[Ramón Menéndez Pidal|Menéndez Pidal]] and fellow scholars{{sfn|García Gil|2008|p=10}} discussed a "Leonese language" descending from [[Latin language|Latin]] and encompassing two groups: the Asturian dialects on one hand, and dialects spoken in the provinces of León and Zamora in Spain and a related dialect in [[Trás-os-Montes e Alto Douro Province|Trás-os-Montes]] ([[Portugal]]), on the other hand.<ref name="Krüger, Fritz 2006" /><ref>{{cite book |author1-first=Ángel |author1-last=Marcos de Dios |author2-first=Pedro |author2-last=Serra |date=1999 |title=Historia de la literatura portuguesa |language=es |location=Salamanca, Spain |publisher=Luso-Española de Ediciones |page=9 |isbn=84-930359-4-7}}</ref>{{sfn|Menéndez Pidal|1906}}

The Asturleonese dialect (considered part of the Leonese dialects) of [[Miranda do Douro]] ([[Portugal]]), '''[[Mirandese language|Mirandese]]''', is most certainly a dialect on its own, considering the numerous differences it has when compared to dialects in the Spanish side. In fact, it is often considered as a separate language, especially in [[Portugal]], where it has been granted official recognition,<ref>{{Citation |url=https://diariodarepublica.pt/dr/detalhe/lei/7-1999-182838 |title=Lei n.º 7/99, de 29 de Janeiro |via=diariodarepublica.pt |language=pt}}</ref> and is regulated by the [[Anstituto de la Lhéngua Mirandesa|Institute of the Mirandese Language]]. Thus, Asturleonese is sometimes considered a group of two languages, '''Asturian''' or '''Asturleonese ''proper''''', and '''Mirandese'''.

Unlike [[Asturian language|Asturian]], which is regulated by the [[Academy of the Asturian Language]] (ALLA) and promoted by the [[Council of Government of the Principality of Asturias|Asturian Government]] and local legislation, the Leonese dialects are not officially promoted or regulated.

== Linguistic description ==
=== {{anchor|Phonology|Writing|Sample texts|Historical changes}}Phonology ===
{| class="wikitable"
|+Leonese consonants
! colspan="2" |
![[Labial consonant|Labial]]
![[Dental consonant|Dental]]
![[Alveolar consonant|Alveolar]]
![[Palatal consonant|Palatal]]
![[Velar consonant|Velar]]
|-
|- style="text-align: center;"
! colspan="2" |[[Nasal consonant|Nasal]]
|{{IPA link|m}}
|
|{{IPA link|n}}
|{{IPA link|ɲ}}
|
|-
|- style="text-align: center;"
! rowspan="2" |[[Plosive]]
! style="text-align: left; font-size: 80%;" | [[Voiceless consonant|voiceless]]
|{{IPA link|p}}
|{{IPA link|t̪|t}}
|
|{{IPA link|tʃ}}
|{{IPA link|k}}
|-
|- style="text-align: center;"
! style="text-align: left; font-size: 80%;" | [[Voiced consonant|voiced]]
|{{IPA link|b}}
|{{IPA link|d̪|d}}
|
|{{IPA link|ʝ}}~{{IPA link|j}}
|{{IPA link|g}}
|-
|- style="text-align: center;"
! colspan="2" |[[Fricative]]
|{{IPA link|f}}
|{{IPA link|θ}}
|{{IPA link|s}}
|{{IPA link|ɕ|ʃ}}
|
|-
|- style="text-align: center;"
! colspan="2" |[[Lateral consonant|Lateral]]
|
|
|{{IPA link|l}}
|{{IPA link|ʎ}}
|
|-
|- style="text-align: center;"
! colspan="2" |[[Tap and flap consonants|Flap]]
|
|
|{{IPA link|ɾ}}
|
|
|-
|- style="text-align: center;"
! colspan="2" |[[Trill consonant|Trill]]
|
|
|{{IPA link|r}}
|
|
|}
{| class="wikitable"
|+Leonese vowels
!
! [[Front vowel|Front]]
! [[Central vowel|Central]]
! [[Back vowel|Back]]
|- style="text-align: center;"
! [[Close vowel|Close]]
| {{IPA link|i}} || || {{IPA link|u}}
|- style="text-align: center;"
! [[Mid vowel|Mid]]
| {{IPA link|e̞|e}} || || {{IPA link|o̞|o}}
|- style="text-align: center;"
! [[Open vowel|Open]]
| || {{IPA link|ä|a}} ||
|}
In Leonese, any of five [[vowel]] phonemes, {{IPA|/a, e, i, o, u/}}, may occur in stressed position. In the unstressed positions, the distinction between close and mid vowels is neutralized in favor of the [[archiphoneme]]s {{IPA|/ɪ/}} and {{IPA|/ʊ/}}.{{sfn|Pardo Fernández|2008}}

=== Grammar ===
Leonese has two [[grammatical gender|genders]] (masculine and feminine) and two [[grammatical number|numbers]] (singular and [[plural]]). The main masculine noun and adjective endings are {{lang|ast|-u}} for singular and {{lang|ast|-os}} for plural. Typical feminine endings are {{lang|ast|-a}} for singular and {{lang|ast|-as}} for plural. Masculine and feminine nouns ending in {{lang|ast|-e}} in the singular take {{lang|ast|-es}} for the plural.

==== Adjectives ====
Adjectives [[agreement (linguistics)|agree]] with nouns in number and gender.

=== {{anchor|Comparative tables}}Comparative table ===
{| class="wikitable" style="margin:1em auto"
|+ Evolution from Latin to Portuguese, Galician, Astur and Leonese, Mirandese and Castilian
|-
! rowspan=2 | Gloss
! [[Latin]]
! [[Portuguese language|Portuguese]]
! [[Galician language|Galician]]
! [[Astur-Leonese languages|Asturian/Leonese]]
![[Mirandese language|Mirandese]]
! [[Spanish language|Spanish]]
|-
! colspan="6" style="text-align:center" | Diphthongization of ŏ and ĕ
|-
| door
| {{lang|la|pŏrta(m)}}
| {{lang|pt|porta}}
| {{lang|gl|porta}}
| {{lang|ast|p'''ue'''rta}}
|''p'''uo'''rta''
| {{lang|es|p'''ue'''rta}}
|-
| eye
| {{lang|la|ŏc(u)lu(m)}}
| {{lang|pt|olho}}
| {{lang|gl|ollo}}
| {{lang|ast|g'''üe'''yu}}<br />{{lang|ast|g'''üe'''chu}}
|'''''uo'''lho''
| {{lang|es|ojo}}
|-
| time
| {{lang|la|tĕmpu(m)}}
| {{lang|pt|tempo}}
| {{lang|gl|tempo}}
| {{lang|ast|t'''ie'''mpu}}
|''t'''ie'''mpo''
| {{lang|es|t'''ie'''mpo}}
|-
| land
| {{lang|la|tĕrra(m)}}
| {{lang|pt|terra}}
| {{lang|gl|terra}}
| {{lang|ast|t'''ie'''rra}}
|''t'''ie'''rra''
| {{lang|es|t'''ie'''rra}}
|-
!
! colspan="6" style="text-align:center" | Falling diphthongs
|-
| thing
| {{lang|la|causa(m)}}
| {{lang|pt|cousa}}<br />{{lang|pt|c<u>oi</u>sa}}
| {{lang|gl|cousa}}
| {{lang|ast|c'''o'''(u)sa}}
|''c'''ou'''sa''
| {{lang|es|c'''o'''sa}}
|-
| blacksmith
| {{lang|la|ferrariu(m)}}
| {{lang|pt|ferreiro}}
| {{lang|gl|ferreiro}}
| {{lang|ast|ferr'''e'''(i)ru}}
|''ferr'''ei'''ro''
| {{lang|es|herr'''e'''ro}}
|-
!
! colspan="6" style="text-align:center" | Initial n-
|-
| Christmas
| {{lang|la|natal(is)}}<br />{{lang|la|nativitate(m)}}
| {{lang|pt|natal}}
| {{lang|gl|nadal}}
| {{lang|ast|'''ñ'''avidá}}
|''natal''
| {{lang|es|navidad}}
|-
!
! colspan="6" style="text-align:center" | Initial f-
|-
| make
| {{lang|la|facere}}
| {{lang|pt|fazer}}
| {{lang|gl|facer}}
| {{lang|ast|facer}}
|''fazer''
| {{lang|es|'''h'''acer}}
|-
| iron
| {{lang|la|fĕrru(m)}}
| {{lang|pt|ferro}}
| {{lang|gl|ferro}}
| {{lang|ast|fierru}}
|''fierro''
| {{lang|es|'''h'''ierro}}
|-
!
! colspan="6" style="text-align:center" | Initial l-
|-
| fireplace
| {{lang|la|lare(m)}}
| {{lang|pt|lar}}
| {{lang|gl|lar}}
| {{lang|ast|'''ll'''ar}}<br />{{lang|ast|'''ḷḷ'''ar}}
|'''''lh'''ar''
| {{lang|es|lar}}
|-
| wolf
| {{lang|la|lupu(m)}}
| {{lang|pt|lobo}}
| {{lang|gl|lobo}}
| {{lang|ast|'''ll'''obu}}<br />{{lang|ast|'''ḷḷ'''obu}}
|'''''lh'''obo''
| {{lang|es|lobo}}
|-
!
! colspan="6" style="text-align:center" | Initial pl-, cl-, fl-
|-
| flat
| {{lang|la|planu(m)}}
| {{lang|pt|'''pl'''ano}}<ref name="Exep" group="note"> Latinate borrowing, the shift applies otherwise mostly regularly in the language </ref>
| {{lang|gl|'''ch'''an}}<br />{{lang|gl|'''ch'''ao}}
| {{lang|ast|'''ch'''anu}}<br />{{lang|ast|<u>ll</u>anu}}
|'''''ch'''ano''
| {{lang|es|<u>ll</u>ano}}
|-
| key
| {{lang|la|clave(m)}}
| {{lang|pt|'''ch'''ave}}
| {{lang|gl|'''ch'''ave}}
| {{lang|ast|'''ch'''ave}}<br />{{lang|ast|<u>ll</u>ave}}
|'''''ch'''abe''
| {{lang|es|<u>ll</u>ave}}
|-
| flame
| {{lang|la|flamma(m)}}
| {{lang|pt|'''ch'''ama}}
| {{lang|gl|'''ch'''ama}}
| {{lang|ast|'''ch'''ama}}<br />{{lang|ast|<u>ll</u>ama}}
|'''''ch'''ama''
| {{lang|es|<u>ll</u>ama}}
|-
!
! colspan="6" style="text-align:center" | Intervocalic -n-
|-
| frog
| {{lang|la|rana(m)}}
| {{lang|pt|r'''ã'''}}
| {{lang|gl|r'''a'''(n)}}
| {{lang|ast|rana}}
|''rana''
| {{lang|es|rana}}
|-
!
! colspan="6" style="text-align:center" | -ct- and -lt-
|-
| made
| {{lang|la|factu(m)}}
| {{lang|pt|fe'''it'''o}}
| {{lang|gl|fe'''it'''o}}
| {{lang|ast|fe'''it'''u}}<br />{{lang|ast|fe<u>ch</u>u}}
|''fe'''it'''o''
| {{lang|es|he<u>ch</u>o}}
|-
| night
| {{lang|la|nŏcte(m)}}
| {{lang|pt|no'''it'''e}}
| {{lang|gl|no'''it'''e}}
| {{lang|ast|nue'''it'''e}}<br />{{lang|ast|nue<u>ch</u>e}}
|''no'''ut'''e''
| {{lang|es|no<u>ch</u>e}}
|-
| much
| {{lang|la|mŭltu(m)}}
| {{lang|pt|mu'''it'''o}}
| {{lang|gl|mo'''it'''o}}<br />{{lang|gl|mu'''it'''o}}
| {{lang|ast|mu'''it'''u}}<br />{{lang|ast|mue'''it'''u}}<br />{{lang|ast|mu<u>ch</u>u}}
|''m'''ui'''to''
| {{lang|es|mu<u>ch</u>o}}
|-
| listen
| {{lang|la|auscultāre}}
| {{lang|pt|escutar}}
| {{lang|gl|esco'''it'''ar}}<br />{{lang|gl|escu'''it'''ar}}
| {{lang|ast|escu'''it'''are}}<br />{{lang|ast|escue'''it'''are}}<br />{{lang|ast|escu<u>ch</u>ar}}
|''sc'''ui'''tar''
| {{lang|es|escu<u>ch</u>ar}}
|-
!
! colspan="6" style="text-align:center" | -c’l-, -t’l-, -g’l-
|-
| razor
| {{lang|la|novac(u)la(m)}}
| {{lang|pt|navalha}}
| {{lang|gl|navalla}}
| {{lang|ast|ñava'''y'''a}}
|''nabalha''
| {{lang|es|navaja}}
|-
| old
| {{lang|la|vet(u)lu(m)}}
| {{lang|pt|velho}}
| {{lang|gl|vello}}
| {{lang|ast|vie'''y'''u}}<br />{{lang|ast|vie<u>ch</u>u}}
|''bielho''
| {{lang|es|viejo}}
|-
| tile
| {{lang|la|teg(u)la(m)}}
| {{lang|pt|telha}}
| {{lang|gl|tella}}
| {{lang|ast|te'''y'''a}}
|''telha''
| {{lang|es|teja}}
|-
!
! colspan="6" style="text-align:center" | -lj-
|-
| woman
| {{lang|la|muliere(m)}}
| {{lang|pt|mulher}}
| {{lang|gl|muller}}
| {{lang|ast|mu'''y'''er}}<br />{{lang|ast|mu<u>ch</u>er}}
|''mulhier''
| {{lang|es|mujer}}
|-
!
! colspan="6" style="text-align:center" | -ll-
|-
| castle
| {{lang|la|castellu(m)}}
| {{lang|pt|caste'''l'''o}}
| {{lang|gl|caste'''l'''o}}
| {{lang|ast|castiellu}}<br />{{lang|ast|castieḷḷu}}
|''castielho''
| {{lang|es|castillo}}
|-
!
! colspan="6" style="text-align:center" | Intervocalic -l-
|-
| ice / frost
| {{lang|la|gelu(m)}}<br />{{lang|la|gelare}}
| {{lang|pt|gelo}}<ref name="Exep" group="note" />
| {{lang|gl|xeo}}
| {{lang|ast|xe'''l'''u}}
|
| {{lang|es|hie'''l'''o}}
|-
| fern
| {{lang|la|filictu(m)}}
| {{lang|pt|feto}}
| {{lang|gl|fieito, fento}}
| {{lang|ast|fe'''l'''eitu}}<br />{{lang|ast|feichu}}
|''feleito''
| {{lang|es|he'''l'''echo}}
|-
!
! colspan="6" style="text-align:center" | -m'n-
|-
| man
| {{lang|la|hom(i)ne(m)}}
| {{lang|pt|homem}}
| {{lang|gl|home}}
| {{lang|ast|home}}
|''home''
| {{lang|es|hom'''br'''e}}
|-
| hunger, famine
| {{lang|la|fam(i)ne(m)}}
| {{lang|pt|fome}}
| {{lang|gl|fame}}
| {{lang|ast|fame}}
|''fame''
| {{lang|es|ham'''br'''e}}
|-
| fire
| {{lang|la|lum(i)ne(m)}}
| {{lang|pt|lume}}
| {{lang|gl|lume}}
| {{lang|ast|llume}}<br />{{lang|ast|ḷḷume}}
|''lhume''
| {{lang|es|lum'''br'''e}}
|}

== Historical, social and cultural aspects ==

=== {{anchor|History of the language}}History ===
[[File:Conventus Asturum.jpg|thumb|250px|alt=Historical map of northern Spain|Conventus Asturum in the first century BC]]
[[File:Linguistic map Southwestern Europe-en.gif|thumb|250px|alt=Animated map of linguistic changes in Spain from 1000 to 2000 AD|The Leonese Romance language expanded into new territories of the Kingdom of León.]]
[[File:Romance 20c en.png|thumb|250px|alt=Present-day linguistic map of Europe|Atlas of 20th-century European Romance languages]]
The native languages of Leon, Zamora, Asturias, and the Terra de Miranda in Portugal are the result of the evolution of Latin introduced by [[Ancient Rome|Roman]] conquerors in the region. Their colonization and organization led to the [[Conventus Asturum]], with its capital at [[Asturica Augusta]] (present-day [[Astorga, Spain]], the centre of [[Latinization (historical)|Romanization]] for the indigenous tribes).<ref>{{cite book |last=Santos Yanguas |first=Juan |title=Comunidades indígenas y administración romana en el Noroeste hispánico |date=1985 |isbn=978-84-7585-019-1 |publisher=Universidad del País Vasco |location=Leioa, Spain}}</ref>

The city of Astorga was sacked by the [[Visigoths]] in the 5th century, and never regained its former prominence. The region remained unified until the eighth-century Islamic invasion. Around the 11th century, it began to be defined as Leonese territory roughly corresponding to the southern ''conventus''. In medieval León, the Romance [[Galician language|Galician]], [[Astur-Leonese|Asturian-Leonese]], and [[Spanish language|Castilian]]  languages evolved and spread south.

The first known text in Asturian-Leonese is the ''[[Nodicia de kesos]]'', written between 974 and 980 AD, an inventory of cheeses owned by a monastery written in the margin of the reverse of a document written in Latin.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Fernández Catón |first1=José M.ª |title=Orígenes de las lenguas romances en el Reino de León: siglos IX-XII. |date=2004 |publisher=Centro de Estudios e Investigación "San Isidoro" |location=León, Spain |isbn=84-87667-65-1 |pages=35–86 |language=es |chapter=La "Nodicia de Kesos" y los problemas de la documentación del siglo X sobre el origen de los monasterios independientes de Rozuela y Cillanueva |volume=1}}</ref> During the 12th and 13th centuries, Leonese reached its territorial zenith as the administrative language of the [[Kingdom of León]], a literary language ({{ill|Poema de Elena y María|lt=''Poema de Elena y María''|es|Poema de Elena y María}}<ref>{{cite journal| last=Menéndez Pidal |first=Ramón |title=''Elena y María'' (Disputa del clérigo y el caballero): Poesía leonesa inédita del siglo XIII |date=1914 |issn=0210-9174 |language=es |journal=Revista de Filología Española}}</ref> and the ''[[Libro de Alexandre]]''),<ref>{{cite thesis |title=The Leonese features in the Madrid manuscript of the Libro de Alexandre |first=Sarah G. |last=Bishop |publisher=Ohio State University |type=PhD |url=https://etd.ohiolink.edu/apexprod/rws_etd/send_file/send?accession=osu1228843179&disposition=inline |format=PDF |date=1977}}</ref>{{failed verification|date=December 2018}} in the Leonese court, judiciary (with the translation of the Visigothic ''Liber Iudicum'' or ''[[Liber Iudiciorum]]'' into Leonese),{{citation needed|date=December 2018}}{{dubious|date=December 2018}} administration, and organization.<ref>{{cite book| author1-last=Carrasco Cantos |author1-first=Pilar |author2-first=Inés |author2-last=Carrasco Cantos |title=Estudio léxico-semántico de los fueros leoneses de Zamora, Salamanca, Ledesma y Alba de Tormes: Concordancias lematizadas |date=1998 |isbn=978-84-338-2315-1 |series=Publicaciones de la Cátedra de Historia de la Lengua Española |publisher=Universidad de Granada}}</ref>{{failed verification|date=December 2018}}

After the 1230 union of Leon and Castile, Leonese had greater written and institutional use,{{citation needed|date=December 2018}} although at the end of the 13th century Castilian began to replace it as a written language.<ref>{{cite conference |last=Lomax |first=Derek W. |title=La lengua oficial de Castilla |publication-date=1971 |date=April 1968 |book-title=Actele celui de-al XII-lea congres internaţional de lingvistică şi filologie romanică |publisher=Academiei Republicii Socialiste România |editor1-first=Alexandru |conference=International Congress of Romance Linguistics and Philology |editor1-last=Rosetti |editor2-first=Sanda |editor2-last=Reinheimer-Rîpeanu |volume=2 |pages=411–417 |language=es}}</ref>{{full citation needed|date=December 2018}} Leonese became an oral, rural language with little literary development.

At the beginning of the 20th century, it survived in oral form only in mid-western [[León province|León]] and western [[province of Zamora|Zamora]] provinces. Its scientific study and a nascent cultural movement began in the province of Leon in 1906. During the 1950s and 60s, the number of Leonese speakers and the area in which it was spoken decreased.

=== Use and distribution ===
[[File:dominio asturleonés.png|thumb|250px|alt=Colour-coded linguistic map of north-western Spain|Dialects of Asturian-Leonese]]
Although the Astur-Leonese linguistic domain covers most of the principality of Asturias, the north and west of the province of Leon, the northeast of Zamora, both provinces in Castile and León, and the region of Miranda do Douro in the east of the Portuguese district of [[Bragança District|Bragança]], this article focuses on the autonomous community of Castile and León.
Borrego Nieto wrote that the area in where Leonese is best preserved, defined as "area 1", consists of the regions of [[Babia, Spain|Babia]] and [[Laciana]], part of Los [[Argüellos]], eastern [[Bierzo]] and [[La Cabrera (León)|La Cabrera]]; in Zamora, non-Galician [[Senabria|Sanabria]].<ref name="BorregoNietoManual" />

Borrego Nieto describes another geographical circle, which he calls "area 2", where Leonese is fading: " ... It is extended to the regions between the interior area and the Ribera del [[Órbigo]] ([[Maragatería]], [[La Cepeda|Cepeda]], [[Omaña]] ... ). In Zamora, the region of [[La Carballeda]] – with the subregion [[La Requejada]] – and [[Aliste (shire)|Aliste]], with at least a part of its adjacent lands ({{Interlanguage link|Alba region|es|3=Concejo de Alba|lt=Alba}} and [[Tábara]]). This area is characterized by a blur and progressive disappearance, greater as we move to the East, of the features still clearly seen in the previous area. The gradual and negative character of this characteristic explains how vague the limits are".{{full citation needed|date=January 2017}}

==== Number of speakers ====
[[File:Mapa de la estensión de la llingua asturiana-lleonesa.png|thumb|250px|alt=Another colour-coded map of north-western Spain|Percentage of Asturleonese speakers, according to Iniciativa pol Asturianu]]
A "speaker of Leonese" is defined here as a person who knows (and can speak) a variety of Leonese. There is no linguistic census of the number of Leonese speakers in the provinces of León and Zamora, and estimates vary from 5,000 to 50,000.

{| class="wikitable" style="margin:1em auto"
|+Number of speakers, according to studies
|-
! style="background:#efefef;"| Sociolinguistic study
! style="background:#efefef;"| Number of speakers
|-
| ''II Estudiu sociollingüísticu de Lleón: Identidá, conciencia d'usu y actitúes llingüístiques de la población lleonesa''{{sfn|González Riaño|García Arias|2008}}
! style="text-align:center" | 50,000
|-
| ''Facendera pola Llengua'' newsletter<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.furmientu.org/01Documentos/23%20Facendera.pdf |title=La "llingua" de los leoneses |language=es |website=Furmientu}}</ref>
! style="text-align:center" | 25,000
|-
| ''El asturiano-leonés: aspectos lingüísticos, sociolingüísticos y legislación''{{sfn|García Gil|2008}}
! style="text-align:center" | 20,000 to 25,000
|-
| ''Linguas en contacto na bisbarra do Bierzo: castelán, astur-leonés e galego''.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Gómez Bautista |first1=Alberto |title=Linguas en contacto na bisbarra do Bierzo: castelán, astur-leonés e galego |journal=Ianua: Revista Philologica Romanica |date=2006 |volume=6 |pages=15–22 |url=http://www.romaniaminor.org/ianua/Ianua06/05.pdf |access-date=25 August 2022 |publisher=Romania Minor |language=gl |issn=1616-413X}}</ref>
! style="text-align:center" | 2,500 to 4,000<br /><small>([[El Bierzo]], {{ill|Ribas de Sil (comarca)|lt=Ribas de Sil|es|v=ib}}, {{ill|Fornela|es|Valle de Fornela|v=ib}}, and [[Cabreira|La Cabrera]])</small>
|}

==== {{anchor|Perceptions of speakers}}Studies ====
[[File:LengZamLe.PNG|thumb|251px|alt=See caption|2009 linguistic map of Zamora and León]]
Two sociolinguistic studies, in northern Leon and the entire province<ref>{{cite book |author1-last=González Riaño |author1-first=Xosé Antón |author2-last=García Arias |author2-first=Xosé Lluis |title=Estudiu sociollingüísticu de Lleón: Identidá, conciencia d'usu y actitúes llingüístiques nes fasteres que llenden con Asturies |publisher=Academia de la Llingua Asturiana |date=2006 |series=Estaya Sociollingüística |volume=3 |language=ast |location=Oviedo, Spain}}</ref>{{sfn|González Riaño|García Arias|2008}} analysed the prevalence of Leonese and the linguistic attitudes of its speakers. According to the latter, maintenance of the language is the primary wish but opinions differ about how to do so. Almost 37 per cent think that the language should be kept for nonofficial uses, and about 30 per cent believe it should be on a par with Spanish. Twenty-two per cent favour its disappearance. Nearly the population supports granting official status to Leonese by amending the Statute of Autonomy. About 70 per cent favour linguistic coordination between León and Asturias, with 20 per cent opposing. Leonese in education is favoured by more than 63 per cent of the population, and opposed by about 34 per cent. Institutional promotion of the dialect, especially by town councils, was favoured by more than 83 per cent of respondents.

==== Recognition ====
The Statute of Autonomy of Castile and León, amended 30 November 2007, addresses the status of Spanish, Leonese, and Galician. According to Section 5.2, "Leonese will be specifically protected by the institutions for its particular value within the linguistic patrimony of the Community. Its protection, usage and promotion will be regulated".

On 24 February 2010, a parliamentary group from the [[Spanish Socialist Workers' Party]] presented a proposition to the Cortes of Castile and León to recognize the value of Leonese and implement a plan to protect and promote it. Although the proposition was approved unanimously by the plenary session of the parliament of Castile and León on 26 May, the government's position has not changed.

==== Vitality ====
[[File:Ríu Xerga.JPG|thumb|250px|alt=Spray-painting on a road sign|''Ad hoc'' "translation" into Leonese]]
[[UNESCO]], in its ''[[Atlas of the World's Languages in Danger]]'', listed Leonese in the most at-risk category.{{citation needed|date=August 2022}} The category's criteria are:
* unofficial
* without legitimized significant use in the news media
* low levels of proficiency and use
* poor social prestige
* not used as a medium of primary education
* not used in official toponyms

==== Standardization ====
The Autonomous Community of Castile and León lacks a government agency to promote minority languages and a nongovernmental agency in an advisory capacity in matters pertaining to minority languages. The Academy of the Asturian Language has sponsored linguistic and sociolinguistic research, which encompasses the non-Asturian dialects of Asturian-Leonese.
Two congresses about Leonese have been held, at which the following measures were proposed to move towards language standardization:
* Based on articles 5.2 and 5.3 of the Statute of Autonomy,<ref>{{cite act |type=Ley Orgánica |index=14/2007 |date=1 December 2007 |article=5 |title=Reforma del Estatuto de Autonomía de Castilla y León |trans-title=Amendment to the Statute of Autonomy of the Castille and Leon |url=https://www.boe.es/buscar/act.php?id=BOE-A-2007-20635 |language=es |via=[[Boletín Oficial del Estado|BOE]] |volume=288 |pages=49486-49505}}</ref> raise the legal status of Leonese to equal that of Galician.
* Create an autonomous administrative organ under the Department of Culture and Tourism responsible for protecting and promoting Leonese and Galician.
* Introduce Leonese into adult and childhood education.
* Recover native toponymy with bilingual signage.
* Support cultural and literary Leonese and its publications and collaborate with associations which base their work on the recovery of Leonese, encourage Leonese in social media, and promote literary contests in the dialect.
* Promote study of Leonese through the universities and centres of study and investigation such as the Institute of Studies in Zamora, the Cultural Institute in Leon, the Institute of Studies of El Bierzo and the Marcelo Macías Institute of Studies in Astorga.
* Coordinate and cooperate with linguistic institutions, study centres, and administrations in the rest of the Asturialeonese linguistic area.
* Require local governments to assume responsibility for the recovery of Leonese.

==== Promotion ====
For about 15 years cultural associations have offered Leonese-language courses, sometimes with the support of local administrations in the provinces of Leon and Zamora. In 2001, the [[Universidad de León]] (University of León) created a course for teachers of Leonese. The dialect can be studied in the larger villages of [[León (province)|León]], [[Province of Zamora|Zamora]] and [[Salamanca (province)|Salamanca]] provinces as ''[[Asociación Cultural de la Llingua Llïonesa El Fueyu|El Fueyu]]'' courses, following an agreement between the Leonese provincial government and the organization. The Leonese Language Teachers and Monitors Association ([[Asociación de Profesores y Monitores de Llingua Llïonesa]]) was created in 2008 to promote Leonese-language activities.

== Literature ==
Leonese literature includes:
* Benigno Suárez Ramos, ''El tío perruca'', 1976. {{ISBN|978-84-400-1451-1}}.
* Cayetano Álvarez Bardón, ''Cuentos en dialecto leonés'', 1981. {{ISBN|978-84-391-4102-0}}.
* Xuan Bello, ''Nel cuartu mariellu'', 1982. {{ISBN|978-84-300-6521-9}}.
* Miguel Rojo, ''Telva ya los osos'', 1994. {{ISBN|978-84-8053-040-8}}.
* Manuel García Menéndez, ''Corcuspin el Rozcayeiru'', 1984. {{ISBN|978-84-600-3676-0}}.
* Manuel García Menéndez, ''Delina nel valle'l Faloupu'', 1985. {{ISBN|978-84-600-4133-7}}.
* Eva González Fernández, ''Poesía completa : 1980–1991'', 1991. {{ISBN|978-84-86936-58-7}}.
* ''Cuentos de Lleón: Antoloxía d'escritores lleoneses de güei'', 1996. {{ISBN|84-87562-12-4}}.
* Roberto González-Quevedo, ''L.lume de l.luz'', 2002. {{ISBN|978-84-8168-323-3}}.
* Roberto González-Quevedo, ''Pol sendeiru la nueite'', 2002. {{ISBN|978-84-95640-37-6}}.
* Roberto González-Quevedo, ''Pan d'amore : antoloxía poética 1980–2003'', 2004. {{ISBN|978-84-95640-95-6}}.
* Roberto González-Quevedo, ''El Sil que baxaba de la nieve'', 2007. {{ISBN|978-84-96413-31-3}}.
* Emilce Núñez Álvarez, ''Atsegrías ya tristuras'', 2005. {{ISBN|978-84-8177-093-3}}.
* Luis Cortés Vázquez, ''Leyendas, cuentos y romances de Sanabria'', 2003. {{ISBN|978-84-95195-55-5}}.
* Ramón Menéndez Pidal, ''El dialecto leonés'' (Commemorative edition with stories and poems in Leonese), 2006. {{ISBN|978-84-933781-6-5}}.
* ''Cuentos populares leoneses (escritos por niños)'', 2006. {{ISBN|978-84-611-0795-7}}.
* Nicolás Bartolomé Pérez, ''Filandón: lliteratura popular llionesa'', 2007. {{ISBN|978-84-933380-7-7}}.
* José Aragón y Escacena, ''Entre brumas'', 1921. {{ISBN|978-84-8012-569-7}}.
* Francisco Javier Pozuelo Alegre, ''Poemas pa nun ser lleídos'', 2008. {{ISBN|978-84-612-4484-3}}.
* Xosepe Vega Rodríguez, ''Epífora y outros rellatos'', 2008. {{ISBN|978-84-612-5315-9}}.
* Xosepe Vega Rodríguez, ''Breve hestoria d'un gamusinu'', 2008. {{ISBN|978-84-612-5316-6}}.
* Antoine De Saint-Exupéry, ''El Prencipicu'' (Translation of ''The Little Prince''), 2009. {{ISBN|978-84-96872-03-5}}.
* Ramón Rei Rodríguez, ''El ñegru amor'', 2009. {{ISBN|978-84-613-1824-7}}.
* Juan Andrés Oria de Rueda Salguero, ''Llogas carbayesas'', 2009. {{ISBN|978-84-613-1822-3}}.

== See also ==
{{portal|Language}}
* [[Asturian language]]
* [[Mirandese language]]
* [[Spanish language]]
* [[Bercian dialect]]
* [[Asociación de Profesores y Monitores de Llingua Llïonesa]]
* [[Caitano Bardón]]
* [[Cuentos del Sil]]
* [[Eva González (Leonese language writer)|Eva González]]
* [[Omañese]]

== Notes ==
{{reflist|group=note}}

== References ==
{{reflist}}

== Sources ==
* {{cite book |last1=García Gil |first1=Héctor |title=Asturian-leonese: Linguistic, Sociolinguistic and Legal Aspects |date=2008 |publisher=Mercator Legislation; CIEMEN |location=Barcelona, Spain |url=http://www.ciemen.org/mercator/pdf/ML_WP25_eng.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140327030418/http://www.ciemen.org/mercator/pdf/ML_WP25_eng.pdf |archive-date=27 March 2014 |series=Working Papers |volume=25 |issn=2013-102X |translator-first=Peter David |translator-last=Jenkins}}
* {{cite book |author1-last=González Riaño |author1-first=Xosé Antón |author2-last=García Arias |author2-first=Xosé Lluis |title=II Estudiu Sociollingüísticu De Lleón: Identidá, conciencia d'usu y actitúes llingüístiques de la población lleonesa |publisher=Academia de la Llingua Asturiana |date=2008 |isbn=978-84-8168-448-3 |series=Estaya Sociollingüística |volume=4 |language=ast |location=Oviedo, Spain}}
* {{cite conference |last=López Morales |first=Humberto |title=Elementos leoneses en la lengua del teatro pastoril de los siglos XV y XVI |book-title=Actas del Segundo Congreso Internacional de Hispanistas |publisher=Asociación Internacional de Hispanistas |location=Nijmegen, The Netherlands |date=August 1965 |publication-date=1967 |editor1-first=Jaime |editor1-last=Sánchez Romeralo |editor2-first=Norbert |editor2-last=Poulussen |conference=Congress of the International Association of Hispanists |url=https://cvc.cervantes.es/literatura/aih/pdf/02/aih_02_1_039.pdf |pages=411–419}}
* {{cite book |last1=Morala Rodríguez |first1=José Ramón |title=El leonés en el siglo XXI: Un romance milenario ante el reto de su normalización |date=2009 |publisher=Instituto Castellano y Leonés de la Lengua |location=Burgos, Spain |isbn=978-84-936383-8-2 |series=Beltenebros |volume=23}}
* {{cite magazine |last1=Menéndez Pidal |first1=Ramón |author-link1=Ramón Menéndez Pidal |title=El dialecto leonés |url=https://www.fundacionramonmenendezpidal.org/wp-content/uploads/2018/07/ELDialectoLeones.pdf |magazine=Revista de Archivos, Bibliotecas y Museos |language=es |publisher=Cuerpo de Archiveros, Bibliotecarios y Arqueólogos |date=1906 |issue=2–3 |pages=128–172, 294–311 |issn=0034-771X}}
* {{cite book |last=Pardo Fernández |first=Abel |date=2008 |chapter=El Llïonés y las TICs |editor1-last=Sánchez Prieto |editor1-first=Raúl |editor2-last=Veith |editor2-first=Daniel |editor3-last=Martínez Areta |editor3-first=Mikel |title=Mikroglottika Yearbook 2008 |publisher=Peter Lang |isbn=978-3-631-58027-1 |language=es |volume=1 |chapter-url=http://www.mikroglottika.com/1.3.2007.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090920052357/mikroglottika.com/1.3.2007.pdf |archive-date=20 September 2009 |pages=55–65 |url-status=usurped}}
* {{cite book |last=Staaff |first=Erik |title=Étude sur l'ancien dialecte léonais d'après les chartes du XIIIe siècle |location=Uppsala, Sweden |date=1907 |url=https://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/bpt6k9760449s.texteImage}}

== Further reading ==
* {{cite book |author1-last=Galmés de Fuentes |author1-first=Álvaro |author2-last=Catalán Menéndez-Pidal |author2-first=Diego |date=1960 |title=Trabajos sobre el dominio románico leonés |publisher=Gredos |isbn=978-84-249-3436-1 |author2-link=Diego Catalán}}.
* {{cite book |last=Gessner |first=Emil |title=Das Altleonesische: Ein Beitrag zur Kenntnis des Altspanischen |date=1900 |url=https://archive.org/details/dasaltleonesisch00gessuoft |language=de}}
* {{cite journal |last1=Hanssen |first1=Friedrich |title=Estudios sobre la conjugación leonesa |journal=Anales de la Universidad de Chile |date=1896 |volume=94 |url=https://anales.uchile.cl/index.php/ANUC/article/view/21096/22325 |format=PDF |issn=0717-8883 |pages=753–808}}
* {{cite journal |last1=Hanssen |first1=Friedrich |title=Los infinitivos leoneses del poema de Alejandro |journal=Bulletin Hispanique |date=1910 |volume=12 |issue=2 |pages=135–139 |doi=10.3406/hispa.1910.1644 |url=https://www.persee.fr/docAsPDF/hispa_0007-4640_1910_num_12_2_1644.pdf |publisher=Presses Universitaires de Bordeaux}}
* {{cite journal |last1=Krüger |first1=Fritz |title=El dialecto de San Ciprián de Sanabria |journal=Revista de Filología Española: Anejos |date=1923 |volume=4 |language=es |issn=0210-9174}}<br />Reprinted in: {{cite book |last1=Krüger |first1=Fritz |title=El dialecto de San Ciprián de Sanabria: monografía leonesa |date=2001 |publisher=Fundación Menéndez Pidal |location=Madrid |isbn=978-84-89934-04-7 |edition=3rd}}

== External links ==
{{Commons category|Leonese language}}
{{Wiktionary|Leonese language}}
{{Wikibooks|Leonese}}
{{InterWiki|code=ast}}
{{InterWiki|code=mwl}}
* [http://www.lengualeonesa.eu/castellan/ Official website of Asociación L'Alderique]
* [http://www.aytoleon.es/ Leonese Council Official Website with information in Leonese]
* [http://www.elfueyu.net/ Leonese Language Association]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20090318174242/http://www.puntulli.org/ Top Level Domain for Leonese]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20121021202327/http://apmll.org/ Asociación de Profesores y Monitores de Llingua Llïonesa]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20120310072739/http://www.llinguallionesa.net/index.php?title=Portada Llionpedia], an independent encyclopedia in Leonese

{{Languages of Spain}}
{{Romance languages}}

[[Category:Languages attested from the 10th century]]
[[Category:Endangered Romance languages]]
[[Category:Kingdom of León]]
[[Category:Leonese language]]
[[Category:Languages of Spain]]