View source for Kristang language

{{Short description|Creole language spoken in Malaysia and Singapore}}
{{distinguish|Portugis}}
{{Infobox language
|name           = Papia Kristang
|altname        = Malaccan Creole Portuguese
|nativename     = {{lang|mcm|Kristang}}
|states         = [[Malaysia]], [[Singapore]]
|speakers       = {{sigfig|2,150|2}}
|date           = 2007
|ref            = e25
|familycolor    = Creole
|fam1           = [[Portuguese Creole]]
|fam2           = Malayo-Portuguese Creole
|iso3           = mcm
|glotto         = none
|glotto2        = mala1533
|glottoname2    = Malacca–Batavia Creole
|glottorefname2 = Malacca–Batavia Portuguese Creole
|lingua         = 51-AAC-aha
|map2           = Lang Status 40-SE.svg
|mapcaption2    = {{center|{{small|Kristang is classified as Severely Endangered by the [[UNESCO]] ''[[Atlas of the World's Languages in Danger]]''}}}}
|notice         = IPA
}}

''' {{lang|mcm|Papia Kristang}}''' or ''' {{lang|mcm|Kristang}}''' is a [[creole language]] spoken by the [[Kristang people|Kristang]], a community of people of mixed Portuguese and indigenous [[Malays (ethnic group)|Malay]] ancestry, chiefly in [[Malaysia]] ([[Malacca]]), [[Singapore]] and [[Perth]], [[Western Australia]].

In Malacca, the language is also called ''' {{lang|mcm|Cristão}}''', ''' {{lang|mcm|Portugues di Melaka}}''' ("Malacca Portuguese"), ''' {{lang|mcm|Linggu Mai}}''' ("Mother Tongue") or simply ''' {{lang|mcm|Papia}}''' ("speak"). In Singapore, it is generally known as Kristang, where it is undergoing sustained revitalisation.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Teo |first1=Chee Hean |title=DPM Teo Chee Hean at the first Kristang Language Festival Gala Dinner |url=https://www.pmo.gov.sg/Newsroom/dpm-teo-chee-hean-first-kristang-language-festival-gala-dinner |website=Prime Minister's Office of Singapore |date=20 June 2019 |access-date=26 September 2022}}</ref>

In ''[[Atlas of the World's Languages in Danger]]'' (2010; formerly the ''Red Book of Endangered Languages'') published by [[UNESCO]], Kristang is classified as a "severely endangered"<ref>{{cite book |last= Moseley|first= Christopher|date= 2012 |title= The UNESCO atlas of the world's languages in danger|publisher=World Oral Literature Project |isbn=978-92-3-104096-2}}</ref> language, with only about 2,000 speakers. Up to 2014, linguists concerned with Kristang have generally accepted a combined speaker population of about 1,000 individuals or less. The language has about 750 speakers in Malacca.<ref>{{harvp|Baxter|2005|page=16}}</ref> A small number of speakers also live in other Portuguese Eurasian communities in [[Kuala Lumpur]] and [[Penang]] in Malaysia, and in other diaspora communities in [[Canada]], the United Kingdom, and elsewhere.<ref name="Baxter1988">{{Cite book |url=http://sealang.net/archives/pl/pdf/PL-B95.pdf |title=A Grammar of Kristang (Malacca Creole Portuguese) |last=Baxter |first=Alan N. |publisher=Pacific Linguistics |date=1988 |isbn=0-85883-375-1  |series=Pacific Linguistics Series B - No. 95 |location=Canberra |doi=10.15144/pl-b95 |hdl=1885/145643 |hdl-access=free }}</ref>

==Etymology==
Its [[endonym]] ''Papia Kristang'' is taken from Portuguese ''papear cristão'' ("to chat Christian"). The ''papia'' element of the name is [[cognate]] with [[Papiamento]], another Portuguese-based creole spoken in the Dutch West Indies.

== History ==
=== Origins ===
{{further|Portuguese Malacca}}
The Kristang language originated after the conquest of [[Sultanate of Malacca|Malacca]] (Malaysia) in 1511 by the [[Portuguese Empire]]. Until a takeover by the Dutch in 1642, Malacca served as one of the key ports in the trade and administration network of Portuguese establishments along with [[Goa]] and [[Hormuz Island|Hormuz]], allowing Portugal control over main Asiatic trade routes. The lingua franca of Malacca then was a pidginised form of Malay known as [[Malay trade and creole languages#Malaccan Creole Malay|Bazaar Malay]] or ''Melayu Pasar'', used amongst the resident foreign population which then consisted mainly of Javanese, Tamils and Hokkien Chinese. The constant traffic of Portuguese and traders of other origins such as India eventually gave birth to Papia Kristang, one of many [[Portuguese-based creole languages|Portuguese-derived contact languages]] which resulted from Portuguese colonial expansion during the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries. A pidgin Portuguese preceding the Kristang creole has also been proposed, whereby a reduced system based on Portuguese converges with other languages present in the contact situation.<ref name="Baxter1988" />

The community of Kristang speakers descends mainly from [[interracial relationship]]s between Portuguese men and local women, as well as a number of migrants from [[Portuguese India]], themselves of mixed [[Luso-Indian|Indo-Portuguese]] ancestry. This was supported by Portuguese officials who advocated mixed marriages in the face of a labour shortage in the colonies, leading to the very first native speakers of Kristang as well as the development of the creole.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Macgregor |first1=Ian A. |title=Notes on the Portuguese in Malaya |journal=Journal of the Malayan Branch of the Royal Asiatic Society |date=1955 |volume=28 |issue=2 |pages=4–47}}</ref>

Even after Portugal lost Malacca and almost all contact in 1641, the Kristang community largely preserved its language. The demographics of Malacca in the mid-17th century was still predominantly made up of the Portuguese even under Dutch control. The ''Irmang di Greza'' (Brothers of the Church), a manifestation of the bond between language and religion in the Kristang culture, acted as an intermediary between the priest and the remnants of the Portuguese population despite prohibition by the Dutch. Liturgy and pastoral sessions were conducted in Kristang in Malacca, which contributed to the longevity of the language into a period as late as the 20th century.

Kristang also had a substantial influence on [[Macanese language|Macanese]], the creole language spoken in [[Macau]], due to substantial migration from Malacca after its conquest by the [[Dutch Empire|Dutch]].

=== Attrition of Kristang ===
The ceding of Malacca by the Dutch to the British via the Anglo-Dutch Treaty of 1824 directly caused the decline of the Kristang language. By the mid 19th century, many Kristangs flocked towards clerical and auxiliary positions provided by their new colonial masters. As such, the Kristang language saw a decline in use compared to English. In addition, the rising affluence of the region meant more job opportunities, resulting in many Kristangs moving away from Malacca. Moreover, the language is not taught at school, although there are still some Church services in Kristang.

In the context of Singapore, Kristang arrived in the 1820s due to the large influx of Eurasian immigrants from Malacca.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Pereira |first=Alexius A. |title=Singapore Chronicles - Eurasians |date=2015 |publisher=Straits Times Press |isbn=9789814747028}}</ref> However, there was little exposure and recognition of Kristang in Singapore, especially when English became entrenched as the sole language of education and the major language used in most spheres of society after the country gained independence in 1965. As a result, the intergenerational transmission of Kristang ceased almost completely.

The upkeep of Kristang can largely be attributed to its connection with the dominant religion of the Portuguese and their relative social standing in their communities between the 1600s to the late 1800s. The core Kristang-speaking communities gradually eroded due to better socioeconomic opportunities elsewhere. Post-World War Two, the new generation of Catholic priests that arrived to replace the pre-war priests who had been executed demonstrated little sensitivity towards the Kristang language and culture. Eventually, the bond between Kristang and religion was severed due to the association of the Portuguese Mission with the St Xavier's Church.<ref>{{Cite journal<!--problematic metadata; deny bots--> |last=Baxter |first=Alan N. |date=2005 |title=Kristang (Malacca Creole Portuguese) – A Long-Time Survivor Seriously Endangered |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/250015521 |journal=Estudios de Sociolingüística |volume=6 |issue=1 |pages=1–37 |doi=<!-- doi given links to another article; deny bots--> |access-date=2020-04-23}}</ref>

Migration overseas and intermarriage with other nationalities have also led to Kristang speakers leaving the Portuguese Settlement in order to live and work in other parts of Malaysia. Furthermore, the dominantly Kristang-speaking middle-class gradually began to speak English for practical reasons, altering the prestige of English with regards to Kristang. To many in the community, they grew to accept that speaking English was a key to employment instead of Kristang, facilitating a breakdown in the transmission of Kristang.

===Revitalisation efforts===
Papia Kristang is facing a steep decline in language use within the community.<ref>{{cite book |last1= Baxter |first1= Alan.N |title= Atlas of Languages of Intercultural Communication in the Pacific, Asia, and the Americas |date= 1996|chapter= Portuguese and Creole Portuguese in the Pacific and Western Pacific rim|pages= 299–338 |doi= 10.1515/9783110819724.2.299 |isbn= 9783110819724 }}</ref> There has been an apparent language shift to [[English language|English]] and [[Malay language|Bahasa Malaysia]] due to the reduced prestige and accessibility of Kristang. However, revitalization efforts have begun in recent years in both the Portuguese Settlement in Singapore and Malacca. Such efforts have seen some success, nearly tripling the number of Kristang speakers of varying fluency.

====Malacca====
The Kristang-speaking community located at the Portuguese Settlement, or Padri sa Chang (“The Priest’s Land”) was able to undertake more sustained revitalisation efforts and publicise itself to non-Eurasian Malaysians, and the language. Notably with texts, stories and phrasebooks in Kristang produced by [[Joan Margaret Marbeck]] and through investments and interest from individuals and organisations outside the community. Joan Marbeck has produced three publications: ''Ungu Adanza'' (An Inheritance), ''Linggu Mai'' (Mother Tongue) and the Kristang Phrasebook. She is also credited with writing probably the only play in Kristang, called ''Seng Marianne'' (Without Marianne) and was also instrumental in staging a musical in Kristang - ''Kazamintu no Praiya'' which translates to 'Wedding on the beach'.<ref>{{Citation |author=Haja Mohideen Bin Mohamed Ali |title=The maintenance of Malaysia's minority languages |date=2010 |url=http://irep.iium.edu.my/9829/4/ICMM2010_p27.pdf |access-date=April 15, 2020}}</ref>

Within the community, there were efforts made together with the help of academics to promote their culture and the Kristang language. In 1988, Alan Baxter published ''A grammar of Kristang'' based on his fieldwork within the community.<ref name="Baxter1988"/> This was the first book which focused on the descriptive grammar of Kristang and established many core concept on Kristang linguistics. It also had a significant impact on many later studies on Kristang.

Support was also received from the Lisbon-based Calouste Gulbenkian Foundation, which funded and published Marbeck's Kristang text.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Marbeck |first=Joan Margaret |title=Ungua Adanza (Heritage) |publisher=Calouste Gulbenkian Foundation |date=1995 |location=Lisbon}}</ref>
Along with Malacca Portuguese-Eurasian Association (MPEA) president Michael Gerald Singho, they published a textbook, ''Beng Prende Portugues Malaká (Papiá Cristang)'', also known as Come, Let's Learn Portugues Malaká (Papiá Cristang) for people who want to learn Kristang. The association also maintains an active Facebook page aimed at sharing and promoting information related to the Kristang language the Kristang way of life.

==Vocabulary==
The Kristang lexicon borrows heavily from Portuguese, but often with drastic truncation. Due to its largely Portuguese vocabulary, the Kristang lexicon has much in common with other Portuguese-based creoles, including the near-extinct creoles of [[Indonesia]] and [[East Timor]]. As it is primarily a creole, much of its vocabulary is also derived from Chinese, Indian and Malay languages to varying degrees.
{| class="wikitable"
|+Examples of vocabulary from various origins<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Mohamed Ali |first1=Haja Mohideen |last2=Mohideen |first2=Shamimah |date=2008 |title=Survival of the Minority Kristang Language in Malaysia |url=https://www.proquest.com/docview/85673255/ |journal=Language in India |volume=8 |issue=7 |pages=1–18}}</ref>
!Meaning
!Kristang
!Origin Word
!Origin Word Language
|-
|shrimp paste
|{{lang|mcm|blacan}}
|{{lang|ms|belacan}}
| rowspan="4" |Malay
|-
|walking stick
|{{lang|mcm|tongkah}}
|{{lang|ms|tongkat}}
|-
|hoe
|{{lang|mcm|changkol}}
|{{lang|ms|cangkul}}
|-
|jellyfish
|{{lang|mcm|ampeh}}
|{{lang|ms|ampai}}
|-
|loincloth
|{{lang|mcm|kachu}}
|''katchu''
| rowspan="3" |Tamil
|-
|lime
|{{lang|mcm|churutu}}
|{{lang|ta|சுருட்டு}}<br>{{lang|ta-latn|curuṭṭu}} 
|-
|grandfather
|{{lang|mcm|tata}}
|{{lang|ta|தாத்தா}}<br>{{lang|ta-latn|tāttā}}
|-
|spatula
|{{lang|mcm|chengsi}}
|{{lang|zh-hant|煎匙}}<br>''tsian-sî''
| rowspan="2" |Hokkien
|-
|lantern
|{{lang|mcm|aloleng}}
|''leng tsu''
|-
|open-air restaurant
|{{lang|mcm|kolau}}
|''kou lau''
|Cantonese
|-
|convent
|{{lang|mcm|konventu}}
|{{lang|pt|convento}}
| rowspan="2" |Portuguese
|-
|hospital
|{{lang|mcm|ospital}}
|{{lang|pt|hospital}}
|-
|toilet
|{{lang|mcm|kakus}}
|{{lang|nl|kakhuis}}
| rowspan="2" |Dutch
|-
|tombstone
|{{lang|mcm|kelda}}
|{{lang|nl|kelder}}
|}
[[Metathesis (linguistics)|Metathesis]] was common in the derivation of the Kristang lexicon from Portuguese root words.
e.g.
*Portuguese ''go'''rd'''o'' → Kristang ''go'''dr'''u'' "fat"

== Orthography ==
===Polynomy===
Kristang is a polynomic language, where [[standardisation]] of the language's spoken and written forms is dispreferred and the natural [[morphophonology | morphophonological]] and [[orthography|orthographic]] [[linguistic variation|variation]] that Kristang developed as a result of its history and sociocultural context is preferred.<ref>{{cite book |last=Jaffe |first=Alexandra |date=2021 |editor-last1=Ayres-Bennett |editor-first1=Wendy | editor-last2=Bellamy | editor-first2=John|title=The Cambridge Handbook of Language Standardisation |publisher=Cambridge University Press |pages=442–469 |chapter=Polynomic Standards: The Enactment of Legitimate Variation}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Papia Kristang: The Creole Portuguese of Malacca and Singapore |url=https://kreolmagazine.com/culture/history-and-culture/papia-kristang-the-creole-portuguese-of-malacca-and-singapore/#.XqG2RlMzY0o |date=18 March 2015 |website=Kreol Magazine |access-date=April 23, 2020}}</ref> This variation is usually concentrated around "famililects" spoken by families rather than geographical [[dialects]], with Kristang famililects generally being categorisable into three distinct forms:

;1. A system based on [[Portuguese orthography]]
:The 19th and 20th centuries saw a rise in the use of Modern Portuguese-based orthography (for example, Rego (1942)<ref>{{Cite book |last=Rego |first=António da Silva |title=Dialecto português de Malaca: apontamentos para o seu estudo |date=1942 |publisher=Agencia Geral das Colonias |location=Lisbon |language=pt |trans-title=Portuguese dialect of Malacca: notes for its study}}</ref>) due to the perception of Kristang as a variety of Portuguese instead of a distinct creole language partially based on Old Portuguese.<ref name="Baxter2004">{{Cite book |last1=Baxter |first1=Alan N. |title=A Dictionary of Kristang (Malacca Creole Portuguese) with an English-Kristang finderlist |last2=De Silva |first2=Patrick |date=2004 |publisher=Pacific Linguistics |series=Pacific Linguistics 564 |location=Canberra |doi=10.15144/PL-564 |hdl=1885/146269 |isbn=9780858835528 |hdl-access=free}}</ref> This is characterized by the use of [[diacritics]] such as [[acute accent]]s (á, é, í, ó, ú). The system has been adopted by some native Kristang speakers as well.

;2. A system based on a mixture of Portuguese, English and Malay
:Other speakers have used a system influenced by Portuguese, English and Malay orthography. This creates an issue as the system is inconsistent in the representation of Kristang sounds and are unintelligible immediately to both speakers and non-speakers of Kristang.

;3. A system based on Malay orthography
:There are many observable parallels between the phonology of Malay and Kristang which has led to inherent similarities in the orthographic representations of the two languages as well. The first proposal for a standard Kristang orthography was made in 1973 by Ian F. Hancock<ref name="Hancock1973" /> (1973:25) who recognised this quality and advocated the Malay-based system due to the speakers' familiarity with it. This would, therefore, lead to a swift acquisition of literacy in the reading and writing of the Kristang language. 
:This system to spell Kristang was further expanded on in ''A Grammar of Kristang''<ref name="Baxter1988"/> by Alan N. Baxter, in which he agreed on and emphasized the use of the [[Malay alphabet|Malay orthography]]. Published in 1995, [[Joan Margaret Marbeck]]'s book ''Ungua Andanza'' also followed this approach, with the orthography written in a Luso-Malay context.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Marbeck |first=Joan Margaret |title=''Ungua Adanza'' (Heritage) |publisher=Calouste Gulbenkian Foundation |date=1995 |location=Lisbon}}</ref>

== Phonology ==
The acoustic and articulatory properties of Kristang have not been extensively studied. However, Hancock (1969,<ref name="Hancock1969">{{Cite book |last=Hancock |first=Ian F. |date=1969 |title=A Glossary of Papia Kristang Or Malacca Creole Portuguese}}</ref> 1973<ref name="Hancock1973">{{Cite journal |last=Hancock |first=Ian F. |date=1973 |title=Malacca Creole Portuguese: A Brief Transformational Outline |journal=Te Reo |volume=16 |issue=5 |pages=23–44}}</ref>), Batalha (1981),<ref name="Batalha1981">{{Cite journal |last=Bathalha |first=Graciete Nogueira |date=1981 |title=O Inquérito Linguístico Boléo em Malaca |trans-title=The Boléo Language Survey in Malacca |journal=Biblos (Coimbra) |language=pt |volume=57}}</ref> and most recently, Baxter (1988)<ref name="Baxter1988"/> have outlined brief descriptions of its sound system. In general, Kristang's inventory of consonant and vowel phonemes shows a significant parallel to that of [[Malay phonology|Standard Malay]].

===Consonants===
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;"
|-
|+Consonant phonemes of Kristang<ref name="Baxter1988" /><ref name="Hancock1969" />
! colspan=2 |
! style="width: 5em;" | [[Labial consonant|Labial]]
! style="width: 5em;" | [[Alveolar consonant|Alveolar]]
! style="width: 5em;" | [[Palatal consonant|Palatal]]
! style="width: 5em;" | [[Velar consonant|Velar]]
|-
!rowspan=2| [[Stop consonant|Stop]]
! {{small|[[voicelessness|voiceless]]}}
| {{IPA link|p}}
| {{IPA link|t}}
| 
| {{IPA link|k}}
|-
! {{small|[[voice (phonetics)|voiced]]}}
| {{IPA link|b}}
| {{IPA link|d}}
| 
| {{IPA link|ɡ}}
|-
!rowspan=2| [[Affricate consonant|Affricate]]
! {{small|[[voicelessness|voiceless]]}}
|
|
| {{IPA link|tʃ}} {{efn|name=c|Described as /c/ by Baxter (1988) and ''ch'' in the inventory by Hancock (1973).}}
|
|-
! {{small|[[voice (phonetics)|voiced]]}}
|
|
| {{IPA link|dʒ}} 
|
|-
!rowspan=2| [[Fricative consonant|Fricative]]
! {{small|[[voicelessness|voiceless]]}}
|{{IPA link|f}}
| {{IPA link|s}}
|
| 
|-
! {{small|[[voice (phonetics)|voiced]]}}
|{{IPA link|v}}
| {{IPA link|z}}
|
|
|-
!colspan=2| [[Nasal consonant|Nasal]]
| {{IPA link|m}}
| {{IPA link|n}}
| {{IPA link|ɲ}}{{efn|name=ɲ|/ñ/ by Baxter (1988) and ''ny'' by Hancock (1973).}}
| {{IPA link|ŋ}}{{efn|name=ŋ|/ng/ by Baxter (1988).}}
|-
!colspan=2| [[Tap consonant|Tap]]/[[Trill consonant|Trill]]
|
|{{IPA link|r}}
|
|
|-
!colspan=2| [[Lateral consonant|Lateral]]
|
| {{IPA link|l}}
|
|
|}
{{notelist}}
'''Orthographic note''':<br>
Using a Malay-based orthography, the sounds are represented orthographically by their symbols as above, except:
* {{IPAslink|ɲ}} is written as {{angbr|ny}}
* {{IPAslink|ŋ}} is written as {{angbr|ng}}
* {{IPAslink|tʃ}} is written as {{angbr|c}} (or {{angbr|ch}}, a pre-1972 Malay letter)
* {{IPAslink|dʒ}} is written as {{angbr|j}}

Portuguese words which begin with {{angbr|ch}}, pronounced {{IPA|[ʃ]}} ("sh") in modern Portuguese, are often pronounced as {{IPA|[tʃ]}} ("ch") in Kristang, e.g.: 
*Portuguese {{lang|pt|chegar}} {{IPA|/ʃɨˈɡar/}} → Kristang {{lang|mcm|chegak}} {{IPA|/tʃəɡak/}} "to arrive"
*Portuguese {{lang|pt|chuva}} {{IPA|/ˈʃuvɐ/}} → Kristang {{lang|mcm|chua}} {{IPA|/tʃua/}} "rain"
This may be due to [[Malay language|Malay]] influence, or the preservation of an Old Portuguese pronunciation {{IPA|[tʃ]}} in Kristang. It is also worth noting that Northern Portugal also retains the Portuguese {{IPA|[tʃ]}} pronunciation.

====Phonological contrasts====

Baxter (1988), in particular, established various phonemic contrasts in the Kristang consonant system.

'''Stops''' and '''affricates''' contrast in the initial and medial positions.

{| class="mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"
|+class="nowrap" | ''Examples of contrastive distribution between voiced and voiceless stops:''
! colspan="2" style="width: 14em; text-align:center;"|[[Bilabial consonant|Bilabial]]
!
! colspan="2" style="width: 14em; text-align:center;"|[[Dental consonant|Alveodental]]
!
! colspan="2" style="width: 14em; text-align:center;"|[[Velar consonant|Velar]]
|-
|style="width: 7em; text-align:center;"|<small><u>initial</u></small>
|style="width: 7em; text-align:center;"|<small><u>medial</u></small>
|
|style="width: 7em; text-align:center;"|<small><u>initial</u></small>
|style="width: 7em; text-align:center;"|<small><u>medial</u></small>
|
|style="width: 7em; text-align:center;"|<small><u>initial</u></small>
|style="width: 7em; text-align:center;"|<small><u>medial</u></small>
|-
|style="text-align:center;"|'''p'''ai

''<small>(father)</small>''
|style="text-align:center;"|ka'''p'''a

''<small>(castrate)</small>''
|
|style="text-align:center;"|'''t'''eng

''<small>(have, be)</small>''
|style="text-align:center;"|a'''t'''i

''<small>(until)</small>''
|
|style="text-align:center;"|'''k'''aba
''<small>(finish)</small>''
|style="text-align:center;"|sa'''k'''u
''<small>(sack, pocket)</small>''
|-
|style="text-align:center;"|'''b'''ai
''<small>(go)</small>''
|style="text-align:center;"|ka'''b'''a
<small>''(finish)''</small>
|
|style="text-align:center;"|'''d'''eng
''<small>(dried stingray)</small>''
|style="text-align:center;"|a'''d'''i
<small>''(duck)''</small>
|
|style="text-align:center;"|'''g'''aba
''<small>(praise)</small>''
|style="text-align:center;"|sa'''g'''u
''<small>(sago)</small>''
|}

{| class="mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"
|+class="nowrap" | ''Examples of contrastive distribution between voiced and voiceless affricates:''
! colspan="2" style="width: 14em; text-align:center;"|[[Palato-alveolar consonant|Palato-alveolar]]
|-
|style="width: 7em; text-align:center;"|<small><u>initial</u></small>
|style="width: 7em; text-align:center;"|<small><u>medial</u></small>
|-
|style="text-align:center;"|'''c'''eru

''<small>(smell)</small>''
|style="text-align:center;"|in'''c'''hidu

''<small>(full)</small>''
|-
|style="text-align:center;"|'''j'''eru
''<small>(son-in-law)</small>''
|style="text-align:center;"|jin'''j'''ibri
<small>''(ginger, gums)''</small>
|}

'''Fricatives''' contrast in the medial positions. No clear distinctions between voiced-voiceless pairs and all fricative counterparts can be drawn as {{IPA|/v/}} is highly infrequent and restricted in distribution and initial {{IPA|/z/}} has fallen into disuse.
{| class="mw-collapsible mw-collapsed" 
|+class="nowrap"|''Examples:''
| colspan="2" style="width: 14em; text-align:center;" |{{IPAslink|f}} vs {{IPAslink|s}}
!
|style="text-align:center;" |{{IPAslink|f}} vs {{IPAslink|z}}
|
|style="text-align:center;" |{{IPAslink|f}} vs {{IPAslink|s}}
|-
| style="width: 7em; text-align:center;" |<small><u>initial</u></small>
| style="width: 7em; text-align:center;" |<small><u>medial</u></small>
|
| style="width: 7em; text-align:center;" |<small><u>medial</u></small>
|
| style="width: 7em; text-align:center;" |<small><u>medial</u></small>
|-
| style="text-align:center;" |'''f'''ai

''<small>(pretend/do)</small>''
| style="text-align:center;" |ko'''f'''i

''<small>(coffee)</small>''
|
| style="text-align:center;" |ba'''f'''a

''<small>(steam)</small>''
|
| style="text-align:center;" |ba'''f'''u
''<small>(breath)</small>''
|-
| style="text-align:center;" |'''s'''ai

''<small>(go out)</small>''
| style="text-align:center;" |ko'''s'''i

''<small>(kick)</small>''
|
| style="text-align:center;" |ba'''z'''a
<small>''(pour)''</small>
|
| style="text-align:center;" |ba'''s'''u
''<small>(under)</small>''
|}
'''Nasals''' contrast do not contrast before a consonant, and no contrasts have been found in identical environments in the final position. In the initial position, only {{IPAslink|m}}, {{IPAslink|n}} and {{IPAslink|ɲ}} contrast, while all nasals {{IPA|/{{IPA link|m}}, {{IPA link|n}}, {{IPA link|ɲ}}, {{IPA link|ŋ}}/}} contrast in the medial position. '''Tap''', as well as '''lateral liquid''' consonants, contrast in all positions.

===Vowels===
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;"
|-
|+Vowel phonemes of Kristang<ref name="Baxter1988"/><ref name="Hancock1973" />
!
! colspan="2"|Unrounded
!Rounded
|-
!
!style="width: 4em; text-align:center;"|[[Front vowel|Front]]
!style="width: 4em; text-align:center;"|[[Central vowel|Central]]
!style="width: 4em; text-align:center;"|[[Back vowel|Back]]
|-
!style="width: 5em; text-align:center;"|[[Close vowel|Close]]
|{{IPA link|i}}
|
|{{IPA link|u}}
|-
![[Close-mid vowel|Close-mid]]
|{{IPA link|e}}
|{{IPA link|ə}}{{efn|name=c|The Kristang vowel system is similar to the vowel system of Standard Malay in that both languages share the feature of having [ə] as both a realisation of /a/ and /ə/ (Onn 1980:21).}}
|{{IPA link|o}}
|-
![[Open-mid vowel|Open-mid]]
|{{IPA link|ɛ}}{{efn|name=a|The phonemic status of {{IPA|[ɛ]}} and {{IPA|[ɔ]}} is debatable. In Hancock's (1973:25)<ref name="Hancock1973" /> description of the Kristang vowel system, these were treated as variants of the phoneme {{IPA|/e/}} and {{IPA|/o/}} respectively. The phones {{IPA|[e]}} and {{IPA|[ɛ]}}, as well as {{IPA|[o]}} and {{IPA|[ɔ]}} only contrast in the medial position and limited environments.<ref name="Baxter1988"/>}}
|({{IPA link|ë}}){{efn|name=b|The phoneme {{IPA|[ë]}} is described to be of low frequency and limited
distribution. When used, it is often in loanwords from Malay, English and Dutch.}}
|{{IPA link|ɔ}}{{efn|name=a}}
|-
![[Open vowel|Open]]
|
|{{IPA link|a}}
|
|}
{{notelist}}

{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"
|+class="nowrap" |Vowel phonemes of Standard Malay<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Clynes |first1=Adrian |last2=Deterding |first2=David |date=2011 |title=Standard Malay (Brunei) |url=http://fass.ubd.edu.bn/research/malay/index.html |journal=Journal of the International Phonetic Association |volume=41 |issue=2 |pages=259–268 |doi=10.1017/S002510031100017X|doi-access=free }}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |author=Asmah Haji Omar |title=Ensiklopedia Bahasa Melayu |publisher=Dewan Bahasa dan Pustaka |year=2008 |location=Kuala Lumpur |pages=97}}</ref>
!
! colspan="2"|Unrounded
!Rounded
|-
!
!style="width: 4em; text-align:center;"|[[Front vowel|Front]]
!style="width: 4em; text-align:center;"|[[Central vowel|Central]]
!style="width: 4em; text-align:center;"|[[Back vowel|Back]]
|-
!style="width: 5em; text-align:center;"|[[Close vowel|Close]]
| {{IPA link|i}}
|
| {{IPA link|u}}
|-
! [[Mid vowel|Mid]]
| {{IPA link|e̞|e}}
| {{IPA link|ə}}
| {{IPA link|o̞|o}}
|-
! [[Open vowel|Open]]
|
| {{IPA link|ä|a}}
|
|}
The inventory of vowel phonemes in Kristang is also highly similar to Standard Malay vowel phonemes, which can be seen in the table above.

{| class="wikitable" style="float:right; margin-left: 10px;"
|+ Diphthongs in Kristang
!
! width="50" |
! width="70" |Spellings
! width="200" |Examples
|- align="center"
|1.
|'''{{IPA|[au]}}'''
|''aw''
|align="left"|''paw'' "stick"
|- align="center"
| rowspan="2" |2.
| rowspan="2" |'''{{IPA|[ai]}}'''
|''ay''
|align="left"|''pay'' "father"
|- align="center"
|''ai''
|align="left"|''raina'' "queen"
|- align="center"
| rowspan="2" |3.
| rowspan="2" |'''{{IPA|[eu]}}'''
|''e̹w''
|align="left"|''se̹w'' "sky"
|- align="center"
|''ew''
|align="left"|''pew'' "foot"
|- align="center"
| rowspan="2" |4.
| rowspan="2" |'''{{IPA|[oi]}}'''
|''o̹y''
|align="left"|''no̹yba'' "girlfriend"
|- align="center"
|''oy''
|align="left"|''noybu'' "boyfriend"
|- align="center"
|5.
|'''{{IPA|[io]}}'''
|''yo''
|align="left"|''byola'' "violin"
|- align="center"
| rowspan="2" |6.
| rowspan="2" |'''{{IPA|[ui]}}'''
|''uy''
|align="left"|''ruybu'' "bream fish"
|- align="center"
|''wi''
|align="left"|''mwi'' "grind"
|- align="center"
| rowspan="2" |7.
| rowspan="2" |'''{{IPA|[iu]}}'''
|''iw''
|align="left"|''friw'' "cold"
|- align="center"
|''yu''
|align="left"|''syumi'' "jealousy"
|- align="center"
| rowspan="2" |8.
| rowspan="2" |'''{{IPA|[ua]}}'''
|''wa''
|align="left"|''rakwa'' "shift"
|- align="center"
|''ua''
|align="left"|''cua'' "rain"
|- align="center"
| rowspan="2" |9.
| rowspan="2" |'''{{IPA|[ia]}}'''
|''ya''
|align="left"|''pyang'' "spinning top"
|- align="center"
|''ia''
|align="left"|''dia'' "day"
|- align="center"
| rowspan="2" |10.
| rowspan="2" |'''{{IPA|[ue]}}'''
|''we''
|align="left"|''dwenti'' "ill"
|- align="center"
|''we̹''
|align="left"|''gwe̹la'' "gullet"
|}

====Diphthongs and vowel sequences====
Diphthongs in Kristang are formed when either the vowel {{IPA|/i/}}, or the vowel {{IPA|/u/}}, occurs in the same syllable as another vowel. The vowel {{IPA|/i/}} and {{IPA|/u/}} are pronounced as the semivowels (or glides) {{IPA|[j]}} and {{IPA|[w]}} respectively in such cases.<ref name="Baxter2004" />

There are 10 word-internal diphthongs in Kristang as outlined by Baxter (1988). Of all 10, 3 ({{IPA|/ai/}} as in {{lang|mcm|rainya}} ‘queen’, {{IPA|/ua/}} as in {{lang|mcm|chua}} ‘rain’ and {{IPA|/ia/}} as in {{lang|mcm|dia}} ‘day’) may also constitute hiatus, i.e. the vowels in would be pronounced as two distinct syllables in certain environments.

The relatively large number of diphthongs is also in contrast to Malay, whereby only three native diphthong phonemes are described:
# {{IPA|/ai̯/}}: {{lang|ms|ked'''ai'''}} ('shop')
# {{IPA|/au̯/}}: {{lang|ms|kerb'''au'''}} ('buffalo')
# {{IPA|/oi̯/}}: {{lang|ms|dod'''oi'''}} ('lullaby')
These diphthongs also display visible parallels to certain Kristang vowel sequences {{IPA|[ai]}}, {{IPA|[au]}} and {{IPA|[oi]}}.

The Portuguese diphthong {{IPA|[oj]}} (or archaic {{IPA|[ou]}}) are often reduced to {{IPA|[o]}} in Kristang in Portuguese loan words, e.g.: 
*Portuguese {{lang|pt|dois}}/{{lang|pt|dous}} → Kristang {{lang|mcm|dos}} 'two'
*Portuguese {{lang|pt|à noite}}/{{lang|pt|à noute}} → Kristang {{lang|mcm|anoti}}/{{lang|mcm|anuti}} 'tonight'
 
Kristang diphthongs are monosyllabic and the vowel sequences are differentiated according to its stress position. For example, the stress in {{IPA|/au/}} is on the first vowel whereas in {{IPA|/io/}}, the second vowel is stressed.

===Stress and rhythm===
Kristang is a syllable-timed language (not unlike Malay which also displays syllable-based rhythm).

According to Baxter (2004), most polysyllabic words in Kristang can be classified into two large groups based on the stress position in the word.<ref name="Baxter2004" />
;Stress Rule A
Most words which end in a vowel have tonic stress on the penultimate syllable.
{{columns-list|colwidth=10em|
* '''''ka'''za'' 'house'
* '''''no'''mi'' 'name'
* '''''ra'''yu'' 'wicked'
* ''a'''po'''yu'' 'support'
* ''kume'''ri'''a'' 'food'
*'''''ru'''a'' 'street'
}}
;Stress Rule B
Most words which end in a consonant have tonic stress on the final syllable.
{{columns-list|colwidth=10em|
* ''lan'''des''''' 'Dutch'
* ''na'''tal''''' 'Christmas'
}}
However, stress pattern is not completely predictable in Kristang, as there are also certain words which are exceptions to the above two rules. 
:'''Exception to Rule A'''
:Verbs which end in a stressed vowel (e.g. ''ku'''mi''''' 'to eat'). Attention should be paid to the lexical stress in such instances as it brings about a difference in meaning (e.g. '''''ka'''za'' 'house' vs ''ka'''za''''' 'to marry").
:Some vowel-ending words are also stressed on the antepenultimate syllable instead. (such as ''fa'''mi'''lia'' 'family', '''''a'''nimu'' 'valour')
:'''Exception to Rule B'''
:Some consonant-ending words are stressed on the penultimate syllable (such as '''''o'''kel'' 'spectacles', '''''no'''bas'' 'news')

Kristang also displays stress shifting in that many verbs display a tendency to shift their stress from the final syllable to penultimate syllable when followed by a stressed syllable in the next word, especially in rapid speech.

== Grammar ==
The grammatical structure of Kristang is similar to that of the [[Malay language]]. The usage of verbs is one of the grammatical features of Kristang that displays this quality. While Portuguese verbs mainly use morphology, or suffixes, to change a verb's tense or for it to match with the person and number of its subject, Malay does not change the form of the verb itself. Instead, it makes use of pre-verbal words to convey tense and does not indicate the person or number of the subject in the form of the verb. Kristang's structure is practically identical to Malay, although the choice of words comes from Portuguese.

===Syntax===

Papiá Kristang has [[Subject–verb–object|Subject-Verb-Object]] (SVO) word order in simple sentences. The direct human objects are case-marked by the preposition ''ku''. The same preposition also marks indirect objects. Intransitive clauses, the case-marked indirect object may precede the direct object, especially when the former is pronominal. Noncore arguments are generally located either at the beginning or at the end of the sentence as shown in example (1).

{{interlinear|lang= mhe |number= (1)
|Amiang Diego lo dá ku bos aké doi na butika
|tomorrow Diego FUT give DAT 2SG that money LOC shop
|'Tomorrow, Diego will give you that money, at the shop.'}}

'''Adversity Passive''', which is used to talk about situations where a negative action happens to something, but the person or originator of the negative action is not mentioned something, is also present both in Kristang and Malay. The Adversity Passive is signalled by ''kena'' (Malay), and by ''tokah'' (Kristang).

{|class=wikitable
!Colloquial Malay 
!Kristang
!Colloquial English near-equivalent
|-
|Ikan kena makan
|Pesi tokah kumih
|The fish got eaten
|-
 
|}

For complex sentences, the phrases and clauses are joined by coordinating conjunctions ''ku'' "with, and", ''kě'' "or", and ''mas'' "but". There are also instances where object clauses may be headed by ''ki''; however, this is rare and is only found in traditional formal registers, as in a wedding speech. The most frequent means of expressing nominal subordination is parataxis as shown in example (2) and (3).<ref name="Baxter 2013">{{Cite web |title=Survey chapter: Papiá Kristang |url=https://apics-online.info/surveys/42#section-7simplesentences |website=The Atlas of Pidgin and Creole Language Structures Online |access-date=April 23, 2020}}</ref>

{{interlinear|lang= mhe |number= (2)
|Nus pidi ki tudu bolotu podi kumí sabrozu
|1PL ask COMP all 3PL can eat tasty
|'We ask that you may all eat to your satisfaction.'}}

{{interlinear | abbreviations=Ø:zero marker|lang= mhe |number= (3)
|Yo ja skribé ku eli Ø John ja kazá.
|1SG PFV write ACC 3SG Ø John PFV marry
|'I wrote to him that John has married.'}}

'''Adverbial clauses''' are headed by ''antis di'' "before", ''kiora'' "when", ''chuma'' "as", ''kantu'' "if", ''padi'' "in order to", ''kauzu ki'' "because", ''kifoi'' "because", etc., yet may also be indicated by parataxis without conjunctions.<ref name="Baxter1988"/>

'''Relative clauses''' are headed by ''ki'' "what, who’"(and very rarely by ''keng'' "who"), yet also commonly occur with a pronoun head or may occur without it. This can be seen in example (4) and (5).

{{interlinear|lang= mhe |number= (4)
|Tantu yo sa kambra kambradu ki ja bai skola pun.
|many 1SG GEN friend friend  REL PFV go school too 
|'many of my friends who went to school too.'}}

{{interlinear|lang= mhe |number= (5)
|Jenti prenya eli parí muré ja fiká pontianak.
|person pregnant 3SG bear die PFV become vampire
|'A pregnant woman who dies in childbirth becomes a vampire.'}}
In Kristang, The [[noun phrase]] (NP) is a structure which can occur as subject of a verb,
object of a verb, object of a relator or as a predicate.

There are five types of prenominal determiners in Kristang:

'''Quantifier''':
{{interlinear|lang= mhe |number= (6)
|kada kaza
|each house 
|'Each house’.}}

'''Numeral''':
{{interlinear|lang= mhe|number= (7)
|dos prau
|two boat 
|'Two boats’.}}

'''Interrogative determiner''':
{{interlinear|lang= mhe |number= (8)
|kí redi ?
|REL net Q
|'What net?’}}

'''Demonstrative article''':
{{interlinear|lang= mhe |number= (9)
|aké albi
|DEM tree 
|'That tree.’}}
The demonstratives ''isi'' and ''ake(li)'' ‘that’ precede the noun and indicate a distance contrast.

'''Possessive NP + ''sa''''' :
{{interlinear|abbreviations=G:genitive marker|lang= mhe |number= (10)
|eli sa irmáng femi
|3S G sibling female
|'His sister.’}}

'''Adnominal possessives''' precede the noun and consist of possessor (noun or pronoun) + genitive marker ''sa'' (or ''sě'').

In comparative constructions of '''equality''', the adjective is marked by ''iguál'' ‘equal’ and standard is marked by ''ku'' ‘with’:

{{interlinear|lang= mhe |number= (11)
|John iguál grandi ku Peter.
|John equal big with Peter
|'John is as big as Peter.’}}

In the comparative construction of '''inequality''', the adjective is marked by ''más'' ‘more’ and the standard by ''di'' ‘of’:

{{interlinear|lang= mhe |number= (12)
|Eli más altu di Pio.
|3SG more tall of Pio
|'He is taller than Pio.’}}

The superlative comparison consists of the comparative of inequality plus a universal standard:

{{interlinear|lang= mhe |number= (13)
|Maria más altu di tudu mbes aké femi femi.
|Maria more tall of all once DEM female femmale
|'Maria is the tallest of all the girls.’}}

There is only one set of personal pronouns that occurs in all pronominal functions. The 3SG and 3PL pronouns only refer to animates, principally to humans.

{|class=wikitable
!
!subject
!object
!independent pronouns
!adnominal possessives
|-
|1SG
|''yo''
|''yo''
|''yo''
|''yo + sa''
|-
|2SG
|''bos''
|''bos''
|''bos''
|''bos + sa''
|-
|3SG
|''eli''
|''eli''
|''eli''
|''eli + sa''
|-
|4SG{{clarify|date=May 2025}}<!--What do the numbers for persons from 4 to 16 designate?-->
|''ela''
|''ela''
|''ela''
|''ela + sa''
|-
|5SG
|''ea''
|''ea''
|''ea''
|''ea + sa''
|-
|6SG
|''beles''
|''beles''
|''beles''
|''beles + sa''
|-
|7SG
|''ili''
|''ili''
|''ili''
|''ili + sa''
|-
|8SG
|''vala''
|''vala''
|''vala''
|''vala + sa''
|-
|9SG
|''egu''
|''egu''
|''egu''
|''egu + sa''
|-
|10SG
|''bochi''
|''bochi''
|''bochi''
|''bochi + sa''
|-
|11SG
|''veli''
|''veli''
|''veli''
|''veli + sa''
|-
|12SG
|''vela''
|''vela''
|''vela''
|''vela + sa''
|-
|13SG
|''nekru''
|''nekru''
|''nekru''
|''nekru + sa''
|-
|14SG
|''baja''
|''baja''
|''baja''
|''baja + sa''
|-
|15SG
|''zeli, zelyi''
|''zeli, zelyi''
|''zeli, zelyi''
|''zeli, zelyi + sa''
|-
|16SG
|''vaha''
|''vaha''
|''vaha''
|''vaha + sa''
|-
|1PL
|''nus''
|''nus''
|''nus''
|''nus + sa''
|-
|2PL
|''bolotu''
|''bolotu''
|''bolotu''
|''bolotu + sa''
|-
|3PL
|''olotu''
|''olotu''
|''olotu''
|''olotu + sa''
|-
|4PL
|''eletu''
|''eletu''
|''eletu''
|''eletu + sa''
|-
|5PL
|''nutu''
|''nutu''
|''nutu''
|''nutu + sa''
|-
|6PL
|''bensutu''
|''bensutu''
|''bensutu''
|''bensutu + sa''
|-
|7PL
|''osutu''
|''osutu''
|''osutu''
|''osutu + sa''
|-
|8PL
|''valatu''
|''valatu''
|''valatu''
|''valatu + sa''
|-
|9PL
|''nosos''
|''nosos''
|''nosos''
|''nosos + sa''
|-
|10PL
|''bosos''
|''bosos''
|''bosos''
|''bosos + sa''
|-
|11PL
|''olosos''
|''olosos''
|''olosos''
|''olosos + sa''
|-
|12PL
|''veletu''
|''veletu''
|''veletu''
|''veletu + sa''
|-
|13PL
|''nonos''
|''nonos''
|''nonos''
|''nonos + sa''
|-
|14PL
|''bonos''
|''bonos''
|''bonos''
|''bonos + sa''
|- 
|15PL
|''olonos''
|''olonos''
|''olonos''
|''olonos + sa''
|-
|16PL
|''vehetu''
|''vehetu''
|''vehetu''
|''vehetu + sa''
|-

|}

===Morphology===
Pluralisation is also the same in Malay as in Kristang. For example, in English and Portuguese, an ‘{{lang|pt|–s}}’ is added to make cats or gatos, whereas in Kristang and Malay, the entire word is duplicated, such as {{lang|mcm|gatu-gatu}} in Kristang, and {{lang|ms|kucing-kucing}} in Malay. Reduplication is not only a
feature of the noun class but also a feature of the adjective, adverb and verb classes.<ref name="Baxter1988"/> Adjectives and adverbs reduplicate to signify intensity: {{lang|mcm|kěni~kěninu}}, “quite small, very small”, {{lang|mcm|belu belu}} “quite old”, {{lang|mcm|sedu sedu}} “quite/very early”. On the other hand, the interrogative pronouns reduplicate to signify indefiniteness: {{lang|mcm|keng keng}} (who who) “whoever”, {{lang|mcm|ki ki}} (what what “whatever”. As for the reduplication of the numerals, {{lang|mcm|dos}} “two” and {{lang|mcm|tres}} “three”, it gave the respective readings “in pairs” and “in threes”.<ref name="Baxter 2013" />

With nouns, reduplication can signal plurality, often involving partial reduplication: {{lang|mcm|krenkrensa}} (= {{lang|mcm|krensa}} + {{lang|mcm|krensa}}) ‘children’, {{lang|mcm|femfemi}} (= {{lang|mcm|femi}} + {{lang|mcm|femi}}) ‘women’. However, the reduplication of nouns with non-specific reference in object position may yield the meaning ‘all kinds of’ or ‘lots of’:

{{interlinear|lang= mhe |number= (14)
|Yo sa sogru gadrá pastu pastu
|1SG GEN father.in.law keep bird bird 
|'My father-in-law keeps all kinds of birds.'}}

Without reduplication, the above sentence would simply express plural: ‘birds’.

To indicate verb tenses, the following appositions are used: {{lang|mcm|jah}} (i.e. from the Portuguese {{lang|pt|já}}, meaning "already", or controversially a corruption of Malay {{lang|ms|dah}}, shortened version of {{lang|ms|sudah}}, also "already") for past tenses; {{lang|mcm|ta}} (from {{lang|mcm|está}}, which means "is") for present continuous tenses and {{lang|mcm|logu}} or {{lang|mcm|lo}} (from {{lang|mcm|logo}}, which means "soon") for the future tense. These simplified forms correspond with their equivalents in Malay {{lang|ms|sudah}}, {{lang|ms|sedang}}, and {{lang|ms|akan}}, respectively.

{|class=wikitable
!English
!Portuguese
!Malay
!Kristang
|-
|I eat 
|{{lang|pt|Eu como}}
|{{lang|ms|Saya makan}}
|{{lang|mcm|Yo kumih}}
|-
|I ate/have eaten 
|{{lang|pt|Eu comi}}
|{{lang|ms|Saya sudah makan}}
|{{lang|mcm|Yo ja kumih}}
|-
|I will eat 
|{{lang|pt|Eu comerei}}
|{{lang|ms|Saya akan makan}}
|{{lang|mcm|Yo logu kumih}}
|-
|He eats
|{{lang|pt|Ele come}}
|{{lang|ms|Dia makan}}
|{{lang|mcm|Eli kumih}}
|-
 
|}

Papiá Kristang has two overt markers of aspect ({{lang|mcm|ja}} ‘perfective’ and {{lang|mcm|ta}} ‘imperfective’), an overt marker of future tense ({{lang|mcm|lo(gu)}}), and a zero marker.

This table summarised the functions of these markers:

{|class=wikitable
!
!lexical aspect
!tense/aspect
!mood
|-
|Ø 
|dynamic
|habitual past/present (perfective)
|imperative
|-
|  
|stative-1 or -2
|past / present
|
|-
|ja
|dynamic
|perfective
|
|-
|ta
|dynamic
|imperfective past/present
|
|-
|
|stative-2
|imperfective past/present
|
|-
|lo(gu)
|dynamic
|future habitual present/past
|conditional
|-
|
| stative-1 or -2
|future
|
|-

 
|}

Example (15) shows the zero marker (Ø) with a dynamic verb of past or present habitual representation:

{{interlinear| abbreviations=Ø:zero marker |lang= mhe |number= (15)
|Yo sa pai Ø fai sibrisu na municipal.
|1SG GEN father Ø do work LOC municipal
|'My father works/used to work in the Municipal.'}}

Example (16) shows the marker ''ja'' with a dynamic verb, with perfective aspect representation:

{{interlinear|lang= mhe |number= (16)
|Eli ja bai mar (onti anoti).
|3SG PFV go sea yesterday night
|'He went fishing (last night).'}}

The marker {{lang|mcm|ta}} occurs with dynamic verbs in past or present contexts, with either a progressive reading, as in (17), or an iterative reading, as in (18):

{{interlinear|lang= mhe |number= (17)
|Diego ta les buku.
|Diego IPFV read book
|'Diego is/was reading a book.'}}

{{interlinear|lang= mhe |number= (18)
|Eli ta fai sibrisu na Singaporura.
|3SG IPFV do work LOC Singapore
|'He is/was working in Singapore.'}}

The marker ''lo(go)'' conveys a future or conditional reading, as in examples (19) and (20), respectively where it occurs with a dynamic verb:

{{interlinear|lang= mhe |number= (19)
|Amiang out dia, eli logu bai mar.
|tomorrow other day 3SG FUT go sea
|'The day after tomorrow, he will go fishing.'}}

{{interlinear|lang= mhe |number= (20)
|Kanti yo teng doi, yo lo kompra kareta.
|if 1SG have money 1SG FUT buy car
|'If I have/had the money I will/would buy a car.'}}

The [[Tense–aspect–mood|Tense-Aspect-Mood]] (TAM) markers do not normally co-occur. Combinations of markers are very rare and when they do occur they appear to involve an adverbial reading of the initial marker. Thus, when {{lang|mcm|ja}} is seen to combine with the imperfective marker {{lang|mcm|ta}}, ''ja'' has the adverbial reading ‘already’ of its Portuguese source:

{{interlinear|lang= mhe |number= (21)
|Kora yo ja chegá eli ja ta kumí
|when 1SG PFV arrive 3SG already IPFV eat
|'When I arrived, he was already eating.'}}

== Kristang examples ==

===Numbers===
Much of the lexicon for Kristang numbers draws influence from Portuguese, a [[Romance language]]. However, unlike Portuguese, which distinguishes between the masculine and feminine forms of “one” (''um/uma'') and “two” (''dois/duas''), numbers in Kristang do not inflect for gender.

{| class="wikitable"
!English
!Kristang
!Portuguese
!Malay
|-
|one
|ungua/ngua 
|um (''masc.'') / uma (''fem.'')
|satu
|-
|two
|dos
|dois (''masc.'') / duas (''fem.'')
|dua
|-
|three
|tres
|três
|tiga
|-
|four
|katru
|quatro
|empat
|-
|five
|singku
|cinco
|lima
|-
|six
|sez
|seis
|enam
|-
|seven
|seti
|sete
|tujuh
|-
|eight
|oitu
|oito
|lapan
|-
|nine
|nubi
|nove
|sembilan
|-
|ten
|des
|dez
|sepuluh
|-
|}

===Pronouns===
A peculiarity of the language is the pronoun ''yo'' (meaning "I") which is used in [[northern Portuguese dialects|Northern Portuguese]] (pronounced as ''yeu''), as well as Spanish and Italian/Sicilian.
{| class="wikitable"
!English
!Kristang
!Portuguese
!Malay
|-
|Me
|yo
|eu
|saya (''formal'') / aku (''casual'')
|-
|You (singular)
|bos
|vós
|Awak/Kamu
|-
|You (plural)
|bolotudu/bolotu
|vós todos
|Awak semua/Kamu semua
|-
|We
|nus
|nós
|kami
|-
|He/she/it
|eli
|ele, ela, isto
|dia
|-
|They
|olotu
|eles
|mereka
|-
|}

===Common phrases===
{| class="wikitable"
!English
!Kristang
!Portuguese
!Malay
|-
|Thank You
|{{lang|mcm|Mutu Merseh}}
|{{lang|pt|Muitas mercês}}
|{{lang|ms|Terima Kasih}}
|-
|How Are You?
|{{lang|mcm|Teng Bong?}}
|{{lang|pt|Estás bom?}}/{{lang|pt|Têm bom?}}
|{{lang|ms|Awak apa khabar?}}
|-
|What's your name?
|{{lang|mcm|Ki bos sa numi?}}
|{{lang|pt|Qual é o seu nome?}}/{{lang|pt|Qual é o seu nome?}}
|{{lang|ms|Siapa nama awak?}}
|-
|Good Morning
|{{lang|mcm|Bong Pamiang}}
|{{lang|pt|Boa Manhã}}
|{{lang|ms|Selamat Pagi}}
|-
|Good Afternoon
|{{lang|mcm|Bong Midia}}
|{{lang|pt|Bom Meio-dia}}
|{{lang|ms|Selamat Petang}}
|-
|Good Evening
|{{lang|mcm|Bong Atadi}}
|{{lang|pt|Boa Tarde}}
|{{lang|ms|Selamat Malam}}
|-
|Good Night
|{{lang|mcm|Bong Anuti}}
|{{lang|pt|Boa Noite}}
|{{lang|ms|Selamat Malam}}/{{lang|ms|Tidur}}
|-
|Mother
|{{lang|mcm|mai}}
|{{lang|pt|mãe}}
|{{lang|ms|Emak}}/{{lang|ms|Ibu}}/{{lang|ms|Bonda}}/{{lang|ms|Ummi}}/{{lang|ms|Mama}}
|-
|Father
|{{lang|mcm|pai}}
|{{lang|pt|pai}}
|{{lang|ms|Bapa}}/{{lang|ms|Ayah}}/{{lang|ms|Abah}}/{{lang|ms|Abi}}
|-
|Wife
|{{lang|mcm|muleh}}
|{{lang|pt|mulher}}
|{{lang|ms|Isteri}}
|-
|Husband
|{{lang|mcm|maridu}}
|{{lang|pt|marido}}
|{{lang|ms|Suami}}
|-
|Old Woman
|{{lang|mcm|bela}}
|{{lang|pt|velha}}
|{{lang|ms|Wanita Tua}}
|-
|Old Man
|{{lang|mcm|belu}}
|{{lang|pt|velho}}
|{{lang|ms|Lelaki Tua}}
|-
|Little one
|{{lang|mcm|Quenino}}/{{lang|mcm|Keninu}}
|{{lang|pt|Pequenino}}
|{{lang|ms|Si Kecil}}
|-
|Mouth
|{{lang|mcm|boka}}
|{{lang|pt|boca}}
|{{lang|ms|Mulut}}
|-
|Fat
|{{lang|mcm|godru}}
|{{lang|pt|gordo}}
|{{lang|ms|Gemuk}}
|-
|Beautiful
|{{lang|mcm|bonitu}}
|{{lang|pt|bonito}}
|{{lang|ms|Cantik}}
|-
|Party
|{{lang|mcm|festa}}
|{{lang|pt|festa}}
|{{lang|ms|Pesta}}
|-
|Yes
|{{lang|mcm|seng}}
|{{lang|pt|sim}}
|{{lang|ms|Ya}}
|-
|No
|{{lang|mcm|ngka}}
|{{lang|pt|não}} ("{{lang|pt|nunca}}") 
|{{lang|ms|Tidak}}
|-
|Who
|{{lang|mcm|keng}}
|{{lang|pt|quem}}
|{{lang|ms|Siapa}}
|-
|What
|{{lang|mcm|ki}}
|{{lang|pt|que}}
|{{lang|ms|Apa}}
|-
|When
|{{lang|mcm|kiora}}
|{{lang|pt|quando}} ("{{lang|pt|que hora}}")
|{{lang|ms|Bila}}
|-
|Where
|{{lang|mcm|ondi}}
|{{lang|pt|onde}}
|{{lang|ms|Mana}}
|-
|Why
|{{lang|mcm|kifoi}}
|{{lang|pt|porque}} ("{{lang|pt|que foi}}")
|{{lang|ms|Mengapa}}
|-
|How
|{{lang|mcm|klai}}
|{{lang|pt|como}} ("{{lang|pt|que ha}}")
|{{lang|ms|Bagaimana}}
|-
|}

===Poem of Malacca===
:''Keng teng fortuna fikah na Malaka,''
:''Nang kereh partih bai otru tera.''
:''Pra ki tudu jenti teng amizadi,''
:''Kontu partih logu fikah saudadi.''

:''Oh Malaka, tera di San Francisku,''
:''Nteh otru tera ki yo kereh.''
:''Oh Malaka undi teng sempri fresku,''
:''Yo kereh fikah ateh mureh.''

Portuguese translation:
:''Quem tem fortuna fica em Malaca,''
:''Não quer partir para outra terra.''
:''Por aqui toda a gente tem amizade,''
:''Quando tu partes logo fica a saudade.''

:''Ó Malaca, terra de São Francisco,''
:''Não tem outra terra que eu queira.''
:''Ó Malaca, onde tem sempre frescura,''
:''Eu quero ficar até morrer.''

English translation:
:Who is lucky stays in Malacca,
:Doesn't want to go to another land.
:In here everyone has friendship,
:When one leaves soon has ''[[saudade]]''.

:Oh Malacca, land of Saint Francis,
:There is no other land that I want.
:Oh Malacca, where there's always freshness,
:I want to stay here until I die.

Malay translation:

:Siapa beruntung tinggal di Melaka,
:Tidak mahu ke tanah berbeza.
:Di sini semua bersahabat,
:Bila seorang pergi terasa rindu.

:Oh Melaka, tanah Saint Francis,
:Tiada tanah lain yang ku mahu.
:Oh Melaka, dimana adanya kesegaran,
:Aku mahu tinggal di sini hingga ke akhir nyawa.

== See also ==
*[[Kristang people]]
*[[Eurasians in Singapore]]
*[[Chavacano language]], a [[Spanish language|Spanish]]-derived [[Malayo-Polynesian languages|Malayo-Polynesian]] creole
*[[Mardijker Creole]], as Kristang is also called Malacca–Batavia Creole

== Further reading ==
{{refbegin}}
*{{Cite JIPA|author=Pillai, Stefanie and Baxter, Alan N. and Soh, Wen-Yi|title=Malacca Portuguese Creole|volume=51|issue=1|pages=102&ndash;93|doi=10.1017/S0025100319000033|printdate=2021-04|soundfiles=yes}}
{{refend}}

== References ==
* [[File:CC-BY icon.svg|50px]] Text in this article was copied from [https://apics-online.info/surveys/42 Alan N. Baxter. 2013. "Papiá Kristang". In: Michaelis, Susanne Maria & Maurer, Philippe & Haspelmath, Martin & Huber, Magnus (eds.) ''The survey of pidgin and creole languages. Volume 2: Portuguese-based, Spanish-based, and French-based Languages''. Oxford: Oxford University Press], which is available under a [https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0/ Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 (CC BY 3.0)] license.
{{reflist}}

== External links ==
*[http://www.lusotopie.sciencespobordeaux.fr/fernandis.pdf Papia, Relijang e Tradisang, The Portuguese Eurasians in Malaysia]
*[https://web.archive.org/web/20091027034428/http://geocities.com/TheTropics/Paradise/9221/ Malacca Portuguese Eurasian Association]
*[https://web.archive.org/web/20050409201057/http://www.malaccacom.net/malaccaportuguese/ Malacca Portuguese Settlement]
*[https://web.archive.org/web/20050728002511/http://www.eurasians.org/culture_kristang.html  Singapore Eurasian Association Kristang Page]
*[https://web.archive.org/web/20130422061132/http://joanmarbeck.com/ Joan Marbeck's homepage]
*[https://web.archive.org/web/20041122225051/http://www.geocities.com/jingkli_nona/ Jingkli Nona - a Kristang viewpoint]
*[http://www.theseira.net/tphoto.html The Theseira family]
*[https://web.archive.org/web/20010507232351/http://www.geocities.com/kevinshepherdson/intro_quest.html The Shepherdson family]
*[https://web.archive.org/web/20050828185504/http://www.peranakan.org.sg/index.html The Peranakan Association Singapore]
*[http://hub.dataline.net.au/~tfoen/eurasiansvc.htm The Eurasian Company of the Singapore Volunteer Corps]
*[https://web.archive.org/web/20050825084000/http://www.pasarmalambesar.nl/english/eng.htm Pasar Malam Besar festival in the Netherlands]
*[https://web.archive.org/web/20091027034428/http://geocities.com/TheTropics/Paradise/9221/ Malaysian Eurasian food]
*[https://web.archive.org/web/20120717012748/http://portuguese.meetup.com/members/?localeId=864%2F All Portuguese Language Meetup Groups]
*[http://www.soton.ac.uk/~psp/ Portuguese people speaking society]
*[http://www.sil.org/sociolx/ndg-lg-home.html/ Endangered Languages]

{{Languages of Malaysia}}
{{Languages of Singapore}}
{{Portuguese Creoles}}

[[Category:Languages of Malaysia]]
[[Category:Languages of Singapore]]
[[Category:Portuguese-based pidgins and creoles]]
[[Category:Endangered pidgins and creoles]]
[[Category:Portuguese language in Asia]]
[[Category:Severely endangered languages]]