View source for Choctaw language

{{Short description|Muskogean language spoken in US}}
{{Use mdy dates|date=July 2024}}
{{Infobox language
| name             = Choctaw
| nativename       = {{lang|cho|Chahta anumpa}}
| states           = [[United States]]
| region           = From Southeastern [[Oklahoma]], to east-central [[Mississippi]] and into [[Louisiana]] and [[Tennessee]]
| ethnicity        = 20,000 [[Choctaw]] (2007)<ref name=e21/>
| speakers         = {{sigfig|9640|2}}
| date             = 2015 census
| ref              = e21
| familycolor      = American
| fam1             = [[Muskogean languages|Muskogean]]
| fam2             = Western
| nation           = [[Choctaw Nation of Oklahoma|Choctaw Nation]]
| iso2             = cho
| iso3             = cho
| glotto           = choc1276
| glottorefname    = Choctaw
| map              = Choctaw USC2000 PHS.svg
| mapcaption       = Current geographic distribution of the Choctaw language
| map2             = Oklahoma Indian Languages.png
| mapcaption2      = Distribution of [[Indigenous languages of the Americas|Native American languages]] in [[Oklahoma]]
| notice           = IPA
}}
{{Infobox ethnonym|person= |people= {{lang|cho|[[Choctaw|Chahta]]}} |language= {{lang|cho|Chahta anumpa}} |country= {{lang|cho|Chahta Okla}}}}
The '''Choctaw language''' (Choctaw: {{lang|cho|Chahta anumpa}}<ref>{{Cite book |last=Martin |first=Jack |title=New Choctaw Dictionary |publisher=The Choctaw Nation of Oklahoma |year=2016 |isbn=978-0-9840968-7-9 |location=Durant, Oklahoma |pages=40}}</ref>), spoken by the [[Choctaw]], an [[Indigenous people of the Southeastern Woodlands]], US, is a member of the [[Muskogean languages|Muskogean language family]]. [[Chickasaw language|Chickasaw]] is a separate but closely related language to Choctaw.<ref>Munro 1984</ref>

The Choctaw Nation of Oklahoma published the ''New Choctaw dictionary'' in 2016.

==Dialects==
There are three dialects of Choctaw (Mithun 1999):

# "Native" Choctaw on the [[Choctaw Nation of Oklahoma|Choctaw Nation]] in [[southeastern Oklahoma]]
# [[Mississippi Choctaw]] of Oklahoma on [[Chickasaw Nation]] of south-central Oklahoma (near Durwood)
# Choctaw of the [[Mississippi Band of Choctaw Indians]] near [[Philadelphia, Mississippi]]

Other speakers live near [[Tallahassee]], [[Florida]], and with the Koasati in [[Louisiana]], and also a few speakers live in [[Texas]] and [[California]].

==Phonology==
* More information on suffixes is in the [[#Morphology|Morphology]] section.

===Consonants===
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center"
! rowspan="2" |
! rowspan="2" | [[Labial consonant|Labial]]
! colspan="2" | [[Alveolar consonant|Alveolar]]
! rowspan="2" | [[Palatal consonant|Palatal]]
! rowspan="2" | [[Velar consonant|Velar]]
! rowspan="2" | [[Glottal consonant|Glottal]]
|-
! <small>[[Central consonant|central]]</small>
! <small>[[Lateral consonant|lateral]]</small>
|-
! [[Nasal consonant|Nasal]]
| {{IPA link|m}}
| {{IPA link|n}}
|
|
|
|
|-
! [[Stop consonant|Stop]]{{ref|1|1}}
| {{IPA link|p}} &nbsp; {{IPA link|b}}
| {{IPA link|t}}
|
|
| {{IPA link|k}}
| {{IPA link|ʔ}}{{ref|2|2}}
|-
! [[Affricate consonant|Affricate]]
|
|
|
| ch [{{IPA link|tʃ}}]
|
|
|-
! [[Fricative consonant|Fricative]]
| {{IPA link|f}}
| {{IPA link|s}}{{ref|3|3}}
| {{IPA link|ɬ}}
| sh [{{IPA link|ʃ}}]{{ref|3|3}}
|
| {{IPA link|h}}
|-
! [[Approximant consonant|Approximant]]
|
|
| {{IPA link|l}}
| y [{{IPA link|j}}]
| {{IPA link|w}}
|
|}

#{{note|1}} The only [[Voice (phonetics)|voiced]] stop is {{IPA|/b/}}. The [[Voicelessness|voiceless]] stops {{IPA|/p/}}, {{IPA|/t/}}, and {{IPA|/k/}} may become partially voiced between vowels, especially {{IPA|/k/}} and for male speakers. Also, the voiceless stops are slightly [[Aspirated consonant|aspirated]] at the onset of words<ref name="Broadwell15 2006">Broadwell (2006:15)</ref> and before stressed syllables, behaving like English voiceless plosives.
#{{note|2}} Controversially, some analyses suggest that all nouns end in an [[Underlying representation|underlying]] consonant phoneme.<ref name="Broadwell19-20 2006">Broadwell (2006:19-20)</ref> Nouns apparently ending in a vowel actually have a [[glottal stop]] {{IPA|/ʔ/}} or a [[voiceless glottal fricative|glottal fricative]] {{IPA|/h/}} as the final consonant. Such consonants become realized when suffixes are attached.
#{{note|3}} The distinction between phonemes {{IPA|/s/}} and {{IPA|/ʃ/}} is [[phoneme#Neutralization, archiphoneme, and underspecification|neutralized]] at the end of words.

====Free variation====
* There is [[free variation]] of some consonants in Choctaw with some speakers:<ref name="Broadwell15-20 2006">Broadwell (2006:15-20)</ref>
# /ɬ/, the voiceless lateral fricative, is pronounced as a voiceless dental fricative [θ]:<ref name="Broadwell15-20 2006" /> {{IPA|/ɬ/}}→{{IPA|[θ]}}.
# The voiceless labiodental fricative /f/ is pronounced as a voiceless bilabial fricative [ɸ]:<ref name="Broadwell15-20 2006" /> {{IPA|/f/}}→{{IPA|[ɸ]}}.

====Phonological processes of consonants====
* In Choctaw {{IPA|/k/}}, the [[voiceless velar plosive]], is often pronounced as {{IPA|[ɣ]}}, a [[voiced velar fricative]], between vowels.<ref name="Broadwell15 2006" />
: {{IPA|/k/}}→{{IPA|[ɣ]}}/V_V
: ''im-ofi-aki̱lih'' → [ɪmofiyəɣẽːlih]
: III-dog-indeed
: 'his own dog'

* The [[voiceless glottal fricative]] {{IPA|/h/}} is often pronounced like a [[voiceless palatal fricative]] {{IPA|[ç]}} when it precedes the [[voiceless palato-alveolar affricate]] {{IPA|/tʃ/}}.<ref name="Broadwell16 2006" />
: {{IPA|/h/}}→{{IPA|[ç]}}/_{{IPA|tʃ}}
: ''katihchish'' → [katɪçtʃɪʃ]
: 'how'

===Vowels===
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center"
! rowspan="2" |
! colspan="2" |[[Short vowel|Short]]{{ref|v1|1}}
! rowspan="2" |[[Long vowel|Long]]
! rowspan="2" |[[Nasal vowel|Nasal]]{{ref|v2|2}}
|-
!<small>tense</small>
!<small>lax</small>
|-
! [[Close front unrounded vowel|Close front]]
|{{IPA|i}}
|{{IPA|ɪ}}
|{{IPA|iː}}
|{{IPA|ĩː~ẽː}}
|-
! [[Close-mid back unrounded vowel|Close-mid back]]
|{{IPA|o}}
|{{IPA|ʊ}}
|{{IPA|oː}}
|{{IPA|õː}}
|-
! [[Open central unrounded vowel|Open central]]
|{{IPA|a}}
|{{IPA|ə}}
|{{IPA|aː}}
|{{IPA|ãː}}
|}

# {{note|v1}} Lax vowels occur more often in closed syllables.<ref name="Broadwell16-18 2006" /> In traditional orthography, ''ʋ'' usually indicates {{IPA|[ə]}} and ''u'' usually indicates {{IPA|[ʊ]}}. Exceptions include ''pokoli'' (''traditional'') for {{IPA|/pʊk.koli/}}, ''imalakusi'' for {{IPA|/imaːlakosi/}}. The traditional orthography does not distinguish lax and tense front vowels; instead it indicates {{IPA|/iː/}} with ''e''.
# {{note|v2}} Nasal vowels are intrinsically long.

====Pitch====
# In Choctaw, very few words are distinguished only by pitch accent.<ref name="Broadwell16-18 2006">Broadwell (2006:16-18)</ref> Nouns in Choctaw have pitch realization at the penultimate syllable or the ultimate syllable.<ref name="Broadwell16-18 2006" /> Verbs in Choctaw will have pitch realization at morphemes indicating tense, but sometimes, pitch directly precedes the tense morpheme.<ref name="Broadwell16-18 2006" />

===Syllable structure===
{| class="wikitable"
|+Syllables of Choctaw<ref name="Broadwell18-19 2006">Broadwell (2006:18-19)</ref>
! Light !! example !! meaning
|-
| V|| '''a'''.bih|| 'to kill'
|-
| CV|| '''no'''.sih|| 'to sleep
|-
! Heavy !! example !! meaning
|-
| VV|| '''ii'''.chih|| 'to drive'
|-
| CVV|| '''pii'''.ni'|| 'boat, train'
|-
| V̱|| '''a̱'''.chi'|| 'quilt'
|-
| CV̱|| '''ta̱'''.chi'|| 'corn'
|-
| VC||''' ish'''.ki'|| 'mother'
|-
| CVC|| ha.'''bish'''.ko'|| 'nose'
|-
! Superheavy !! example !! meaning
|-
| VVC|| '''óok'''.cha-cha|| 'she/he woke up and ...'
|-
| CVVC|| '''náaf'''.ka|| 'dress'
|-
| V̱C|| '''a̱t'''|| 'come and'
|-
| CV̱C|| ok.'''hi̱sh'''|| 'medicine'
|}

# As is in the chart above, there are three syllable structure types in Choctaw: light, heavy, and super heavy. Possible syllables in Choctaw must contain at least one vowel of any quality.<ref name="Broadwell18-19 2006">Broadwell (2006:18-19)</ref>
# Syllables cannot end with a consonant clusters CC. However, there is an exception with the structure *(C)VCC if a word in Choctaw ends with the suffix /-t/.<ref name="Broadwell18-19 2006" />
# Syllables do not begin with consonant clusters CC, but there is an exception in an initial /i-/ deletion, which results in a syllable *CCV .<ref name="Broadwell18-19 2006" />

====Rhythmic lengthening====
* Rhythmic lengthening is the process of lengthening the vowel duration of an even-numbered CV syllable in Choctaw. However, vowels at the end of words are not permitted to undergo that process. Also, if an even-numbered syllable is a verbal prefixes class I or III, the affix's vowel may not undergo lengthening, and the same holds true for noun prefixes class III as well.<ref name="Broadwell 21-26 2006">Broadwell (2006:21-26)</ref>
: CV-CV-CVC→CV-CV<big>'''꞉'''</big>-CVC
:salahatok→sala꞉hatok

====Smallest possible word====
* The smallest possible word in Choctaw must contain either two short vowels or one long vowel.<ref name="Broadwell 20 2006">Broadwell (2006:20)</ref>
*: ''ofi''' 'dog'
*: ''waak'' 'cow'

* /a-/ insertion: there are verbs with only one short vowel in their roots. Without an affix attached to the verb root, the verbs become impossible utterances because Choctaw requires either two short vowels or a long vowel for a word to be formed. An initial A-prefix is thus attached to the root of the verb.<ref name="Broadwell18-21 2006">Broadwell (2006:18-21)</ref>
: *bih → a-bih

===Phonological processes===
====Glide insertion====
* When a verb root ends with a long vowel, a glide /w/ or /j/ is inserted after the long vowel.<ref name="Broadwell125 2006">Broadwell (2006:125)</ref>
* ∅→/wa/ <big>'''/'''</big> V꞉____
# Where V꞉ is oo
# boo-a-h→bóowah
* ∅→/ja/ <big>'''/'''</big> V꞉____
# Where V꞉ can be either ii or aa
# talaa-a-h→talaayah

====/i-/ deletion====
* In Choctaw, there is a group of nouns which contain an initial /i-/ that encodes for 3rd person possession. It may be deleted, but if the /i/ is part of a VC syllable structure, the C is also deleted, because the resulting CCV syllable is rarely a permissible syllable structure at the onset of words.<ref name="Broadwell60-62 2006">Broadwell (2006:60-62)</ref>
:/i/→∅ <big>'''/'''</big> #____
: Part 1: /i + C/→∅ + /C/ <big>'''/'''</big> #____
: Part 2: /∅ + C/→∅ <big>'''/'''</big> #____
:ippókni'→ppókni'→pókni'

====/-l-/ infix assimilation====
* The verbal infix /l/ is pronounced /h, ch, or ɬ/ when /l/ precedes a voiceless consonant.<ref name="Broadwell124-125 2006">Broadwell (2006:124-125)</ref>
:l → {h, tʃ, ɬ} /_C<sub>[-voice]</sub>
:ho-l-tinah → ho-ɬ-tinah

====Phonological processes of the suffix /-li/====

* There are several assimilation processes that occur with the suffix /-li/. When the verbal suffix /-li/ is preceded by /f/ /ɫ/ /h/ /m/ /n/ or /w/, the /l/ assimilates to the corresponding consonant that precedes it.<ref name="Broadwell26-27 2006">Broadwell (2006:26-27)</ref> Also, the verbal suffix /-li/ is preceded by the consonant /b/, the /l/ is realized as /b/.<ref name="Broadwell26-27 2006" /> Third, when the verbal suffix /-li/ is preceded by the consonant /p/, the /p/ is pronounced as /b/.<ref name="Broadwell26-27 2006" /> Lastly, when the verbal suffix /-li/ is preceded by the consonant /t/, the /t/ is pronounced as /l/.<ref name="Broadwell26-27 2006" />
:/l/→/f, ɫ, h, m, n, w/ <big>'''/'''</big> /f, ɫ, h, m, n, w/____
: /kobaf-li-h/→ kobaaffih

: /l/→/b/ <big>'''/'''</big> /b/____
: /atob-li-h/→ atobbih

: /p/→/b/ <big>'''/'''</big> ____/l/
: /tap-li-h/→ tablih

: /t/→/l/ <big>'''/'''</big> ____/l/
: /palhat-li-h/→ pallalih

* There are two deletion processes that occur with the suffix /-li/. If the verbal suffix /-li/ precedes the verbal suffix /-tʃi/, the suffix /-li/ may be deleted if the resulting syllable, after deletion, is a consonant cluster.<ref name="Broadwell130 2006">Broadwell (2006:130)</ref> The other process occurs when the verbal suffix /-li/ precedes the suffix /-t/, which results with the suffix /-li/ being sometimes deleted if the syllable /-li/ has not already gone under phonological processes as described above.<ref name="Broadwell219 2006">Broadwell (2006:219)</ref>
:/li/→∅ <big>'''/'''</big> ____/tʃi/
:balii-li-chi-h→balii-chi-h

:/li/→∅ <big>'''/'''</big> ____/t/
:balii-li--h→balii-t

====Schwa insertion====
* Schwa insertion: when a glottal fricative {{IPA|/h/}} or a velar stop {{IPA|/k/}} precedes a voiced consonant within a consonant cluster, a schwa {{IPA|/ə/}} is inserted to break up the consonant cluster.<ref name="Broadwell16 2006">Broadwell (2006:16)</ref>
:∅→{{IPA|/ə/}} <big>'''/'''</big> {{IPA|/h/}}____[+voiced] consonant
:∅→{{IPA|/ə/}} <big>'''/'''</big> {{IPA|/k/}}____[+voiced] consonant
:'ahnih'→/ahənih/

====Vowel deletion====
* Vowel deletion is the process of a short vowel being deleted at a morpheme boundary. It occurs when an affix containing a short vowel at the morpheme boundary binds to a word that also contains a short vowel at the morpheme boundary.<ref name="Broadwell26 2006">Broadwell (2006:26)</ref>
# For most vowel deletion cases, the preceding short vowel is deleted at the morpheme boundary.<ref name="Broadwell26 2006" />
:V→∅ <big>'''/'''</big> ____V
:/baliil<big>'''i-aa'''</big>tʃĩ-h/→baliil<big>'''aa'''</big>tʃĩh
# If a class II suffix attaches to a word that results with two short vowels occurring together, the short vowel that follows the class II suffix is deleted.<ref name="Broadwell26 2006" />
:V→∅ <big>'''/'''</big> V____
:/s<big>'''a-i'''</big>baa-waʃoohah/→s<big>'''a'''</big>baa-waʃoohah

== Orthography ==
{{Multiple image
| align             = left
| direction         = vertical
| caption_align     = center
| width             = 400
| header            = Choctaw alphabet comparison
| image1            = Choctaw alphabet (Speller).svg
| caption1          = The Choctaw "Speller" alphabet as found in the ''chata Holisso Ai Isht Ia Ʋmmona – The Choctaw Spelling Book'', 1800s.
| image2            = Choctaw alphabet (Byington).svg
| caption2          = The Choctaw linguistic alphabet as found in the ''Choctaw Language Dictionary'' by Cyrus Byington and edited by [[John Swanton]], 1909.
| image3            = Choctaw alphabet.svg
| caption3          = The Modern Choctaw alphabet as used by the [[Mississippi Band of Choctaw Indians]], Present.
}}
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center"
|-
!IPA
!Linguistic
!CBTC{{ref|v1}}
!Mississippi
!Traditional
!Byington/Swanton
|-
! colspan="6" |Vowels
|-
| <big>a</big>
| colspan="5" |a
|-
|<big>i</big>
| colspan="5" |i
|-
|<big>o</big>
| colspan="5" |o
|-
! colspan="6" |Long
|-
| rowspan="2" |<big>aː</big>
| rowspan="2" |aa
| rowspan="2" |á
|á
| colspan="2" rowspan="2" |a
|-
|ā
|-
| rowspan="2" |<big>iː</big>
| rowspan="2" |ii
| rowspan="2" |í
|í
| colspan="2" rowspan="2" |e, i
|-
|ī
|-
| rowspan="2" |<big>oː</big>
| rowspan="2" |oo
| rowspan="2" |ó
|ó
| colspan="2" rowspan="2" |o
|-
|ō
|-
! colspan="6" |Nasal
|-
|<big>ãː</big>
| colspan="2" rowspan="2" |a̱
| rowspan="2" |ą
|a̱
|aⁿ
|-
|<small>'''+C'''</small>
| colspan="2" | am, an
|-
|<big>ĩː</big>
| colspan="2" rowspan="2" |i̱
| rowspan="2" |į
|i̱
|iⁿ
|-
|<small>'''+C'''</small>
| colspan="2" | im, in
|-
|<big>õː</big>
| colspan="2" rowspan="2" |o̱
| rowspan="2" |ǫ
|o̱
|oⁿ
|-
|<small>'''+C'''</small>
| colspan="2" | om, on, um, un
|-
! colspan="6" |Lax
|-
|<big>ə</big>
| colspan="3" |a
|ʋ{{ref|v2}}
|ạ
|-
|<big>ɪ</big>
| colspan="5" |i
|-
|<big>ʊ</big> 
| colspan="3" |o
| colspan="2" |u
|-
! colspan="6" |Consonants
|-
|<big>b</big>
| colspan="5" |b
|-
|<big>tʃ</big>
| colspan="2" |ch
|č
| colspan="2" |ch
|-
|<big>f</big>
| colspan="5" |f
|-
|<big>h</big>
| colspan="5" |h
|-
|<big>k</big>
| colspan="5" |k
|-
|<big>l</big>
| colspan="5" |l
|-
|<big>ɬ</big>
| colspan="2" | lh
|ł
|hl, lh {{ref|v3}}
|ł, lh {{ref|v4}}
|-
|<big>m</big>
| colspan="5" |m
|-
|<big>n</big>
| colspan="5" |n
|-
|<big>p</big>
| colspan="5" |p
|-
|<big>s</big>
| colspan="5" |s
|-
|<big>ʃ</big>
| colspan="2" |sh
|š
| colspan="2" |sh
|-
|<big>t</big>
| colspan="5" |t
|-
|<big>w</big>
| colspan="5" |w
|-
|<big>j</big>
| colspan="5" |y
|-
|<big>ʔ</big>
| colspan="1" |{{saltillo}}
| colspan="4" |∅
|}
The written Choctaw language is based upon the English version of the Roman alphabet and was developed in conjunction with the "civilization program" of the United States, a program to [[Westernization|westernize]] and [[Cultural assimilation of Native Americans|forcefully assimilate]] Indigenous Americans, particularly those adhering to what were to become the Five Civilized Tribes (of which the Choctaw are a part) into [[Anglo-Americans|Anglo-American Culture]] and Sympathies during the early 19th century. Although there are other variations of the Choctaw alphabet, the three most commonly seen are the Byington (Traditional), Byington/Swanton (Linguistic), and Modern (Mississippi Choctaw).

Many publications by linguists about the Choctaw language use a slight variant of the "modern (Mississippi Choctaw)" orthography listed here, where long vowels are written as doubled. In the "linguistic" version, the acute accent shows the position of the pitch accent, rather than the length of the vowel.

The discussion of Choctaw grammar below uses the linguistic variant of the orthography.

# {{note|v1}}Choctaw Bible Translation Committee
# {{note|v2}}Substituted with 'v' according to typesetting or encoding constraints.
# {{note|v3}}The former is used before a vowel; the latter, before a consonant. The intervocalic use of {{angbr|hl}} conflated the common consonant cluster /hl/ with /ɬ/.
# {{note|v4}}Dictionary editors John Swanton and Henry Halbert systematically replaced all instances of {{angbr|hl}} with {{angbr|ł}}, regardless whether {{angbr|hl}} stood for /ɬ/ or /hl/. Despite the editors' systematic replacement of all {{angbr|hl}} with {{angbr|ł}}, the digraph {{angbr|lh}} was allowed to stand.

==Morphology==
===Verbal morphology===
Choctaw verbs display a wide range of inflectional and derivational morphology. In Choctaw, the category of verb may also include words that would be categorized as adjectives or quantifiers in English. Verbs may be preceded by up to three prefixes and followed by as many as five suffixes. In addition, verb roots may contain infixes that convey aspectual information.

====Verb prefixes====
The verbal prefixes convey information about the arguments of the verb: how many there are and their person and number features. The prefixes can be divided into three sorts: [[Agreement (linguistics)|agreement]] markers, applicative markers, and [[Anaphora (linguistics)|anaphors]] (reflexives and reciprocals). The prefixes occur in the following order: agreement-anaphor-applicative-verb stem.

=====Agreement affixes=====
The agreement affixes are shown in the following chart. The only suffix among the personal agreement markers is the first-person singular class I agreement marker /-li/. Third-person is completely unmarked for class I and class II agreement arguments and never indicates number.<ref>Broadwell (2006:137-140)</ref>
 
{| class="wikitable" style="border: none; text-align: center;" 
|+
|- 
! colspan="3" rowspan="2" style="border: none; background: none;" | person markers 
! colspan="3" | class I  
! colspan="2" |class II  
! colspan="2" |class III  
! colspan="2" |class N 
! colspan="2" | imperative 
|- 
! <small>+s</small> || <small>+C</small> || <small>+V</small> !! <small>+C/i</small> || <small>+a/o</small> !! <small>+C</small> || <small>+V</small> !! <small>+C</small> || <small>+V</small> || <small>+C</small> || <small>+V</small> 
|- 
! rowspan="4" | first-person 
! rowspan="2" | singular  
! initial 
| colspan="3" rowspan="2" | -li 
| rowspan="2" align="center" | sa- 
| rowspan="2" align="center" | si- 
| align="center" | a̱- 
| align="center" | am- 
| colspan="2" rowspan="2" align="center" | ak- 
| colspan="2" rowspan="4" style="border: none; text-align: center;" | n/a 
|- 
! medial 
| align="center" | -sa̱- || align="center" | -sam- 
|- 
! colspan="2" | [[paucal]] 
| colspan="2" rowspan="2" align="center" | ii- 
| rowspan="2" align="center" | il- 
| colspan="2" align="center" | pi- 
| align="center" | pi̱- 
| align="center" | pim- 
| rowspan="2" align="center" | kii- 
| rowspan="2" align="center" | kil- 
|- 
! colspan="2" | plural 
| colspan="2" align="center" | hapi- 
| align="center" | hapi̱- 
| align="center" | hapim- 
|- 
! rowspan="2" | second-person  
! colspan="2" | singular 
| align="center" | is- 
| colspan="2" align="center" | ish- 
| colspan="2" align="center" | chi- 
| align="center" | chi̱- 
| align="center" | chim- 
| colspan="2" align="center" | chik- 
| colspan="2" align="center" | ∅ 
|- 
! colspan="2" style="border: none;" | plural 
| align="center" | has- 
| colspan="2" align="center" |hash- 
| colspan="2" align="center" |hachi- 
| hachi- |hachi̱- 
| hachim- 
| colspan="2" align="center" | hachik- 
| align="center" | ho- || align="center" | oh- 
|- 
! colspan="3" | third-person 
| colspan="3" align="center" |∅ 
| colspan="2" align="center" |∅ 
| align="center" | i̱- 
| align="center" | im- 
| colspan="2" align="center" | ik- 
| colspan="2" align="center" style="border: none;" |
|}

Some authors (Ulrich 1986, Davies, 1986) refer to class I as actor or nominative, class II as patient or accusative and class III as dative. Broadwell prefers the neutral numbered labels because the actual use of the affixes is more complex. This type of morphology is generally referred to as [[active–stative]] and [[polypersonal agreement]].

Class I affixes always indicate the subject of the verb. Class II prefixes usually indicate direct object of active verbs and the subject of stative verbs. Class III prefixes indicate the indirect object of active verbs. A small set of stative psychological verbs have class III subjects; an even smaller set of stative verbs dealing primarily with affect, communication and intimacy have class III direct objects.

======Active verbs======
As the chart above shows, there is no person-number agreement for third person arguments. Consider the following paradigms:

{| class="wikitable" style="border: none; text-align: center;" 
|+ hablitok ("kicked", past tense)
|- 
| style="background: none; border: none;" colspan="2" rowspan="2" {{diagonal split header|<sub>'''SUBJECT'''</sub>|<sup>'''DIRECT OBJECT'''</sup>}}  
! colspan="3" | first-person  
! colspan="2" | second-person 
! rowspan="2" | third-person 
|- 
! singular !! [[paucal]] !! plural !! singular !! plural 
|- 
! rowspan="2" | first-person 
! singular 
| ''ili-habli-li-tok''{{ref|v1|1}} <br> 'I kicked myself'
| ''pi-habli-li-tok'' <br> 'I kicked us (few)'
| ''hapi-habli-li-tok'' <br> 'I kicked us (all)'
| ''chi-habli-li-tok'' <br> 'I kicked you'
| ''hachi-habli-li-tok'' <br> 'I kicked you (pl.)'
| ''habli-li-tok'' <br> 'I kicked her/him/it/them'
|- 
! plural 
| ''ii-sa-habli-tok'' <br> 'we kicked me' 
| colspan="2" | ''il-ili-habli-tok''{{ref|v1|1}} <br> 'we kicked ourselves'
| ''ii-chi-habli-tok'' <br> 'we kicked you'
| ''ii-hachi-habli-tok'' <br> 'we kicked you (pl.)'
| ''ii-habli-tok'' <br> 'we kicked her/him/it/them'
|- 
! rowspan="2" | second-person 
! singular 
| ''is-sa-habli-tok'' <br> 'you kicked me'
| ''ish-pi-habli-tok'' <br> 'you kicked us (few)'
| ''ish-hapi-habli-tok'' <br> 'you kicked us (all)' 
| ''ish-ili-habli-tok''{{ref|v1|1}} <br> 'you kicked yourself'
| ''ish-hachi-habli-tok'' <br> 'ýou kicked you (pl.)'
| ''ish-habli-tok'' <br> 'you kicked her/him/it/them'
|- 
! plural 
| ''has-sa-habli-tok'' <br> 'you (pl.) kicked me'
| ''hash-pi-habli-tok'' <br> 'you (pl.) kicked us (few)'
| ''hash-hapi-habli-tok'' <br> 'you (pl.) kicked us (all)'
| ''hash-chi-habli-tok'' <br> 'you (pl.) kicked you'
| ''hash-ili-habli-tok''{{ref|v1|1}} <br> 'you (pl.) kicked yourselves'
| ''hash-habli-tok'' <br> 'you (pl.) kicked her/him/it/them'
|- 
! colspan="2" | third-person 
| ''sa-habli-tok'' <br> 'she/he/it/they kicked me'
| ''pi-habli-tok'' <br> 'she/etc. kicked us (few)'
| ''hapi-habli-tok'' <br> 'she/etc. kicked us (all)'
| ''chi-habli-tok'' <br> 'she/etc. kicked you'
| ''hachi-habli-tok'' <br> 'she/etc. kicked you (pl.)'
| ''habli-tok'' <br> "she/etc. kicked her/him/it/them" <br> ''ili-habli-tok''{{ref|v1|1}} <br> 'she/etc. kicked herself/etc.'
|- 
|} 
# {{note|v1}} When the subject and object refer to the same thing or person ([[coreference]]), the reflexive ''ili-'' prefix is mandatory and used in place of the coreferent object.

Transitive active verbs seemingly with class III direct objects:

* ''Am-anoli-tok'' 'She/he/it/they told me.'
* ''Chim-anoli-tok'' 'She/he/it/they told you.'
* ''Im-anoli-tok'' 'She/he/it/they told him/her/it/them.'
* ''Pim-anoli-tok'' 'She/he/it/they told us.'
* ''Hachim-anoli-tok'' 'She/he/it/they told y'all.'

When a [[transitive verb]] occurs with more than one agreement prefix, I prefixes precede II and III prefixes:

{{interlinear
| lang = cho
| indent = 2
| top = {{lang|cho|Iichipi̱satok.}}|Ii- chi- pi̱sa -tok|1P.I- 2S.II- see{{angbr|{{gcl|NGR|n-grade}}}} -PT|'We saw you.'
}}

{{interlinear
| lang = cho
| indent = 2
| top = {{lang|cho|Ishpimanoolitok.}}|Ish- pim- anooli -tok.|2S.I- 1P.III- tell -PT|'You told us.'
}}

For intransitive verbs, the subjects of active verbs typically have class I agreement. Because third-person objects are unmarked, intransitive active verbs are indistinguishable in form from transitive active verbs with a third-person direct object.

======Stative verbs======
[[Image:Cyrus Byington.png|200px|right|thumb|Rev. [[Cyrus Byington]] worked nearly 50 years translating the [[Bible]] into Choctaw. He traveled with the [[Choctaw people|Choctaws]] from Mississippi to [[Indian Territory]] after their [[Choctaw Trail of Tears|forced relocation]].]]
The subjects of stative verbs typically have II agreement. A small set of psychological verbs have subjects with class III agreement.<ref>Broadwell (2006:140-142)</ref>

{{interlinear
| lang = cho
| indent = 2
| top = {{lang|cho|Baliililitok.}}|Baliili -li -tok|run -1S.I -PT|'I ran.'
}}

{{interlinear
| lang = cho
| indent = 2
| top = {{lang|cho|Saniyah.}}|Sa- niya -h.|1S.II- fat -TNS|'I am fat.'
}}

{{interlinear
| lang = cho
| indent = 2
| top = {{lang|cho|A̱ponnah.}}|A̱- ponna -h.|1S.III- skilled -TNS|'I am skilled.'
}}

=====Negatives=====
The set of agreement markers labelled N above is used with negatives.<ref>Broadwell (2006:148-152)</ref> Negation is multiply marked, requiring that an agreement marker from the N set replace the ordinary I agreement, the verb appear in the lengthened grade (see discussion below), and that the suffix /-o(k)-/ follow the verb, with deletion of the preceding final vowel. The optional suffix /-kii/ may be added after /-o(k)-/. Consider the following example:

{{interlinear
| lang = cho
| indent = 2
| top = {{lang|cho|Akiiyokiittook.}}|Ak- iiya -o -kii -ttook|1S.N- go{{angbr|{{gcl|LGR|l-grade}}}} -NEG -NEG -DPAST|'I did not go.'
}}

Compare this with the affirmative counterpart:

{{interlinear
| lang = cho
| indent = 2
| top = {{lang|cho|Iyalittook.}}|Iya -li -ttook.|go -1S.I -DPAST|'I went'.
}}

To make this example negative, the 1sI suffix /-li/ is replaced by the 1sN prefix /ak-/; the verb root ''iya'' is lengthened and accented to yield ''íiya''; the suffix /-o/ is added, the final vowel of ''iiya'' is deleted, and the suffix /-kii/ is added.

=====Anaphoric prefixes=====
Reflexives are indicated with the /ili-/ prefix, and reciprocals with /itti-/:<ref>Broadwell (2006:98-99)</ref>

{{interlinear
| lang = cho
| indent = 2
| top = {{lang|cho|Ilipi̱salitok.}}|Ili- pi̱sa -li -tok.|REFL- see{{angbr|{{gcl|NGR|n-grade}}}} -1S.I -PT|'I saw myself'.
}}

====Verb suffixes====
:While the verbal prefixes indicate relations between the verb and its arguments, the suffixes cover a wider semantic range, including information about valence, modality, tense and evidentiality.

The following examples show modal and tense suffixes like /-aachii̱/ 'irrealis'(approximately equal to future), /-tok/ 'past tense', /-h/ 'default tenses':<ref>Broadwell (2006:169-183)</ref>

{{interlinear
| lang = cho
| indent = 2
| top = {{lang|cho|Baliilih.}}|Baliili -h.|run -TNS|'She runs.'
}}

{{interlinear
| lang = cho
| indent = 2
| top = {{lang|cho|Baliilaachi̱h.}}|Baliili -aachi̱ -h.|run -IRR -TNS|'She will run.'
}}

There are also suffixes that show evidentiality, or the source of evidence for a statement, as in the following pair:<ref>Broadwell (2006:184-190)</ref>

{{interlinear
| lang = cho
| indent = 2
| top = {{lang|cho|Nipi awashlihli.}}|Nipi awashli -hli|meat fry -{{gcl|FIRST:HAND|first hand evidential}}|'She fried the meat.' (I saw/heard/smelled her do it.)
}}

{{interlinear
| lang = cho
| indent = 2
| top = {{lang|cho|Nipi awashlitoka̱sha.}}|Nipi awashli -tok -a̱sha|meat fry -PT -{{gcl|GUESS|guess evidential}}|'She fried the meat.' (I guess)
}}

There are also suffixes of illocutionary force which may indicate that the sentence is a question, an exclamation, or a command:<ref>Broadwell (2006:191-193)</ref>

{{interlinear
| lang = cho
| indent = 2
| top = {{lang|cho|Awashlitoko̱?}}|Awashli -tok -o̱|fry -PT -Q|'Did she fry it?'
}}

{{interlinear
| lang = cho
| indent = 2
| top = {{lang|cho|Chahta siahokii!}}|Chahta si- a -h -okii|Choctaw 1S.II- be -TNS -EXCL|'I'm Choctaw!' or 'I certainly am a Choctaw!'
}}

====Verbal infixes====
Choctaw verb stems have various infixes that indicate their aspect.<ref>Broadwell (2006:161-168)</ref> These stem variants are traditionally referred to as 'grades'. The table below shows the grades of Choctaw, along with their main usage.

{| class="wikitable"
|-
! Name of Grade
! How it is formed
! When it is used
|-
| n-grade
| infix n in the next to last (penultimate) syllable; put accent on this syllable
| to show that the action is durative (lasts some definite length of time)
|-
| l-grade
| put accent on next to last (penultimate) syllable; lengthen the vowel if the syllable is open
| before a few common suffixes, such as the negative /-o(k)/ and the switch-reference markers /-cha/ and /-na/
|-
| hn-grade
| insert a new syllable /-hV̱/ after the (original) next to last (penultimate) syllable. V̱ is a nasalized copy of the vowel that precedes it.
| to show that the action of the verb repeats
|-
| y-grade
| insert -Vyy- before the next to last (penultimate) syllable
| to show delayed inception
|-
| g-grade
| formed by lengthening the penultimate vowel of the stem, accenting the antepenultimate vowel, and geminating the consonant that follows the antepenult.
| to show delayed inception
|-
| h-grade
| insert -h- after the penultimate vowel of the stem.
| to show sudden action
|}

Some examples that show the grades follow:

In this example the l-grade appears because of the suffixes /-na/ 'different subject' and /-o(k)/ 'negative':

{{interlinear
| lang = cho
| indent = 2
| top = {{lang|cho|... lowat taahana falaamat akiiyokiittook.}}|lowa -t taaha -na falaama -t ak- iiya- o -kii -ttook|burn -SS complete{{angbr|{{gcl|LGR|l-grade}}}} -DS return -SS 1S.N- go{{angbr|{{gcl|LGR|l-grade}}}} -NEG -NEG -DPAST|'... (the school) burned down and I didn't go back.'
}}

The g-grade and y-grade typically get translated into English as "finally VERB-ed":

{{interlinear
| lang = cho
| indent = 2
| top = {{lang|cho|Taloowah.}}|Taloowa -h|sing -TNS|'He sang.'
}}

{{interlinear
| lang = cho
| indent = 2
| top = {{lang|cho|Tálloowah.}}|Tálloowa -h|sing{{angbr|{{gcl|GGR|g-grade}}}} -TNS|'He finally sang.'
}}

The hn-grade is usually translated as 'kept on VERBing':

{{interlinear
| indent = 2
| top = {{lang|cho|Ohó̱bana nittak pókkooli oshtattook.}}|Ohó̱ba -na nittak pókkooli oshta -ttook|rain{{angbr|{{gcl|HNGR|hn-grade}}}} -DS day ten four -DPAST|'It kept on raining for forty days.'
}}

The h-grade is usually translated "just VERB-ed" or "VERB-ed for a short time":

{{interlinear
| Lang = cho
| indent = 2
| top = {{lang|cho|Nóhsih.}}|Nóhsi -h|sleep{{angbr|{{gcl|HGR|h-grade}}}} -TNS|'He took a quick nap.
}}

===Nominal morphology===

====Noun prefixes====
Nouns have prefixes that show agreement with a possessor.<ref>Broadwell (2006:52-63)</ref> Agreement markers from class II are used on a lexically specified closed class of nouns, which includes many (but not all) of the kinship terms and body parts. This is the class that is generally labeled [[Inalienable noun|inalienable]].

{{interlinear
| indent = 2
| top = {{lang|cho|sanoshkobo}}|sa- noshkobo|1S.II- head|'my head'
}}

{{interlinear
| indent = 2
| top = {{lang|cho|chinoshkobo}}|chi- noshkobo|2S.II- head|'your head'
}}

{{interlinear
| indent = 2
| top = {{lang|cho|noshkobo}}|noshkobo|head|'his/her/its/their head'
}}

{{interlinear
| indent = 2
| top = {{lang|cho|sashki}}|sa- ishki|1S.II- mother|'my mother'
}}

{{interlinear
| indent = 2
| top = {{lang|cho|chishki}}|chi- ishki|2S.II- mother|'your mother'
}}

Nouns that are not lexically specified for II agreement use the III agreement markers:

{{interlinear
| indent = 2
| top = {{lang|cho|a̱ki}}|a̱- ki'|1S.III- father|'my father'
}}

{{interlinear
| indent = 2
| top = {{lang|cho|amofi}}|am- ofi|1S.III- dog|'my dog'
}}

Although systems of this type are generally described with the terms alienable and inalienable, this terminology is not particularly appropriate for Choctaw, since alienability implies a semantic distinction between types of nouns. The morphological distinction between nouns taking II agreement and III agreement in Choctaw only partly coincides with the semantic notion of alienability.

====Noun suffixes====
Choctaw nouns can be followed by various determiner and case-marking suffixes, as in the following examples, where we see
determiners such as /-ma/ 'that', /-pa/ 'this', and /-akoo/ 'contrast' and case-markers /-(y)at/ 'nominative' and /-(y)a̱/ 'accusative':<ref>Broadwell (2006:64-92)</ref>

{{interlinear
| lang = cho
| indent = 2
| top = {{lang|cho|alla naknimat}}|alla nakni -m -at|child male -that -NOM|'that boy (nominative)'
}}

{{interlinear
| lang = cho
| indent = 2
| top = {{lang|cho|Hoshiit itti chaahamako̱ o̱biniilih.}}|Hoshi -at itti chaaha -m -ako̱ o̱- biniili -h|bird -NOM tree tall -that -CNTR:ACC SUPE- sit -TNS|'The bird is sitting on that tall tree.' (Not on the short one.)
}}

The last example shows that nasalizing the last vowel of the preceding N is a common way to show the accusative case.

===Word order and case marking===
:The simplest sentences in Choctaw consist of a verb and a tense marker, as in the following examples:<ref>Broadwell (2006:32)</ref>

{{interlinear
| lang = cho
| indent = 2
| top = {{lang|cho|O̱batok.}}|O̱ba -tok|rain -PT|'It rained.'
}}

{{interlinear
| lang = cho
| indent = 2
| top = {{lang|cho|Niyah.}}|niya -h|fat -TNS|'She/he/it is fat, they are fat.'
}}

{{interlinear
| lang = cho
| indent = 2
| top = {{lang|cho|Pi̱satok.}}|Pi̱sa- tok|see{{angbr|{{gcl|NGR|n-grade}}}} -PT|'She/he/it/they saw her/him/it/them.'
}}

:As these examples show, there are no obligatory noun phrases in a Choctaw sentence, nor is there any verbal agreement that indicates a third person subject or object. There is no indication of grammatical gender, and for third person arguments there is no indication of number. (There are, however, some verbs with suppletive forms that indicate the number of a subject or object, e.g. iyah 'to go (sg.)', ittiyaachih 'to go (du.)', and ilhkolih 'to go (pl)'.)

When there is an overt subject, it is obligatorily marked with the nominative case /-at/. Subjects precede the verb

{{interlinear
| lang = cho
| indent = 2
| top = {{lang|cho|Hoshiyat apatok.}}|hoshi -at apa -tok|bird -NOM eat -PT|'The birds ate them.'
}}

When there is an overt object, it is optionally marked with the accusative case /-a̱/

{{interlinear
| lang = cho
| indent = 2
| top = {{lang|cho|Hoshiyat sho̱shi(-ya̱) apatok.}}|hoshi -at sho̱shi (-a̱) apa -tok.|bird -NOM bug -(ACC) eat -PT|'The birds ate the bugs.'
}}

The Choctaw sentence is normally verb-final, and so the head of the sentence is last.

Some other phrases in Choctaw also have their head at the end. Possessors precede the possessed noun in the Noun Phrase:

{{interlinear
| lang = cho
| indent = 2|ofi hohchifo|dog name|'the dog's name'
}}

Choctaw has postpositional phrases with the postposition after its object:

{{interlinear
| lang = cho
| indent = 2|tamaaha bili̱ka|town near|'near a town'
}}

==Vocabulary==
Some common Choctaw phrases (written in the "Modern" orthography):

*Choctaw: ''{{Lang|cho|Chahta}}''
*hi: ''{{Lang|cho|Halito!}}''
*See you later!: ''{{Lang|cho|Chi pisa la chike!}}''
*number: ''{{Lang|cho|holhtina/holhtini}}''
*Thank you: ''{{Lang|cho|Yakóki}}''
*What is your name?: ''{{Lang|cho|Chi hohchifo yat nanta?}}''
*My name is...: ''{{Lang|cho|Sa hohchifo yat...}}''
*yes: ''{{Lang|cho|a̱}}''
*no: ''{{Lang|cho|kíyo}}''
*okay: ''{{Lang|cho|ohmi}}''
*I don't understand.: ''{{Lang|cho|Ak akostiníncho.}}''
*I don't know.: ''{{Lang|cho|Ak ikháno.}}''
*Do you speak Choctaw?: ''{{Lang|cho|Chahta imanompa ish anompola hinla ho̱?}}''
*What is that?: ''{{Lang|cho|Yammat nanta?}}''

Other Choctaw words:

*Cherokee: ''{{Lang|cho|Chalaki}}''
*Chickasaw: ''{{Lang|cho|Chickashsha}}''
*Seminole: ''{{Lang|cho|Siminóli}}''
*Creek/Muskogee: ''{{Lang|cho|Maskóki}}''
*today: ''{{Lang|cho|himak nittak}}''
*tonight: ''{{Lang|cho|himak ninak}}''
*tomorrow: ''{{Lang|cho|onnakma}}''
*yesterday: ''{{Lang|cho|piláshásh}}''
*month: ''{{Lang|cho|hashi}}''
*year: ''{{Lang|cho|affami}}''
*2009: {{Lang|cho|talhípa sippokni toklo akochcha chakkali}}
*house: ''{{Lang|cho|chokka}}''
*school: ''{{Lang|cho|holisso ápisa}}''
*cat: ''{{Lang|cho|katos}}''
*dog: ''{{Lang|cho|ofi}}''
*cow: ''{{Lang|cho|wák}}''
*horse: ''{{Lang|cho|issoba/soba}}''

Counting to twenty:

*one: ''{{Lang|cho|achaffa}}''
*two: ''toklo''
*three: ''{{Lang|cho|tochchína}}''
*four: ''{{Lang|cho|oshta}}''
*five: ''{{Lang|cho|talhlhapi}}''
*six: ''{{Lang|cho|hannali}}''
*seven: ''{{Lang|cho|o̱toklo}}''
*eight: ''{{Lang|cho|o̱tochchina}}''
*nine: ''{{Lang|cho|chakkali}}''
*ten: ''{{Lang|cho|pokkoli}}''
*eleven: ''{{Lang|cho|awahachaffa}}''
*twelve: ''{{Lang|cho|awahtoklo}}''
*thirteen: ''{{Lang|cho|awahtochchina}}''
*fourteen: ''{{Lang|cho|awahoshta}}''
*fifteen: ''{{Lang|cho|awahtalhlhapi}}''
*sixteen: ''{{Lang|cho|awahhannali}}''
*seventeen: ''{{Lang|cho|awaho̱toklo}}''
*eighteen: ''{{Lang|cho|awaho̱tohchínah}}''
*nineteen: ''{{Lang|cho|abichakkali}}''
*twenty: ''{{Lang|cho|pokkoli toklo}}''

At "''Native Nashville''" web [https://web.archive.org/web/20120211172945/http://www.nativenashville.com/language/tutor_chata.php], there is an Online Choctaw Language Tutor, with Pronunciation Guide and four lessons: Small Talk, Animals, Food and Numbers.

==See also==
*[[Choctaw Code Talkers]]
*[[List of placenames of Choctaw origin]]

==References==
{{Reflist}}

==Sources==
* Broadwell, George Aaron. (2006). ''A Choctaw Reference Grammar''. Lincoln, NE: University of Nebraska Press. {{ISBN|0-8032-1315-8}}.

==Further reading==
* {{cite journal |last=Broadwell |first=George Aaron |year=1991 |title=Speaker and self in Choctaw |journal=International Journal of American Linguistics |volume=57 |issue=4 |pages=411–425|doi=10.1086/ijal.57.4.3519733 |s2cid=152104893 }}
* {{cite book |last=Byington |first=Cyrus |date=1915 |title=A dictionary of the Choctaw language |editor-first1=J. R. |editor-last1=Swanton |editor-first2=H. S. |editor-last2=Halbert |series=Bureau of American Ethnology bulletin |volume=46 |location=Washington, DC |publisher=Government Printing Office}} (Reprinted 1973 & 1978). [[iarchive:choctawlanguag00byinrich]], [https://repository.si.edu/handle/10088/15514 si.edu].
* {{cite book |last=Davies |first=William |year=1986 |title=Choctaw verb agreement and universal grammar |publisher=Reidel}}
* {{cite book |last=Downing |first=Todd |author-link=Todd Downing (writer) |year=1974 |title={{lang|cho|Chahta anompa}}: An introduction to the Choctaw language |edition=3rd |location=Durant, OK |publisher=Choctaw Bilingual Education Program, Southeastern Oklahoma State University}}
* {{cite book |last1=Haag |first1=Marcia |last2=Willis |first2=Henry |year=2001 |title=Choctaw Language & Culture: Chahta Anumpa |publisher=University of Oklahoma Press}}
* {{cite AV media |last1=Haag |first1=Marcia |last2=Fowler |first2=Loretta |year=2001 |title={{lang|cho|Chahta Anumpa}}: A Choctaw Tutorial CD-ROM |publisher=University of Oklahoma Press}}
* {{cite journal |last=Heath |first=Jeffrey |year=1977 |title=Choctaw cases |journal=Proceedings of the Berkeley Linguistic Society |volume=3 |pages=204–213|doi=10.3765/bls.v3i0.3289 }}
* {{cite journal |last=Heath |first=Jeffrey |year=1980 |title=Choctaw suppletive verbs and derivational morphology |journal=Kansas Working Papers in Linguistics |volume=5 |pages=1–24 |doi=10.17161/KWPL.1808.542 |doi-access=free|hdl=1808/542 |hdl-access=free }}
* {{cite book |last1=Howard |first1=Gregg |last2=Eby |first2=Richard |last3=Jones |first3=Charles G. |year=1991 |title=Introduction to Choctaw: A primer for learning to speak, read and write the Choctaw language |location=Fayetteville, AR |publisher=VIP Publishers}}
* {{cite journal |last=Jacob |first=Betty |year=1980 |title=Choctaw and Chickasaw |journal=International Journal of American Linguistics |volume=46 |issue=1 |jstor=1264448 |doi=10.1086/465629|s2cid=224808522 }}
* {{cite book |last1=Jacob |first1=Betty |last2=Nicklas |first2=Thurston Dale |last3=Spencer |first3=Betty Lou |year=1977 |title=Introduction to Choctaw |location=Durant, OK |publisher=Choctaw Bilingual Education Program, Southeastern Oklahoma State University}}
* {{cite book |last=Mithun |first=Marianne |year=1999 |title=The languages of Native North America |location=Cambridge |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=0-521-23228-7}}
* {{cite book |last=Munro |first=Pamela |year=1987 |chapter=Some morphological differences between Chickasaw and Choctaw |editor-first=Pamela |editor-last=Munro |title=Muskogean linguistics |pages=119–133 |location=Los Angeles |publisher=University of California}}
* {{cite thesis |last=Nicklas |first=Thurston Dale |year=1974 |title=The elements of Choctaw |type=PhD dissertation |publisher=University of Michigan |location=Ann Arbor}}
* {{cite book |last=Nicklas |first=Thurston Dale |year=1975 |chapter=Choctaw morphophonemics |editor-first=J. |editor-last=Crawford |title=Studies in southeastern Indian languages |pages=237–249 |location=Athens |publisher=University of Georgia}}
* {{cite book |last=Nicklas |first=Thurston Dale |year=1979 |title=Reference grammar of the Choctaw language |location=Durant, OK |publisher=Choctaw Bilingual Education Program, Southeastern Oklahoma State University}}
* {{cite book |last=Pulte |first=William |year=1975 |chapter=The position of Chickasaw in Western Muskogean |editor-first=J. |editor-last=Crawford |title=Studies in southeastern Indian languages |pages=251–263 |location=Athens |publisher=University of Georgia}}
* {{cite thesis |last=Ulrich |first=Charles H. |year=1986 |title=Choctaw morphophonology |type=PhD dissertation |publisher=University of California |location=Los Angeles}}
* {{cite book |last=Ulrich |first=Charles H. |year=1987 |chapter=Choctaw g-grades and y-grades |editor-first=Pamela |editor-last=Munro |title=Muskogean linguistics |pages=171–178 |location=Los Angeles |publisher=University of California at Los Angeles, Department of Linguistics}}
* {{cite book |last=Ulrich |first=Charles H. |year=1987 |chapter=Choctaw verb grades and the nature of syllabification |editor-first1=A. |editor-last1=Bosch |editor-first2=B. |editor-last2=Need |editor-first3=E. |editor-last3=Schiller |title=Papers from the 23rd annual regional meeting |location=Chicago |publisher=Chicago Linguistic Society}}
* {{cite book |last=Ulrich |first=Charles H. |year=1988 |chapter=The morphophonology of Choctaw verb roots and valence suffixes |editor-first=W. |editor-last=Shipley |title=In honor of Mary Haas: From the Haas Festival conference on Native American linguistics |pages=805–818 |location=Berlin |publisher=Mouton de Gruyter}}

==External links==
{{Incubator|code=cho}}
{{wiktionarycat}}
*[https://archive.org/details/grammarofchoctaw00byin <!-- quote=cyrus byington. --> Cyrus Byington (1870) ''Grammar of the Choctaw Language''], [[American Philosophical Society]]
*[https://archive.org/details/holissoanumpatos00byin <!-- quote=cyrus byington. --> Cyrus Byington (1852) "English and Choctaw Definer"]
*[https://books.google.com/books?id=P-kNAAAAIAAJ&q=cyrus+byington Choctaw Dictionary]
*[https://archive.org/stream/chahtaleksikonch00wrig#page/n5/mode/2up Allen Wright (1880) Chahta leksikon]
*[https://archive.org/details/completechoctawd00watkrich Ben Watkins (1892) Complete Choctaw definer]
*[https://web.archive.org/web/20050126033313/http://www.choctaw.org/ Mississippi Band of Choctaw Indians]
*[http://www.choctawnation.com/ Choctaw Nation of Oklahoma]
*[https://web.archive.org/web/20060413121126/http://www.albany.edu/anthro/fac/broadwell/choctawsketch2.pdf Broadwell, Grammatical Sketch of Choctaw]
*https://choctawschool.com/media/369055/New%20Choctaw%20Dictionary.pdf

<section begin="list-of-glossing-abbreviations"/><div style="display:none;">
I:class I
DPAST:distant past
</div><section end="list-of-glossing-abbreviations"/>

{{Choctaw}}
{{Languages of Oklahoma}}
{{Authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Choctawlanguage}}
[[Category:Agglutinative languages]]
[[Category:Choctaw culture]]
[[Category:Indigenous languages of the North American Southeast]]
[[Category:Indigenous languages of Oklahoma]]
[[Category:Mississippi culture]]
[[Category:Muskogean languages]]
[[Category:Subject–object–verb languages]]
[[Category:Native American language revitalization]]
[[Category:Languages of Louisiana]]