View source for Barbad

{{good article}}
{{short description|Persian musician-poet under Khosrow II (r. 590–628)}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=July 2021}}
{{Infobox person
| name         = Bārbad
| image        = BarbadPahlbod.jpg
| native_name  = {{lang|fa|باربد‎}}
| caption      = [[Detail (work of art)|Detail]] of Barbad playing the ''[[Barbat (lute)|barbat]]'' for [[Khosrow II]]. Imaginary painting by Muhammad-Mukim, 1664
| birth_place  = [[Merv]] or [[Jahrom]]
| death_place  = [[Ctesiphon]]?
| years_active = {{fl|late 6th – early 7th century CE}}{{sfn|''Grove''|2001}}
| movement     = [[Sasanian music]]
}}

'''Barbad''' ({{langx|fa|باربد}}; {{fl|late 6th – early 7th century CE}}) was a Persian musician-poet, [[music theorist]] and composer of [[Sasanian music]]. He served as chief minstrel-poet under the Shahanshah [[Khosrow II]] ({{reign|590|628}}). A ''[[Barbat (lute)|barbat]]'' player, he was the most distinguished Persian musician of his time and is regarded among the major figures in the history of [[Iranian music|Persian music]].

Despite scarce biographical information, Barbad's [[historicity]] is generally secure. He was highly regarded in the court of Khosrow, and interacted with other musicians, such as [[Nagisa (harpist)|Sarkash]]. Although he is traditionally credited with numerous innovations in Persian music theory and practice, the attributions remain tentative since they are ascribed centuries after his death. Practically all Barbad's music or poetry is lost, except a single poem fragment and the titles of a few compositions.

No Sasanian sources discuss Barbad, suggesting his reputation was preserved through [[oral tradition]], until at least the earliest written account by the poet Khaled ibn Fayyaz ({{Abbr|d.|died}} {{circa|718}}). Barbad appears frequently in later [[Persian literature]], most famously in [[Ferdowsi]]'s ''[[Shahnameh]]''. The content and abundance of such references demonstrate his unique influence, inspiring musicians such as [[Ishaq al-Mawsili]]. Often described as the "founder of Persian music", Barbad remains a celebrated figure in modern-day Iran, [[Afghanistan]] and [[Tajikistan]].

==Name==
[[File:Brooklyn Museum - Bahram Gur and Courtiers Entertained by Barbad the Musician Page from a manuscript of the Shahnama of Firdawsi (d. 1020).jpg|thumb|''Bahram Gur and Courtiers Entertained by Barbad the Musician'' (Barbad bottom right). From a manuscript of [[Ferdowsi]]'s ''[[Shahnameh]]'', second half 17th century.{{sfn|Brooklyn Museum}}]]
Posthumous sources refer to the [[Sasanian Empire|Sasanian]] musician with little consistency. Persian sources record "Barbād" while Arabic scholars use Fahl(a)bad, Bahl(a)bad, Fahl(a)wad, Fahr(a)bad, Bahr(a)bad and Bārbad/ḏ.{{sfn|Tafazzoli|1988|loc=§ para. 1}} Modern sources most often use "Barbad",{{refn|Virtually all sources in this article use the form "Barbad"—albeit sometimes differing in use of the [[Romanization of Persian|transliterated]] [[diacritic]] marking over the "a" (e.g. "Bārbad")—see {{harvtxt|Curtis|2003|pp=137–138}}, {{harvtxt|Kia|2016|p=151}}, {{harvtxt|Miller|2012|p=6}} and {{harvtxt|Tafazzoli|1988|loc=§ para. 1}} for instance.|group=n}} a spelling that Danish orientalist [[Arthur Christensen]] first asserted to be correct.{{sfn|Tafazzoli|1988|loc=§ para. 1}} However, the German orientalist [[Theodor Nöldeke]] suggested that spellings from Arabic commentators such as "Fahl(a)bad" were really an [[arabicization]] of his actual name, probably Pahrbad/Pahlbad. Nöldeke furthered that "Bārbad" was a mistake in the interpretation of ambiguous [[Pahlavi scripts|Pahlavi]] characters.{{sfn|Tafazzoli|1988|loc=§ para. 1}} The [[Iranologist]] [[Ahmad Tafazzoli]] agreed with Nöldeke, citing a Sasanian [[seal (emblem)|seal]] which includes the name "Pahrbad/Pahlbad" and the earliest mention of the Sasanian musician, which uses a spelling—"Bahrbad/Bahlbad"—that suggests the name had been arabicized.{{sfn|Tafazzoli|1988|loc=§ para. 1}}

==Background==
The [[music of Iran|music of Iran/Persia]] stretches to at least the depictions of [[arched harp]]s from 3300–3100 BCE,{{sfn|Lawergren|2001|loc=§1 "Introduction", §2 "3rd millennium BCE"}} though not until the period of the Sasanian Empire in 224–651 CE is substantial information available.{{sfn|Lawergren|2001|loc=§5 "Sassanian period, 224–651 CE"}} This influx of Sasanian records suggests a prominent musical culture in the Empire,{{sfn|Farhat|2012|loc="Historic Retrospective"}} especially in the areas dominated by [[Zoroastrianism]].{{sfn|Lawergren|2001|loc=§5 "Sassanian period, 224–651 CE"}} Many Sasanian [[Shahanshah]]s were ardent supporters of music, including the founder of the empire [[Ardashir I]] and [[Bahram V]].{{sfn|Lawergren|2001|loc=§5 "Sassanian period, 224–651 CE"}} [[Khosrow II]] ({{reign|590|628}}) was the most outstanding [[patron]], his reign being regarded as a [[golden age]] of Persian music.{{sfn|Lawergren|2001|loc=§5 "Sassanian period, 224–651 CE"}} Musicians in Khosrow's service include Āzādvar-e Changi,{{refn|Āzādvar-e Changi is also known as simply Āzād.{{sfn|Farhat|2004|p=3}}|group=n}} [[Bāmshād]], the harpist [[Nagisa (harpist)|Nagisa]] (Nakisa), [[Ramtin]], Sarkash (also Sargis or Sarkas){{refn|There is much contradiction in modern sources over the musicians [[Nagisa (harpist)|Nagisa]] (Nakisa) and Sarkash (also Sargis or Sarkas). Some sources, such as {{harvtxt|During|1991a|p=39}} and {{harvtxt|Farhat|2004|p=3}} present them as separate individuals, listing them both as among the musicians of Khosrow's court. Other sources, such as {{harvtxt|Lawergren|2001|loc=§5 "Sassanian period, 224–651 CE"}} and {{harvtxt|Farhat|2001|loc=§1 "History"}} suggest the two are the same person: "harpist Sarkash (also called Nakisā)",{{sfn|Lawergren|2001|loc=§5 "Sassanian period, 224–651 CE"}} and "Nakisa or Sarkash".{{sfn|Farhat|2001|loc=§1 "History"}} Matters are made more confusing by the fact that [[Hormoz Farhat]] presented the two musicians differently.|group=n|name=Nakisa}} and Barbad,{{sfn|During|1991a|p=39}} who was by-far the most famous.{{sfn|Farhat|2001|loc=§1 "History"}} These musicians were usually active as [[minstrel]]s, which were performers who worked as both court poets and musicians;{{sfn|Curtis|2003|p=138}} in the Sasanian Empire there was little distinction between poetry and music.{{sfn|During|1991b|p=154}}

Though many [[Middle Persian]] (Pahlavi) texts of the Sasanian Empire survive, only one—''Khusraw qubadan va ridak''—includes commentary on music, though neither it or any other Sasanian sources discuss Barbad.{{sfn|Khazrai|2016|p=165}} Barbad's reputation must have been transmitted through [[oral tradition]],{{sfn|Khazrai|2016|pp=170–171}} until at least the earliest source: an Arabic poem by Khaled ibn Fayyaz ({{Abbr|d.|died}} {{circa|718}}).{{sfn|Khazrai|2016|p=166}}{{refn|See {{harvtxt|Khazrai|2016|p=168}} for an English translation of Fayyaz's poem|name=Fayyaz|group=n}} In later ancient Arabic and Persian sources Barbad is the most discussed Sasanian musician, though he is rarely included in writings dedicated solely to music.{{sfn|Lucas|2019|p=59}} A rare exception to this is a brief mention in Muhammad bin Muhammad<!--not a typo!--> bin Muhammad Nishābūrī's music treatise ''Rasaleh-i musiqi-i''.{{sfn|Lucas|2019|pp=59, 244}} Ancient sources in general give little biographical information and most of what is available is shrouded in mythological anecdotes.{{sfn|Tafazzoli|1988|loc=§ para. 2}} Tales from the poet [[Ferdowsi]]'s ''[[Shahnameh]]'', written during the late 10th century, include the most celebrated accounts of Barbad.{{sfn|Khazrai|2016|p=169}} Other important sources included Ferdowsi's contemporary, the poet [[al-Tha'alibi]] in his ''Ghurar al-saya'', as well as ''[[Khosrow and Shirin]]'' and ''[[Haft Peykar]]'' from the poet [[Nezami Ganjavi]]'s ''[[Khamsa of Nizami]]'' from the late 12th century.{{sfn|Tafazzoli|1988|loc=§ para. 1–7}}{{sfn|Lawergren|2001|loc=§5 "Sassanian period, 224–651 CE"}} Despite this plethora of stories depicting him in a legendary context, scholars generally consider Barbad a wholly [[Historicity|historical person]].{{sfn|Lawergren|2001|loc=§5 "Sassanian period, 224–651 CE"}}{{sfn|Khazrai|2016|p=171}}

==Life and career==
===Early life===
{{CSS image crop
|Image = King Khusraw and Barbad, Folio from a Shahnama (Book of Kings) LACMA 57.17.4.jpg
|bSize = 260
|cWidth = 210
|cHeight = 174
|oTop = 7
|oLeft = 8
|Location=right
|Description = An illustration from a manuscript of [[Ferdowsi]]'s ''[[Shahnameh]]'', depicting Barbad (top left) hidden in the trees playing for Khosrow (bottom right).{{sfn|Kia|2016|p=152}}
}}
There are contradictory ancient accounts as to the location of Barbad's birthplace. Older sources record the city of [[Merv]] in northeastern [[Greater Khorasan|Khorasan]],{{sfn|Kia|2016|p=151}}{{refn|Older sources that give [[Merv]] as Barbad's birthplace include [[Ibn Khordadbeh]]'s ''Kitāb al-lahw wa-l-malahi'', [[Hamdallah Mustawfi]]'s ''[[Nuzhat al-Qulub]]'', [[al-Tha'alibi]]'s ''Ghurar al-saya'', as well as accounts by [[al-Jahiz]] and [[Istakhri]].{{sfn|Tafazzoli|1988|loc=§ para. 2}}|group=n}} while later works give [[Jahrom]],{{refn|Later sources that give [[Jahrom]] as Barbad's birthplace include the ''[[Farhang-e Jahangiri]]'' by Jamal al-Din Hosayn Enju Shirazi and an account by [[Fakhr al-Din al-Razi]].{{sfn|Tafazzoli|1988|loc=§ para. 2}}|group=n}} a small city south of [[Shiraz]] in [[Pars (Sasanian province)|Pars]].{{sfn|Tafazzoli|1988|loc=§ para. 2}} Tafazzoli postulated that the writers who recorded Jahrom were referencing a line of Ferdowsi's ''Shahnameh'' that says Barbad traveled from Jarom to the capital in [[Ctesiphon]] when Khosrow was murdered;{{sfn|Tafazzoli|1988|loc=§ para. 2}} the modern historian [[Mehrdad Kia]] records only Merv.{{sfn|Kia|2016|p=151}}

Ferdowsi and al-Tha'alibi both relay a story that Barbad was a gifted young musician who sought a place as a court minstrel under Khosrow II but the jealous chief court minstrel Sarkash{{refn||group=n|name=Nakisa}} supposedly prevented this.{{sfn|Tafazzoli|1988|loc=§ para. 3}} As such, Barbad hid in the royal garden by dressing in all green.{{sfn|Kia|2016|p=151}} When Khosrow walked by Barbad sang three songs with his lute: ''Dād-āfrīd'' ("created by god"), ''Peykār-e gord'' ("battle of the hero" or "splendor of [[Farkhar District|Farkar]]") and ''Sabz dar sabz'' ("green in the green").{{sfn|Tafazzoli|1988|loc=§ para. 3}} Khosrow was immediately impressed and ordered that Barbad be appointed chief minstrel,{{sfn|Tafazzoli|1988|loc=§ para. 3}}{{sfn|Miller|2012|p=6}}{{refn|The purported story on Barbad's accession to the chief court minstrel post exists in slightly different variants depending on its source. See {{harvtxt|Khazrai|2016|p=169–170}} for a discussion on the differences between the accounts of Ferdowsi and al-Tha'alibi. See modern retellings from unspecified sources in {{harvtxt|Curtis|2003|pp=137–138}}, {{harvtxt|Kia|2016|p=151}}, {{harvtxt|Miller|2012|p=6}} and {{harvtxt|Tafazzoli|1988|loc=§ para. 3}}|group=n}} a position known as the ''shah-i ramishgaran''.{{sfn|Curtis|2003|p=138}}{{refn|The minstrel title alone may be referred to as ''rāmeshgar'', ''gosān'', or ''khunyāgar''.{{sfn|Khazrai|2016|p=164}} "Poet-minstrel" is ''khunyagaran''.{{sfn|Khazrai|2016|p=165}}|group=n}} In Nizami's ''Khosrow and Shirin'', Khosrow II is said to have had a dream where his grandfather [[Khosrow I]] prophesied that he would have a "have a minstrel called Barbad whose art could make even poison taste delicious".{{sfn|Curtis|2003|p=142}}

===Stories with Khosrow===
Since his appointment at court, Barbad was Khosrow's favorite musician, and many stories exist about this prestige.{{sfn|Farhat|2004|p=3}} His relationship with Khosrow was reportedly such that other members of the court would seek his assistance in mediating conflicts between them and the Shahanshah.{{sfn|Tafazzoli|1988|loc=§ para. 4}} A story in Nizami's ''Khosrow and Shirin'', tells of Khosrow and [[Shirin]] as previously together, but forced to separate for political reasons; Khosrow marries someone else, but is soon reminded of Shirin.{{sfn|Curtis|2003|pp=143–144}} The two later met and arranged for the Nagisa to sing of Shirin's love for Khosrow, while Barbad sung of Khosrow's love for Shirin.{{sfn|Khazrai|2016|p=164}} The duet reconciled the couple and was recorded by Nizami in 263 [[couplet]]s.{{sfn|Khazrai|2016|p=164}} The idea of setting music to poetry in order to represent the emotions of characters was unprecedented in Persian music.{{sfn|Khazrai|2016|p=164}} According to the 10th-century historian [[Ibn al-Faqih al-Hamadani]]'s ''Kitab al-buldan'',{{sfn|Khazrai|2016|p=167}} Khosrow's wife Shirin asked Barbad to remind Khosrow of his promise to build her a castle. To do so, he sung a song and was rewarded with an estate near [[Isfahan]] for him and his family.{{sfn|Tafazzoli|1988|loc=§ para. 4}} According to the [[Seljuk Empire|Seljuk]] scholar [[Nizam al-Mulk]], Barbad visited a courtier who had been imprisoned by Khosrow and upon being scolded by the Shahanshah, a "witty remark" was enough to resolve the situation.{{sfn|Tafazzoli|1988|loc=§ para. 4}}

[[File:Barbad playing for Khosrau II.jpg|thumb|upright=1.2|Barbad (left) playing music for [[Khosrow II]]]]
In the literary scholar [[Abu al-Faraj al-Isfahani]]'s ''[[Kitab al-Aghani]]'', a jealous rival musician once untuned the strings of Barbad's lute during a royal banquet. Upon returning to perform, Barbad began to play; royal rules forbade the tuning instruments in the Shahanshah's presence, but Barbad's skill was such that he could adapt to the untuned strings and play the pieces regardless.{{sfn|Tafazzoli|1988|loc=§ para. 5}} Al-Isfahani attributed this story to [[Ishaq al-Mawsili]] (776–856)—a renowned minstrel under [[Harun al-Rashid]]—who purportedly relayed the story to friends.{{sfn|Khazrai|2016|p=167}}

Among the most popular legends about Barbad involves Khosrow's beloved horse [[Shabdiz]]. In this story, Khosrow declared that when Shabdiz died, anyone who announced the news would be executed.{{sfn|Miller|2012|p=6}} Upon Shabdiz's death, no members of the court wished to risk conveying the news.{{sfn|Tafazzoli|1988|loc=§ para. 4}} To resolve the issue, Barbad sang a sad song, and Khosrow, understanding the purpose of the song, stated "Shabdiz is dead"; Barbad responded "Yes and it is your majesty who announced it", thereby preventing any possibility of death.{{sfn|Miller|2012|p=6}}
This story was relayed earliest by the poet Khaled ibn Fayyaz ({{Abbr|d.|died}} {{circa|718}}),{{refn|name=Fayyaz|group=n}} with later accounts by al-Tha'alibi and the 13th-century writer [[Zakariya al-Qazwini]].{{sfn|Tafazzoli|1988|loc=§ para. 4}} Many similar ancient stories originated in Iran, Turkey and [[Central Asia]] that pertain to musicians using music to express the death of a ruler's horse, as to avoid the ruler's wrath against the announcer.{{sfn|Blum|2001b|loc=§2 "Musicians"}} Various pieces for the [[Khwarazm]] ''[[dutar]]'', [[Kyrgyz people|Kyrgyz]] ''[[komuz]]'' and [[Kazakhs|Kazakh]] ''[[dombra]]'' relay equivalent stories.{{sfn|Blum|2001b|loc=§2 "Musicians"}} Tafazzoli asserts that the story demonstrates Barbad's unique influence on Khosrow,{{sfn|Tafazzoli|1988|loc=§ para. 4}} while musicologist [[Lloyd Miller (musician)|Lloyd Miller]] suggest that this and similar stories suggest that music and musicians in general exerted a significant influence on their political leaders.{{sfn|Miller|2012|p=19}}

===Death===
Like his birthplace, there are conflicting accounts surrounding the final years of Barbad's life. According to Ferdowsi, upon the murder of Khosrow by [[Kavad II]], Barbad rushed from Jahrom to the capital of Ctesiphon.{{sfn|Tafazzoli|1988|loc=§ para. 7}} After arriving he sang [[elegies]],{{sfn|Tafazzoli|1988|loc=§ para. 7}} cut off his fingers and burned his instruments out of respect.{{sfn|Tafazzoli|1988|loc=§ para. 7}}{{sfn|Curtis|2003|p=138}} Al-Tha'alibi's account holds that Sarkash,{{refn||group=n|name=Nakisa}} who had remained at the court since being ousted from the chief minstrel position, poisoned Barbad.{{sfn|Tafazzoli|1988|loc=§ para. 7}} The 9th-century geographer [[Ibn Khordadbeh]]'s ''Kitāb al-lahw wa-l-malahi'', however, records the opposite, stating that Barbad poisoned Sarkash but was spared from Khosrow's punishment by way of a "witty remark".{{sfn|Tafazzoli|1988|loc=§ para. 7}} The 9th-century scholar [[Ibn Qutaybah]]'s ''‘Uyūn al-Akhbār'' and the 10th-century poet [[Ibn Abd Rabbih]]'s ''[[al-ʿIqd al-Farīd]]'' state that Barbad was killed by a different musician, variously recorded as Yošt, Rabūst, Rošk and Zīwešt.{{sfn|Tafazzoli|1988|loc=§ para. 7}}

==Music and poetry==
[[File:Хосров слушает музыку Барбада.Хамсе, Низами. 1539-43. Брит.библ..jpg|thumb|upright=1.2|1539 illustration, Barbad in the middle with a ''barbat'', attributed to {{ill|میرزا_علی_نگارگر|fa|lt=Mirza Ali}}.{{sfn|Curtis|2003|p=137}}{{sfn|Blum|2001a|p=834}}]]
Barbad was active as a musician-poet,{{sfn|Khazrai|2016|p=163}} [[lute]]nist, [[music theorist]] and composer.{{sfn|''Grove''|2001}} His compositions included [[panegyric]]s, [[Elegy|elegies]] and [[Verse (poetry)|verses]].{{sfn|Tafazzoli|1988|loc=§ para. 6}} These were performed by himself at festivals such as [[Nowruz]] and [[Mehregan]], as well as state banquets and victory celebrations.{{sfn|Tafazzoli|1988|loc=§ para. 6}} While none of the compositions are extant, the names have survived for some, and they suggest a wide variety in the topics he musically engaged with.{{sfn|Farhat|2004|p=3}} The ethnomusicologist [[Hormoz Farhat]] has tentatively sorted them into different groupings: epic forms based on historical events, ''kin-i [[Iraj]]'' ({{lit|the Vengeance of Iraj}}), ''kin-i [[Siyâvash|siavash]]'' ({{lit|the Vengeance of Siavash}}), and ''Taxt-i [[Ardashir I|Ardashir]]'' ({{lit|the Throne of Ardashir}}); songs connected to the Sasanian royal court, ''Bagh-i shirin'' ({{lit|the garden of Shirin}}), ''Bagh-i Shahryar'' ({{lit|the Sovereign's Garden}}), and ''haft Ganj'' ({{lit|the seven treasures}}); and "compositions of a descriptive nature", ''roshan charagh'' ({{lit|bright lights}}).{{sfn|Farhat|2004|p=3}} According to both scholars Ibn al-Faqih and the 13th-century geographer [[Yaqut al-Hamawi]], Barbad wrote ''Bag-e nakjiran'' ({{lit|garden of the game}}) for workers who had recently finished the gardens of [[Qasr-e Shirin]].{{sfn|Tafazzoli|1988|loc=§ para. 6}}

A single poem by Barbad survives, though in a quoted state from the ''Kitab al-lahw wa al-malahi'' by Ibn Khordadbeh.{{sfn|Khazrai|2016|p=166}} The work is a 3-[[hemistich]] panegyric in Middle Persian, but with an [[Arabic script]];{{sfn|Tafazzoli|1988|loc=§ para. 6}} none of its music is extant.{{sfn|Khazrai|2016|p=166}} The poem is as follows:

{{Poem quote
|text=Ceasar resembles the moon and Khaqan the sun,
[but] my lord is like the rich clouds,
whenever he wants he hides the moon or the sun.
|source=Barbad, in the ''Kitab al-lahw wa al-malahi'' by Ibn Khordadbeh{{sfn|Tafazzoli|1974|p=338}}
}}

Christensen suggested in 1936 that the text ''Khvarshēdh ī rōshan'' ({{lit|The shining sun}}) is from a poem that was written and performed by Barbad himself or another musician-poet of his time.{{sfn|Lawergren|2001|loc=§5 "Sassanian period, 224–651 CE"}} The text is found in a group of [[Manichaean]] manuscripts in [[Turpan]], [[Xinjiang]], China and is written in Middle Persian, which Barbad would have used.{{sfn|Lawergren|2001|loc=§5 "Sassanian period, 224–651 CE"}} It has four 11-syllable lines and its title recalls the Sasanian melody ''Arāyishn ī khvarshēdh'' ({{lit|The beauty of the sun}}).{{sfn|Lawergren|2001|loc=§5 "Sassanian period, 224–651 CE"}}

{{Poem quote
|text=The shining sun, the beaming full moon
Resplendent and beaming behind the trunk of a tree;
The eager birds strut about it full of joy,
The doves and the colorful peacocks strut about.
|source=''Khvarshēdh ī rōshan'' ({{lit|The shining sun}}), {{Abbr|attri.|attributed}} unknown Sasanian musician, possibly Barbad{{sfn|Lawergren|2001|loc=§5 "Sassanian period, 224–651 CE"}}
}}

Barbad is traditionally regarded as the inventor of numerous aspects of Persian music theory and practice. Al-Tha'alibi first credited him with creating an organized [[Mode (music)|modal]] system of {{ill|هفت خسروانی|fa|lt=seven "Royal modes" (''al-ṭoruq al-molukiya'')}},{{sfn|Youssefzadeh|2012}} known variously as ''xosrovani'' ({{langx|fa|سرود خسروانى}}),{{sfn|Farhat|2004|p=3}} ''Haft Ḵosravāni'',{{sfn|Youssefzadeh|2012}} or ''khosravani''.{{sfn|During|1991a|p=39}}{{sfn|Farhat|2001|loc=§1 "History"}} This attribution is later repeated by scholars such as [[al-Masudi]]{{sfn|Tafazzoli|1988|loc=§ para. 6}} and [[Qutb al-Din al-Shirazi]].{{sfn|Lawergren|2001|loc=§5 "Sassanian period, 224–651 CE"}} From these royal modes, Barbad created {{ill|سی لحن باربد|fa|lt=30 "derivative modes" (''lahn'')}}, and 360 [[melodies]] (''dastan'').{{sfn|During|1991a|p=39}}{{sfn|Farhat|2001|loc=§1 "History"}}{{refn|See {{harvtxt|Farmer|1926}} for a list of all the purported 30 modes.|group=n}} The structure of seven, 30 and 360 variations corresponds to the number of days, weeks and months of the [[Zoroastrian calendar]].{{sfn|Lawergren|2001|loc=§5 "Sassanian period, 224–651 CE"}}{{refn|Scholar [[Bo Lawergren]] notes that having 360 to match the days of a year ignores the five [[Intercalation (timekeeping)|intercalary]] days.{{sfn|Lawergren|2001|loc=§5 "Sassanian period, 224–651 CE"}}|group=n}} Farhat notes that the exact reason for this is not known,{{sfn|Farhat|2001|loc=§5 "Sassanian period, 224–651 CE"}} though according to the 14th-century poet [[Hamdallah Mustawfi]]'s ''[[Tarikh-i guzida]]'', Barbad sang one of the 360 melodies each day for the Shahanshah.{{sfn|Tafazzoli|1988|loc=§ para. 6}} Al-Tha'alibi recorded that the seven royal modes were still in use during his lifetime,{{sfn|Youssefzadeh|2012}} from 961 to 1039.{{sfn|Orfali|2009|p=273}} Further information on the nature of these subjects, theories or compositions has not survived.{{sfn|Farhat|2004|p=3}} In her analysis of the historical and literary sources concerning Barbad, musicologist Firoozeh Khazrai stated that "until a new independent source on the subject comes to light, many of these attributions should be regarded as authorial inventions".{{sfn|Khazrai|2016|p=171}} She noted that many of the attributions to Barbad date centuries after his death and the 30 modes in particular are first connected to Barbad by Nizami, who lived in the 12th century.{{sfn|Khazrai|2016|pp=170–171}} In addition, in his [[diwan (poetry)|divan]] (collection of poems), the 11th-century poet [[Manuchehri]] names a few of the modes that Nizami mentioned but does not associate them with Barbad, even though he references the Sasanian musician elsewhere.{{sfn|Khazrai|2016|p=170}}

==Reputation==
[[File:Barbod relief.jpg|thumb|upright=1.2|Relief of Barbad in the [[Sangtarashan cave]] of [[Jahrom]], Iran]]
Barbad's lute was the four-stringed ''[[Barbat (lute)|barbat]]''.{{sfn|Blum|2001b|loc=§4 "Instruments"}}{{sfn|Farhat|2012|loc="Instruments"}} It had been popular in his time, but no traces of the instrument survive and it was eventually substituted for the [[oud]].{{sfn|During|Mirabdolbaghi|1991a|p=106}} The musicologists [[Jean During]] and Zia Mirabdolbaghi note that despite the instrument's gradual disuse, "the term ''barbat'' survived for centuries, through classical poetry, as a symbol of the golden age of the Persian musical tradition, served by artists such as Bārbad."{{sfn|During|Mirabdolbaghi|1991a|p=106}} Later sources regularly praise Barbad and some offer him the [[epitaph]] as the "founder of Persian music".{{sfn|Lawergren|2001|loc=§5 "Sassanian period, 224–651 CE"}} He is regarded as the most significant musician of his time,{{sfn|Farhat|2004|p=3}} being among the major figures in the history of [[Iranian music|Iranian/Persian music]].{{sfn|Nettl|2012}} In ''Sharh bar Kitāb al-adwar'', the 14th-century writer [[al-Sharif al-Jurjani]]—whom the work is attributed to—says:

{{quote|"Among the ancient musicians, there were those who never played the same melody twice in presence of the king. Such was Barbad, who lived during the time of [Khosrow II]. He took care to study his audience well. He paid attention to the disposition of his listeners' souls, and then he would improvise words and a melody suited to the occasion and corresponding perfectly to each person's desire. His fame spread throughout the world, and [Khosrow] boasted about the fact that neither the kings of the past, nor those of his time, possessed such an artist."|source=[[Al-Sharif al-Jurjani|al-Jurjani]] ({{Abbr|attri.|attributed}}), ''Sharh bar Kitāb al-adwar''{{sfn|During|1991a|p=39}}{{refn|Recorded by [[Rodolphe d'Erlanger]] (1938).{{sfn|During|1991a|p=39}}|group=n}}}}

The preponderance and frequent transmission of stories involving Barbad attest to his popularity long after his death.{{sfn|Kia|2016|p=153}}{{sfn|Khazrai|2016|p=167}} In modern-day Iran, Afghanistan and [[Tajikistan]], Barbad continues to be a celebrated figure.{{sfn|Kia|2016|p=153}} In 1989 and 1990 the cultural establishment of the [[Tajiks|Tajik]] government encouraged their people to find pride in Barbad's achievements; the panegyrics given for Barbad are part of a larger effort by the Tajik government to pass off the "achievements of pre-Islamic Iranian civilization" as Tajik ones.{{sfn|Manz|1998|p=137}} The largest musical hall of [[Dushanbe]], Tajikistan, is named "Kokhi Borbad" after Barbad.{{sfn|Kia|2016|p=153}} 

Musicologist Firoozeh Khazrai sums up Barbad's legacy as such:

{{quote|"From the sources and nature of the things attributed to Barbad, we can conclude that Barbad survived in an oral popular culture that immortalized him by continually retelling old stories about him, and the legendary power of his music, and by spinning out new ones. While all these stories mythologize Barbad without telling us any solid information about the actual nature of his music, they underscore the unparalleled authority of the minstrel and the powerful grip he and his music continued to exercise on the imagination of the people in the post-Sasanian era."|source=Firoozeh Khazrai{{sfn|Khazrai|2016|p=167}}}}

<gallery mode="packed" heights="280px" perrow="3">
File:King Khusraw Parviz Listening to Barbad the Concealed Musician- Illustration from a manuscript of the Shahnama (Book of kings) LACMA M.73.5.406.jpg|Illustration from the ''[[Shahnameh]]'' with Barbad in a tree in the top right. The work is kept at the [[Los Angeles County Museum of Art]]{{sfn|LA County Museum of Art}}
File:Khalili Collection Islamic Art MSS 1030-731a.jpg|1535 painting of Barbad (pictured in the tree), attributed to {{ill|میرزا_علی_نگارگر|fa|lt=Mirza Ali}}
</gallery>

==References==
===Notes===
{{Reflist|group=n|colwidth=24em}}

===Citations===
{{reflist}}

===Sources===
:'''Books'''
{{refbegin|30em}}
* {{cite book |last=Curtis |first=Vesta Sarkhosh |author-link=Vesta Sarkhosh Curtis |year=2003 |title=World of Myths |chapter=Persian Myths |publisher=[[University of Texas Press]] |location=Austin |isbn=978-0-292-70607-1 |url={{google books|plainurl=y|id=xr7wES9T-ksC}} }}
* {{cite book |editor-last1=During |editor-first1=Jean |editor-link1=Jean During |editor-last2=Mirabdolbaghi |editor-first2=Zia |year=1991 |title=The Art of Persian Music |publisher=Mage Publishers |location=Washington D.C. |isbn=978-0-934211-22-2 }}
** {{harvc |last=During |first=Jean |author-link=Jean During  |in1=During |in2=Mirabdolbaghi |year=1991 |anchor-year=1991a |chapter=Historical Survey |pages=31–56 }}
** {{harvc |last=During |first=Jean |author-link=Jean During |in1=During |in2=Mirabdolbaghi |year=1991 |anchor-year=1991b |chapter=Poetry and Music |pages=153–166 }}
** {{harvc |last1=During |first1=Jean |author-link=Jean During |last2=Mirabdolbaghi |first2=Zia |in1=During |in2=Mirabdolbaghi |year=1991 |anchor-year=1991a |chapter=The Instruments of Yesterday and Today |pages=99–152 }}
* {{cite book |last=Farhat |first=Hormoz |author-link=Hormoz Farhat |year=2004 |title=The Dastgah Concept in Persian Music |publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]] |location=Cambridge |isbn=978-0-521-54206-7 |url={{google books|plainurl=y|id=NiMhWnYDuQMC}} }}
* {{cite book |last=Khazrai |first=Firoozeh |editor-last1=Talattof |editor-first1=Kamran |editor-link1=Kamran Talattof |editor-last2=Clinton |editor-first2=Jerome W. |editor-link2=Jerry Clinton |year=2016 |orig-year=2000 |title=The Poetry of Nizami Ganjavi: Knowledge, Love, and Rhetoric |chapter=Music in ''Khusraw Va Shirin'' |publisher=[[Palgrave Macmillan]] |location=London |isbn=978-1-137-09836-8 |url={{google books|plainurl=y|id=S3AYDAAAQBAJ}} }}
* {{cite book |last=Kia |first=Mehrdad |authorlink=Mehrdad Kia|year=2016 |title=The Persian Empire: A Historical Encyclopedia |volume=2 |series=Empires of the World |publisher=[[ABC-CLIO]] |location=Santa Barbara |isbn=978-1-61069-391-2 |url={{google books|plainurl=y|id=B5BHDAAAQBAJ}} }}
* {{cite book |last=Lucas |first=Ann E. |year=2019 |title=Music of a Thousand Years: A New History of Persian Musical Traditions |publisher=[[University of California Press]] |location=Berkeley |isbn=978-0-520-97203-2 |url={{google books|plainurl=y|id=Mln0DwAAQBAJ}} |jstor=j.ctv1f884pp }}
* {{cite book |editor-last=Manz |editor-first=Beatrice F. |year=1998 |orig-year=1994 |title=Central Asia In Historical Perspective |series=The John M. Olin Critical Issue Series |publisher=[[Westview Press]] |location=Boulder |isbn=978-0-8133-3638-1 }}
* {{cite book |last=Miller |first=Lloyd |author-link=Lloyd Miller (musician) |year=2012 |title=Music and Song in Persia: The Art of Avaz |publisher=[[Taylor & Francis]] |location=Abingdon-on-Thames |isbn=978-1-136-81487-7 |url={{google books|plainurl=y|id=zfr1odMhpUsC}} }}
* {{cite book |last=Tafazzoli |first=A. |author-link=Ahmad Tafazzoli |editor-last1=Gignoux |editor-first1=Ph.<!--ilippe--> |editor-last2=Tafazzoli |editor-first2=A. |year=1974 |title=Mémorial Jean de Menasce |chapter=Some Middle-Persian Quotations in Classical Arabic and Persian Texts |publisher=Imprimerie Orientaliste Louvain |location=Tehran and Liège |pages=337–349 |oclc=469830825 }}
{{refend}}

:'''Articles'''
{{refbegin|30em}}
* {{cite encyclopedia |last=Blum |first=Stephen |title=The Garland Encyclopedia of World Music: The world's music : General perspectives and reference tools |author-link=Stephen Blum |editor-last1=Danielson |editor-first1=Virginia |editor-last2=Reynolds |editor-first2=Dwight |editor-last3=Marcus |editor-first3=Scott |year=2001a |encyclopedia=[[The Garland Encyclopedia of World Music]]: The Middle East |chapter=Iran: An Introduction |publisher=[[Routledge]] |location=New York |isbn=978-0-8240-6042-8 }}
* {{cite encyclopedia |last=Blum |first=Stephen |author-link=Stephen Blum |year=2001b |encyclopedia=[[Grove Music Online]] |title=Central Asia |publisher=[[Oxford University Press]] |location=Oxford |doi=10.1093/gmo/9781561592630.article.05284 |isbn=978-1-56159-263-0 |url-access=subscription |url=https://www.oxfordmusiconline.com/grovemusic/view/10.1093/gmo/9781561592630.001.0001/omo-9781561592630-e-0000005284 }} {{Grove Music subscription}}
* {{cite journal |last=Farhat |first=Hormoz |author-link=Hormoz Farhat |year=2012 |title=An Introduction to Persian Music |journal=Catalogue of the Festival of Oriental Music |publisher=[[University of Durham]] |location=Durham |url=http://www.dl.edi-info.ir/An%20Introduction%20to%20Persian%20Music.pdf }}
* {{cite journal |last=Farmer |first=Henry George |author-link=Henry George Farmer |date=January 1926 |title=The Old Persian Musical Modes |journal=The Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society of Great Britain and Ireland |publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]] |location=Cambridge |volume=1 |issue=1 |pages=93–95 |doi=10.1017/S0035869X00055593 |jstor=25220900 |s2cid=163387136 }}
* {{cite encyclopedia |last1=Lawergren |first1=Bo |author-link1=Bo Lawergren |last2=Farhat |first2=Hormoz |author-link2=Hormoz Farhat |last3=Blum |first3=Stephen |author-link3=Stephen Blum |year=2001 |encyclopedia=[[Grove Music Online]] |title=Iran |publisher=[[Oxford University Press]] |location=Oxford |doi=10.1093/gmo/9781561592630.article.13895 |isbn=978-1-56159-263-0 |url-access=subscription |url=https://www.oxfordmusiconline.com/grovemusic/view/10.1093/gmo/9781561592630.001.0001/omo-9781561592630-e-0000013895 }} {{Grove Music subscription}}
** {{harvc |last=Lawergren |first=Bo |author-link=Bo Lawergren |in1=Lawergren |in2=Farhat |in3=Blum |year=2001 |chapter=I. Pre-Islamic}}
** {{harvc |last=Farhat |first=Hormoz |author-link=Hormoz Farhat |in1=Lawergren |in2=Farhat |in3=Blum |year=2001 |chapter=II. Classical traditions }}
* {{cite encyclopedia |last=Nettl |first=Bruno |author-link=Bruno Nettl |year=2012 |orig-year=2006 |encyclopedia=[[Encyclopædia Iranica]] |title=Iran xi. Music |publisher=[[Brill Publishers]] |location=Leiden |url=https://iranicaonline.org/articles/iran-xi-persian-music }}
* {{cite journal |last=Orfali |first=Bilal |author-link=Bilal Orfali |date=2009 |title=The Works of Abū Manṣūr al-Tha'ālibī (350-429/961-1039) |journal=Journal of Arabic Literature |publisher=[[Brill Publishers]] |location=Leiden |volume=40 |issue=3 |pages=273–318 |doi=10.1163/008523709X12554960674539 |jstor=20720591 }}
* {{cite encyclopedia |last=Tafazzoli |first=A. |author-link=Ahmad Tafazzoli |year=1988 |encyclopedia=[[Encyclopædia Iranica]] |title=Bārbad |publisher=[[Brill Publishers]] |location=Leiden |url=https://iranicaonline.org/articles/barbad-minstrel }}
* {{cite encyclopedia |last=Youssefzadeh |first=Ameneh |year=2012 |orig-year=2002 |encyclopedia=[[Encyclopædia Iranica]] |title=Haft Ḵosravāni |publisher=[[Brill Publishers]] |location=Leiden |url=https://iranicaonline.org/articles/haft-kosravani }}
* {{cite encyclopedia |year=2001 |encyclopedia=[[Grove Music Online]] |title=Bārbad |publisher=[[Oxford University Press]] |location=Oxford |doi=10.1093/gmo/9781561592630.article.01979 |isbn=978-1-56159-263-0 |url-access=subscription |url=https://www.oxfordmusiconline.com/grovemusic/view/10.1093/gmo/9781561592630.001.0001/omo-9781561592630-e-0000001979 |ref={{sfnRef|''Grove''|2001}} }} {{Grove Music subscription}}
{{refend}}

:'''Web'''
{{refbegin|30em}}
* {{cite web |url=https://www.brooklynmuseum.org/opencollection/objects/43541 |title=Bahram Gur and Courtiers Entertained by Barbad the Musician, Page from a manuscript of the Shahnama of Firdawsi (d. 1020) |publisher=[[Brooklyn Museum]] |access-date=4 January 2021 |ref={{sfnRef|Brooklyn Museum}} }}
* {{cite web |title=King Khusraw Parviz Listening to Barbad the Concealed Musician, Page from a Manuscript of the Shahnama (Book of Kings) of Firdawsi |publisher=[[Los Angeles County Museum of Art]] |url=https://collections.lacma.org/node/239673 |access-date=23 July 2021 |ref={{sfnRef|LA County Museum of Art}} }}
{{refend}}

==Further reading==
{{refbegin}}
* {{cite journal |last=Boyce |first=Mary |author-link=Mary Boyce |year=1957 |title=The Parthian Gōsān and Iranian Minstrel Tradition |journal=[[Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society]] |volume=89 |issue=1–2 |pages=10–45 |publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]] |doi=10.1017/S0035869X0010735X |jstor=25201987 |s2cid=161761104 |ref=none}}
* {{cite journal |last=Browne |first=Edward G. |author-link=Edward Granville Browne |date=January 1899 |title=The Sources of Dawlatshāh; With Some Remarks on the Materials Available for a Literary History of Persia, and an Excursus on Bārbad and Rūdagī |journal=The Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society of Great Britain and Ireland |publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]] |pages=37–69 |jstor=25208066 |ref=none}}
* {{cite book |last=Christensen |first=Arthur |author-link=Arthur Christensen |editor=Gatha Society |year=1918 |title=Dastur Hoshang Memorial Volume: Being Papers on Iranian Subjects |chapter=Some Notes on Persian Melody-Names of the Sasanian Period |publisher=Fort Printing Press |location=Bombay |oclc=500234890 |url=https://babel.hathitrust.org/cgi/pt?id=umn.319510021032718&view=1up&seq=13&skin=2021 |chapter-url=https://babel.hathitrust.org/cgi/pt?id=umn.319510021032718&view=1up&seq=390&skin=2021 |ref=none}}
* {{cite journal |last=Key |first=Alexander |date=August 2018 |title=Translation of Poetry from Persian to Arabic: ʿAbd al-Qāhir al-Jurjānī and Others |journal=[[Journal of Abbasid Studies]] |volume=5 |issue=1–2 |pages=146–176 |url=https://brill.com/view/journals/jas/5/1-2/article-p146_6.xml?language=en |doi=10.1163/22142371-12340037 |s2cid=201011701 |ref=none|url-access=subscription }}
* {{cite book |last=Tafazzoli |first=Ahmad |editor-last1=Afsar |editor-first1=Iraj |editor-last2=Esfahanian |editor-first2=Karim |year=1988 |title=Namvara-ye Doktor Mahmud Afsar |chapter=Bārbad yā Pahlbad |volume=IV |publisher=Bonyadie Mowqufat-e Afsar<!--Uncertain publisher--> |location=Tehran |pages=2222–2235 |ref=none}}
{{Refend}}

==External links==
{{Commons category}}
[https://iranicaonline.org/articles/5-10-Nakisa-va-Barbad "Barbad and Nakisā"], a song inspired by Barbad performed by the [[Tanbur]] player Nur ʿAli Elāhi on ''[[Encyclopædia Iranica]]''

{{Medieval Perso-Arab music}}
{{Shahnameh}}
{{portal bar|Biography|Music|Iran}}
{{Authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Barbad}}
[[Category:Musicians from the Sasanian Empire]]
[[Category:Year of birth unknown]]
[[Category:Year of death unknown]]
[[Category:Shahnameh characters]]
[[Category:People from Jahrom]]
[[Category:People from Merv]]
[[Category:Iranian musicians]]
[[Category:Eastern lutes players]]
[[Category:7th-century Iranian people]]
[[Category:7th-century musicians]]