Tā moko

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File:MaoriChief1784.jpg
Sketch of a Māori chief, 1773 engraving by T. Chambers based on a 1769 drawing by Sydney Parkinson, from the 1784 edition of A Journal of a Voyage to the South Seas
File:Louis John Steele - Portrait of a young Maori woman with moko - Google Art Project.jpg
"Portrait of a young Maori woman with Script error: No such module "Lang".", by Louis John Steele (1891)
File:Gottfried Lindauer - Tamati Waka Nene - Google Art Project.jpg
Portrait of Tāmati Wāka Nene by Gottfried Lindauer (1890)

Script error: No such module "Lang". is the permanent marking or tattooing as customarily practised by Māori, the indigenous people of New Zealand. It is one of the five main Polynesian tattoo styles (the other four are Marquesan, Samoan, Tahitian and Hawaiian).[1]

Script error: No such module "Lang". (tattooists) were considered Script error: No such module "Lang"., or inviolable and sacred.[2]

Historical practice (pre-contact)

Tattoo arts are common in the Eastern Polynesian homeland of the Māori people, and the traditional implements and methods employed were similar to those used in other parts of Polynesia.[3] In pre-European Māori culture, many if not most high-ranking persons received Script error: No such module "Lang".. Moko were associated with mana and high social status; however, some very high-status individuals were considered too tapu to acquire moko, and it was also not considered suitable for some tohunga to do so.[4]

Receiving Script error: No such module "Lang". constituted an important milestone between childhood and adulthood, and was accompanied by many rites and rituals. Apart from signalling status and rank, another reason for the practice in traditional times was to make a person more attractive to the opposite sex. Men generally received Script error: No such module "Lang". on their faces (Script error: No such module "Lang".), buttocks (Script error: No such module "Lang".) and thighs (Script error: No such module "Lang".). Women usually wore moko on their lips (Script error: No such module "Lang".) and chins (Script error: No such module "Lang".). Other parts of the body known to have moko include women's foreheads, buttocks, thighs, necks and backs and men's backs, stomachs, and calves.[5]

Instruments used

File:Tohunga-ta-moko at Work – Gottfried Lindauer.jpg
Painting by Gottfried Lindauer of a Script error: No such module "Lang". being carved into a man's face by a Script error: No such module "Lang". (tattooist)
File:Korere 11.jpg
A collection of Script error: No such module "Lang". (feeding funnels)

Historically the skin was carved by Script error: No such module "Lang".

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Template:Redirect category shell[6] (chisels), rather than punctured as in common contemporary tattooing; this left the skin with grooves rather than a smooth surface. Later needle tattooing was used, but, in 2007, it was reported that the Script error: No such module "Lang". was again being used by some artists.[7]

Originally Script error: No such module "Lang". (Script error: No such module "Lang". specialists) used a range of Script error: No such module "Lang". (chisels) made from albatross bone, which were hafted onto a handle, and struck with a mallet.[8] The pigments were made from the Script error: No such module "Lang". for the body colour, and Script error: No such module "Lang". (burnt timbers) for the blacker face colour. The soot from burnt kauri gum was also mixed with fat to make pigment.[9] The pigment was stored in ornate vessels called Script error: No such module "Lang"., which were often buried when not in use. The Script error: No such module "Lang". were handed on to successive generations. A Script error: No such module "Lang". (feeding funnel) is believed to have been used to feed men whose mouths had become swollen from receiving Script error: No such module "Lang"..[10]

Men and a few women were tā moko specialists and would travel to perform their art.[11]

Changes with European colonisation

The Script error: No such module "Lang". practice of collecting and trading Script error: No such module "Lang". (tattooed heads) changed the dynamic of Script error: No such module "Lang". in the early colonial period. King (see below) talks about changes that evolved in the late 19th century when needles came to replace the Script error: No such module "Lang". as the main tools. The needle method was quicker and presented fewer health risks, but the texture of the Script error: No such module "Lang". was smooth. Script error: No such module "Lang". on men stopped around the 1860s in line with changing fashion and acceptance by Script error: No such module "Lang"..Script error: No such module "Unsubst".

Women continued receiving Script error: No such module "Lang". through the early 20th century,[12] and the historian Michael King in the early 1970s interviewed over 70 elderly women who would have been given the Script error: No such module "Lang". before the 1907 Tohunga Suppression Act.[13][14] Women's tattoos on lips and chin are commonly called pūkauae or moko kauae.[15][16]

Men tended to remove facial hair to keep Script error: No such module "Lang". fully visible while some chose to grow out their hair.[17] Due to Christian missionaires having a dislike for Script error: No such module "Lang"., some men started covering their Script error: No such module "Lang". with facial hair. As a substitute for the declining Script error: No such module "Lang". in the 20th century, men increasingly wore facial hair.[18]

Contemporary practice

Since 1990 there has been a resurgence in the practice of Script error: No such module "Lang". for both men and women, as a sign of cultural identity and a reflection of the general revival of the language and culture. Most Script error: No such module "Lang". applied today is done using a tattoo machine, but there has also been a revival of the use of Script error: No such module "Lang". (chisels).[7] Women too have become more involved as practitioners, such as Christine Harvey in Christchurch, Henriata Nicholas in Rotorua and Julie Kipa in Whakatāne. It is not the first time the contact with settlers has interfered with the tools of the trade: the earliest moko were engraved with bone and were replaced by metal supplied by the first visitors.[19]

The most significant change was the adjustment of the themes and conquests the tattoos represented. Tā moko artist Turumakina Duley, in an interview for Artonview magazine, shares his view on the transformation of the practice: "The difference in tā moko today as compared to the nineteenth century is in the change of lifestyle, in the way we live. [...] The tradition of moko was one of initiation, rites of passage – it started around that age – but it also benchmarks achievements in your life and gives you a goal to strive towards and achieve in your life."[20] Duley received moko to celebrate his graduation from a bachelor in Māori studies.[20]

A large proportion of New Zealanders now have tattoos of some sort,[21] and there is "growing acceptance ... as a means of cultural and individual expression."[22]

File:Hon Nanaia Mahuta.jpg
New Zealand foreign minister Nanaia Mahuta in 2020

In 2016 New Zealand politician Nanaia Mahuta received a moko kauae. When she became foreign minister in 2020, a writer said that her facial tattoo was inappropriate for a diplomat. There was much support for Mahuta, who said "there is an emerging awareness about the revitalisation of Māori culture and that facial moko is a positive aspect of that. We need to move away from moko being linked to gangs, because that is not what moko represent at all."[23]

On 25 December 2021, Māori journalist Oriini Kaipara, who has a moko kauae, became the first person with traditional facial markings to host a prime-time news programme on national television in New Zealand.[24]

In 2022, Ariana Tikao published a book called Mokorua: Ngā kōrero mō tōku moko kauae: My story of moko kauae detailing her tā moko journey; her artist was Christine Harvey.[25][26]

Alien Weaponry bassist Tūranga Edmonds got his moko kanohi at the age of 25.[27]

Use by non-Māori

Europeans were aware of Script error: No such module "Lang". from the time of the first voyage of James Cook. Early Māori visitors to Europe, such as Moehanga in 1805,[28] Hongi Hika in 1820 and Te Pēhi Kupe in 1826,[29] all had full-face Script error: No such module "Lang"., as did several Script error: No such module "Lang"., such as Barnet Burns. However, until relatively recently the art had little global impact.Script error: No such module "Unsubst".

Wearing of Script error: No such module "Lang". by non-Māori has been called cultural appropriation,[30] and high-profile uses of Māori designs by Robbie Williams, Ben Harper and a 2007 Jean Paul Gaultier fashion show were controversial.[31][32][33][34]

To reconcile the demand for Māori designs in a culturally sensitive way, the Script error: No such module "Lang". group promotes the use of the term Script error: No such module "Lang".,[35] which has now gained wide acceptance:[36][37][38][39]

...Script error: No such module "Lang". translates literally to mean—"skin writing." As opposed to moko which requires a process of consents, genealogy and historical information, kirituhi is merely a design with Māori flavour that can be applied anywhere, for any reason and on anyone...[35]

Gallery

See also

  • Script error: No such module "Lang"., preserved Māori heads
  • Script error: No such module "Lang"., traditional male Samoan tattoo

References

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  1. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  2. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  3. ↑ Script error: No such module "Footnotes".
  4. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  5. ↑ Script error: No such module "Citation/CS1".
  6. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  7. ↑ a b Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  8. ↑ Script error: No such module "Citation/CS1".
  9. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  10. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  11. ↑ Script error: No such module "Citation/CS1".
  12. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  13. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  14. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  15. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  16. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  17. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  18. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  19. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  20. ↑ a b Crispin Howarth and Turumakina Duley. Maori Markings: tā moko. Other. Artonview, no. 98, Winter, 2019.
  21. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  22. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  23. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  24. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  25. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  26. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  27. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  28. ↑ "...the first Maori who reached England...had a well tattooed face..."
  29. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  30. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  31. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  32. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  33. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  34. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  35. ↑ a b Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  36. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  37. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  38. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  39. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".

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Sources

  • Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  • Jahnke, R. and H. T., "The politics of Māori image and design", Pukenga Korero (Raumati (Summer) 2003), vol. 7, no. 1, pp. 5–31.
  • King, M., and Friedlander, M., (1992). Moko: Māori Tattooing in the 20th Century. (2nd ed.) Auckland: David Bateman. Template:ISBN
  • Nikora, L. W., Rua, M., and Te Awekotuku, Ng., "Wearing Moko: Māori Facial Marking in Today's World", in Thomas, N., Cole, A., and Douglas, B. (eds.), Tattoo. Bodies, Art and Exchange in the Pacific and the West, London: Reacktion Books, pp. 191–204.
  • Robley, Maj-Gen H. G., (1896). Moko, or Maori Tattooing. digital edition from New Zealand Electronic Text Centre
  • Te Awekotuku, Ngahuia, "Tā Moko: Māori Tattoo", in Goldie, (1997) exhibition catalogue, Auckland: Auckland City Art Gallery and David Bateman, pp. 108–114.
  • Te Awekotuku, Ngahuia, "More than Skin Deep", in Barkan, E. and Bush, R. (eds.), Claiming the Stone: Naming the Bones: Cultural Property and the Negotiation of National and Ethnic Identity (2002) Los Angeles: Getty Press, pp. 243–254.

External links

Template:Sister project

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