Tanka people

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The Boat Dwellers, also known as Shuishangren (Template:Zh; "people living on the water") or Boat People, or the Tankas,[1][2] are a sinicised ethnic group in Southern China[3] who traditionally lived on junks in coastal parts of Guangdong, Guangxi, Fujian, Hainan, Shanghai, Zhejiang and along the Yangtze river, as well as Hong Kong, and Macau. The Boat Dwellers are referred to with other names outside of Guangdong.

Though many now live onshore, some from the older generations still live on their boats and pursue their traditional livelihood of fishing.

The origins of the Boat Dwellers can be traced back to the native ethnic minorities of southern China known historically as the Baiyue, who may have taken refuge on the sea and gradually assimilated into Han Chinese culture. However, they have preserved many of their native traditions not found in Han culture. A small number of Boat Dwellers also live in parts of Vietnam. There they are called Dan (Script error: No such module "Lang".) and are classified as a subgroup of the Ngái ethnicity.

Historically, the Boat Dwellers were considered outcasts. Since they lived by or on the sea, they were sometimes referred to as "sea gypsies" by both Chinese and British.

Etymology and terminology

According to official Liu Zongyuan (773–819) of the Tang dynasty, there were Boat Dweller people settled in the boats of today's Guangdong Province and Guangxi Zhuang Autonomous Region.

The term "Tanka" (蜑家) may originate from tan (Cantonese: "egg") and ka (Cantonese: "family" or "people"), although another possible etymology is tank ("junk" or "large boat") rather than tan. "Tanka" is now considered derogatory and no longer in common usage.[1] The Boat Dwellers are now referred to in China as "people on/above water" (Template:Zh),[2] or "people of the southern sea" (Template:Zh).[4][5][6][7][8][9][10][11] No standardised English translation of this term exists. "Boat People" is a commonly used translation, although it may be confused with the similar term for Vietnamese refugees in Hong Kong. "Boat Dwellers" was proposed by Dr. Lee Ho Yin of The University of Hong Kong in 1999, and it has been adopted by the Hong Kong Museum of History for its exhibition.[12]

Both the Boat Dwellers and the Cantonese speak Cantonese.[13][14] However, Boat Dwellers living in Fujian speak Min Chinese.

The Boat Dwellers of the Yangtze region were called the Nine surnames fishermen households, while Boat Dweller families living on land were called the Mean households.Script error: No such module "Unsubst".

There were two distinct categories of peopleScript error: No such module "Unsubst". based on their way of life: the Hakka and Cantonese lived on land, while the Boat Dwellers and the Hoklo lived on boats and were classified as boat people.[15] Though, like the Boat Dwellers, Cantonese and Hakka sometimes fished for a living, the land fishermen did not mix with the Boat Dweller fishermen. Boat Dweller people were barred from Cantonese and Hakka celebrations.[16]

British reports on Hong Kong described the Boat Dwellers, including Hoklo-speaking Boat Dwellers, living in Hong Kong "since time unknown."[17][18] The Encyclopedia Americana asserted that Boat Dweller people lived on boats in and around Hong Kong "since prehistoric times."[19][20][21]

Geographic distribution

Boat Dweller people are found throughout the coasts and rivers of the following regions:[22]

Origin

Mythical origins

File:Tanka men on a boat.jpg
Boat Dwellers in Hong Kong

Some Chinese myths claim that animals were the ancestors of the Barbarians,Template:Meaning including the Boat Dweller people.[25][26] Some ancient Chinese sources claimed that water snakes were the ancestors of the Boat Dwellers, saying that they could last for three days in the water, without breathing air.[27]

Baiyue connection and origins in Southern China

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The Boat Dwellers are considered by some scholars to be related to other minority peoples of southern China, such as the Yao and Li people (Miao).[28]Template:Better source needed The Amoy University anthropologist Ling Hui-hsiang wrote his theory of the Fujian Boat Dwellers as descendants of the Baiyue. He claimed that Guangdong and Fujian Boat Dwellers are definitely descended from the old Baiyue peoples, and that they may have been ancestors of the Malay race.[29] The Tanka inherited their lifestyle and culture from the original Yue peoples who inhabited Hong Kong during the Neolithic era.[30] After the First Emperor of China conquered Hong Kong, groups from northern and central China moved into the general area of Guangdong, including Hong Kong.[31]

One theory proposes that the ancient Yue inhabitants of southern China are the ancestors of the modern Boat Dwellers. The majority of western academics subscribe to this theory, and use Chinese historical sources. (The ancient Chinese used the term "Yue" to refer to all southern Barbarians.)[32][33] The Oxford English Dictionary states that the ancestors of the Boat Dwellers were native people.[34][35]

The ancestors of the Boat Dwellers were pushed to the southern coast by Chinese peasants who took over their land.[36][37]

During the British colonial era in Hong Kong, the Tanka were considered a separate ethnic group from the Punti ("locals"), Hakka, and Hoklo.[38]

The Boat Dwellers have been compared to the She people by some historians, as both are ethnic minorities descended from natives of Southern China who now practice Han Chinese culture.[39]

Yao connections

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Chinese scholars and gazettes described the Boat Dwellers as a "Yao" tribe, with some other sources noting that "Tan" people lived at Lantau, and other sources saying "Yao" people lived there. As a result, they refused to obey the salt monopoly of the Song dynasty (Sung dynasty; 960–1276/1279) government. The county gazetteer of Sun On in 1729 described the Boat Dwellers as "Yao barbarians."[40]

In modern times, the Boat Dwellers claim to be ordinary Chinese who happen to fish for a living, and speak the local dialect.[41]

Historiography

Some southern Chinese historic views of the Boat Dwellers were that they were a separate aboriginal ethnic group, rather than a Han Chinese subgroup.[42] Chinese Imperial records also claim that the Boat Dwellers were descendants of aboriginals.[43] Tanka were also called "sea gypsies" (Script error: No such module "Lang".).[10]

The Boat Dwellers were regarded as Yueh and not Chinese, they were divided into three classifications, "the fish-Tan, the oyster-Tan, and the wood-Tan" in the 12th century, based on what they did for a living.[44][45]

The three groups of Punti, Hakka, and Hoklo, all of whom spoke different Chinese dialects, despised and fought each other during the late Qing dynasty. However, they were all united in their overwhelming hatred for the Boat Dwellers, since the aboriginals of Southern China were the ancestors of the Boat Dwellers.[46] The Cantonese Punti had displaced the indigenous Boat Dwellers after they began conquering southern China.[47]

The Nankai University of Tianjin published the Nankai social and economic quarterly, Volume 9 in 1936, and it referred to the Boat Dwellers as aboriginal descendants before Chinese assimilation.[48] The scholar Jacques Gernet also wrote that the Boat Dwellers were aboriginals known as pirates (haidao), which hindered Qing dynasty attempts to assert control in Guangdong.[49]

Scholarly opinions on Baiyue connection

The most widely held theory is that the Boat Dwellers are the descendants of the native Yue inhabitants of Guangdong before the Han Cantonese moved in.[50] The theory states that the Yue peoples inhabited the region at the time of the Chinese conquest when they were either absorbed or expelled to southern regions. The Boat Dwellers, according to this theory, are descended from an outcast Yue tribe who preserved their separate culture.[51]

Regarding the Fujian Minyue Boat Dwellers it is suggested that in the southeast coastal regions of China, there were many sea nomads during the Neolithic era and they may have spoken ancestral Austronesian languages, and were skilled seafarers.[52] In fact, there is evidence that an Austronesian language was still spoken in Fujian as late as 620 AD.[53] Some therefore believe that the Boat Dwellers were Austronesians who could be more closely related to other Austronesian groups such as Filipinos, Javanese, or Balinese.Script error: No such module "Unsubst".

Eugene Newton Anderson in 1970 claimed that there was no evidence for any of the conjectures put forward by scholars on the Boat Dwellers' origins, citing Chen,Script error: No such module "Unsubst". who stated that "to what tribe or race they once belonged or were once akin to is still unknown".[54]

Some researchers say the origin of the Boat Dwellers is multifaceted, with some of them having native Yueh ancestors and others having ancestors from other places.[55]

A minority of scholars claim that the Boat Dwellers and the Han Cantonese are both descended from people indigenous to the region.[56]

Genetics

Fujian Boat Dwellers have customs similar to Daic and Austronesian peoples. They have a closer genetic affinity with Daic populations than Han Chinese in paternal lineages, but are closely clustered with southern Han populations (such as Hakka and Teochew) in maternal lineages. It is hypothesized that the Fujian Boat Dwellers mainly originate from the ancient indigenous Daic people and have only limited gene flows from Han Chinese populations.[57]

Another study on the Boat Dwellers concluded that the Tanka people not only had a close genetic relationship with both northern Han and ancient Yellow River basin millet farmers but also possessed more southern East Asian ancestry related to Austronesian, Kra-Dai and Hmong-Mien people compared to southern Han. Boat Dweller people had their own unique genetic structure, but kept a close relationship with geographically close southern Han Chinese populations. The results supported the claim that the Boat Dweller people arose from the admixture between southward migration Han Chinese and southern indigenous people.[58]

History

Sinicisation

The Song dynasty engaged in extensive sinicisation of the region with Han people.[59] After many years of sinicisation and assimilation, the Tanka now identify as Han Chinese, though they also have non-Han ancestry from the natives of Southern China.[60] The Cantonese would often buy fish from the Tanka.[61] In some inland regions, the Tanka accounted for half of the total population.[62] The Tanka of Quanzhou were registered as barbarian households.[63]

Ming dynasty

The Tanka boat population were not registered into the national census as they were of outcast status, with an official imperial edict declaring them untouchable.[64]Template:Better source needed

Macau and Portuguese rule

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File:Danjiayi1.JPG
Traditional Tanka people clothes in a Hong Kong museum.

When the Portuguese arrived at Macau, enslaved women from Goa (part of Portuguese India), Siam, Indochina, and Malaya became their wives.[65] However, Tanka people also mixed and married with the Portuguese, though many other Chinese women did not.[66] This is likely because the lower-class Tanka people were less tightly bound by expectations prohibiting exogamy than higher-class people were.[67][68] Some of the Tankas' descendants became Macanese people.

Tanka people would also supply fish for the Portuguese, as they did for the Cantonese, an activity which is mentioned in a poem by Chinese poet Wu Li.[69][70][71][72]

Some Tanka children were kidnapped and enslaved by Portuguese raiders.[73]

Literature in Macau was written about love affairs and marriage between the Tanka women and Portuguese men, like "A-Chan, A Tancareira", by Henrique de Senna Fernandes.[74][75][76][77]

Qing dynasty

Tanka people mostly worked as fishermen and tended to gather at some bays. Some built markets or villages on the shore, while others continued to live on their junks or boats. They claimed to be Han Chinese.[78]

The Qing edict said "Cantonese people regard the Dan households as being of the mean class (beijian zhi) and do not allow them to settle on shore. The Dan households, for their part, dare not struggle with the common people", this edict was issued in 1729.[79]

As Hong Kong developed, some of the fishing grounds in Hong Kong became badly polluted or were reclaimed, and so became land. Those Tankas who only own small boats and cannot fish far out to sea are forced to stay inshore in bays, gathering together like floating villages.[80]

Canton (Guangzhou)

The ancestors of the Tanka were the natives of Southern China before the Cantonese expelled them to the water, forbidding the Tanka to marry land-dwelling Chinese or live on land. They did not practice foot binding, and their dialect was unique. They also formed a class of prostitutes in Canton, operating the boats in Canton's Pearl River which functioned as brothels.[81]

Modern China

Tanka were among the many people that remained in Nanjing in December 1939 before the Japanese massacred the population.[82]

During the intensive land reclamation efforts around the islands of Shanghai in the late 1960s, many Tanka were settled on Hengsha Island and organised as fishing brigades.[83]

British Hong Kong

File:HongKongBoats.png
Hong Kong boat dwellings in December 1970.

In 1937, Walter Schofield, then a Cadet Officer in the Hong Kong Civil Service, wrote that at that time the Tankas were "boat-people [who sometimes lived] in boats hauled ashore, or in more or less boat-shaped huts, as at Shau Kei Wan and Tai O". They mainly lived at the harbours at Cheung Chau, Aberdeen, Tai O, Po Toi, Kau Sai Chau and Yau Ma Tei.[84]

Many Tanka women worked as prostitutes to British sailors, and Tankas assisted the British in their military actions around Hong Kong.[85] The Tanka also assisted the Europeans with supplies.[86][87] Due to their marginal position in Chinese society, and the fact that they lacked access to many of the privileges that societal integration could afford them, Tanka people were not as tightly bound by social pressure and Confucian ethics as other ethnic groups when interacting with foreigners. In many cases, closeness with foreigners could serve as a "ladder to financial security, if not respectability," especially for women, many of whom became sex workers.[88]

Other Chinese prostitutes were afraid of serving Westerners since they looked strange to them, but the Tanka prostitutes freely mingled with Western men.[89] Tanka people were already ostracized from the Cantonese community, and the perception of women as prostitutes compounded this. Tanka women were criticized as "low-class" and rude, and were nicknamed "saltwater girls" (ham sui mui in Cantonese).[90][91][92][93] Stereotypes about Tanka women were so common among Chinese people in Canton that, during the Republican era, the Chinese government inflated their count of prostitutes by assuming large numbers of Tanka women were prostitutes without evidence.[94][95]

Despite the negative perspective of them, the brothels run by Tanka prostitutes were reportedly very well kept and tidy.[96]

Some Tanka women who worked as prostitutes for foreigners also kept a "nursery" of Tanka girls in order to export them for prostitution work in overseas Chinese communities, such as in Australia or America, or to serve as concubines.[97] In 1882, a report ("Correspondence respecting the alleged existence of Chinese slavery in Hong Kong: presented to both Houses of Parliament by Command of Her Majesty") was presented to the English Parliament concerning the existence of slavery in Hong Kong, of which many were Tanka girls serving as prostitutes or mistresses to Westerners.Script error: No such module "Unsubst".

Ernest John Eitel claimed in 1895 that all "half-caste" people in Hong Kong were descended exclusively from Europeans' relationships with Tanka women, rather than Chinese women. Though this claim is somewhat historically supported, it has also been criticized as a "myth" spread by other Chinese peoples to express xenophobia towards Hong Kong's Eurasian community.[88][98][99][100][101]

During British rule some special schools were created for the Tanka.[102] In 1962 a typhoon struck boats belonging to the Tanka, likely including Hoklo-speaking Tanka mistaken for being Hoklo, destroying hundreds.[19][20][21]

During the 1970s the number of Tanka living on boats was reported to be shrinking.[103][104][105]

Shanghai

Tanka women also worked as prostitutes in Shanghai, where they were grouped separately from the Cantonese prostitutes. They continued to live on boats.[106]

Surnames

The Fuzhou Tanka have different surnames than the Tanka of Guangdong.[107] Qing records indicate that "Weng, Ou, Chi, Pu, Jiang, and Hai" (翁, 歐, 池, 浦, 江, 海) were surnames of the Fuzhou Tanka.[108] Qing records also stated that Tanka surnames in Guangdong consisted of "Mai, Pu, Wu, Su, and He" (麥, 濮, 吴, 蘇, 何), alternatively some people claimed Gu and Zeng as Tanka surnames.[109]

Dialect

The Tanka dialect is a variety of Yue Chinese.[110] It is similar in phonology with Cantonese, with the following differences:

  • eu /œ/ is pronounced as o /ɔ/ (e.g. "Hong Kong")
  • /y/ is pronounced as /u/ or /i/
  • /kʷ/ is pronounced as /k/
  • no final -m or -p, so they are replaced by -ng /-ŋ/ or -t /-t/
  • /n/ is pronounced as /l/, like in some informal varieties of Cantonese
  • they also have the tone 2 diminutive change[111]

DNA tests and disease

Tests on the DNA of the Tanka people found that the disease Thalassemia was common among the Tanka. Tests also stated that the ancestors of the Tanka were not Han Chinese, but were another Chinese ethnicity.[112][113]

The Tanka suffer from lung cancer more than the Cantonese and Teochew. The frequency of the disease is higher among Tanka. The rate among the Teochew is lower than that of the Cantonese.[114]

Famous Tankas

See also

References

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  1. ↑ a b Farewell to Peasant China: Rural Urbanization and Social Change in ... – Page 75 Gregory Eliyu Guldin – 1997 "In Dongji hamlet, most villagers were originally shuishangren (boat people) [Also known in the West by the pejorative label, "Tanka" people. — Ed.] and settled on land only in the 1950s. Per-capita cultivated land averaged only 1 mu ..."
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  65. ↑ João de Pina-Cabral, p. 39: To be a Macanese is fundamentally to be from Macau with Portuguese ancestors, but not necessarily to be of Sino-Portuguese descent. The local community was born from Portuguese men. [...] but in the beginning the woman was Goanese, Siamese, Indo-Chinese, Malay – they came to Macau in our boats. Sporadically it was a Chinese woman.
  66. ↑ João de Pina-Cabral, p. 39: When we established ourselves here, the Chinese ostracised us. The Portuguese had their wives, then, that came from abroad, but they could have no contact with the Chinese women, except the fishing folk, the Tanka women and the female slaves. Only the lowest class of Chinese contacted with the Portuguese in the first centuries. Later the strength of Christianisation, of the priests, started to convince the Chinese to become Catholic. [...] But, when they started to be Catholics, they adopted Portuguese baptismal names and were ostracised by the Chinese Buddhists. So they joined the Portuguese community and their sons started having Portuguese education without a single drop of Portuguese blood.
  67. ↑ João de Pina-Cabral, p. 164: I was personally told of people that, to this day, continue to hide the fact that their mothers had been lower-class Chinese women—often even tanka (fishing folk) women who had relations with Portuguese sailors and soldiers.
  68. ↑ João de Pina-Cabral, p. 165: In fact, in those days, the matrimonial context of production was usually constituted by Chinese women of low socio-economic status who were married to or concubies of Portuguese or Macanese men. Very rarely did Chinese women of higher status agree to marry a Westerner. As Deolinda argues in one of her short stories,"8 should they have wanted to do so out of romantic infatuation, they would not be allowed to
  69. ↑ Chaves, p. 53: Wu Li, like Bocarro, noted the presence in Macau both of black slaves and of non-Han Chinese such as the Tanka boat people, and in the third poem of his sequence he combines references to these two groups: Yellow sand, whitewashed houses: here the black men live; willows at the gates like sedge, still not sparse in autumn.
  70. ↑ Chaves, p. 54: Midnight's when the Tanka come and make their harbor here; fasting kitchens for noonday meals have plenty of fresh fish. . .The second half of the poem unfolds a scene of Tanka boat people bringing in fish to supply the needs of fasting Christians.
  71. ↑ Chaves, p. 141: Yellow sand, whitewashed houses: here the black men live; willows at the gates like sedge, still not sparse in autumn. Midnight's when the Tanka come and make their harbor here; fasting kitchens for noonday meals have plenty of fresh fish.
  72. ↑ Chaves, p. 53: The residents Wu Li strives to reassure (in the third line of this poem) consisted — at least in 1635 when Antonio Bocarro, Chronicler-in-Chief of the State of India, wrote his detailed account of Macau (without actually having visited there) — of some 850 Portuguese families with "on the average about six slaves capable of bearing arms, amongst whom the majority and the best are negroes and such like," as well as a like number of "native families, including Chinese Christians . . . who form the majority [of the non-Portuguese residents] and other nations, all Christians." 146 (Bocarro may have been mistaken in declaring that all the Chinese in Macau were Christians.)
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  74. ↑ João de Pina-Cabral, p. 164: Henrique de Senna Fernandes, another Macanese author, wrote a short story about a tanka girl who has an affair with a Portuguese sailor. In the end, the man returns to his native country and takes their little girl with him, leaving the mother abandoned and broken-hearted. As her sailorman picks up the child, A-Chan's words are: 'Cuidadinho . . . cuidadinho' ('Careful . . . careful'). She resigns herself to her fate, much as she may never have recovered from the blow (1978).
  75. ↑ Christina Miu Bing Cheng, p. 173: Her slave-like submissiveness is her only attraction to him. A-Chan thus becomes his slave/mistress, an outlet for suppressed sexual urges. The story is an archetypical tragedy of miscegenation. Just as the Tanka community despises A-Chan's cohabitation with a foreign barbarian, Manuel's colleagues mock his 'bad taste' ('gosto degenerado') (Senna Fernandes, 1978: 15) in having a tryst with a boat girl.
  76. ↑ Christina Miu Bing Cheng, p. 173: As such, the Tanka girl is nonchalantly reified and dehumanised as a thing ( coisa). Manuel reduces human relations to mere consumption not even of her physical beauty (which has been denied in the description of A-Chan), but her 'Orientalness' of being slave-like and submissive.
  77. ↑ Christina Miu Bing Cheng, p. 170: We can trace this fleeting and shallow relationship in Henrique de Senna Fernandes' short story, A-Chan, A Tancareira, (Ah Chan, the Tanka Girl) (1978). Senna Fernandes (1923–), a Macanese, had written a series of novels set against the context of Macau and some of which were made into films.
  78. ↑ （水上居民）不见"连体船" Script error: No such module "webarchive".. Gzlib.gov.cn (25 February 2008). Retrieved on 2 March 2012.
  79. ↑ Hansson, p. 119: An imperial decision in 1729 stated that "Cantonese people regard the Dan households as being of the mean class (beijian zhi liu ^i§;£. Jft) and do not allow them to settle on shore. The Dan households, for their part, dare not struggle with the common people.
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  107. ↑ Hansson, p. 117: Unless a change of surnames occurred for some unknown reason, or unless the ' water names' are not the real names of the Fujian boat people, it would seem that the Dan people lacked Chinese-style surnames at the time the Fujian branch
  108. ↑ Hansson, p. 116: In a late Qing dynasty work which has a section on boat people that mainly refers to those in Fujian, common surnames are said to be Weng 翁 ('old fisherman'), Ou 歐, Chi 池 (pond), Pu 浦 (river bank), Jiang 江 (river) and Hai 海 (sea). None of those surnames is a very common one in China and a few are very rare.
  109. ↑ Hansson, p. 116: Some of them list the five names Mai 麥, Pu 濮, Wu 吴, Su 蘇 and He 何 The Huizhou prefectural gazetteer even states that there are no other boat people surnames, while others also add Gu 顧 and Zeng 曾 to make seven
  110. ↑ Bai, Yun 白云. 2007. Guangxi Danjiahua yuyin yanjiu 广西疍家话语音研究. Nanning: Guangxi People's Publishing House 广西人民出版社.
  111. ↑ Script error: No such module "Citation/CS1".
  112. ↑ Script error: No such module "Citation/CS1".
  113. ↑ Cooley's anaemia among the tanka of South China, A.J.S. McFadzean, D. ToddScript error: No such module "Unsubst".. Tropicalmedandhygienejrnl.net. Retrieved on 2 March 2012.
  114. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  115. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".

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Bibliography

External links

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