View source for Antisemitism

{{short description|Hostility, prejudice, or discrimination against Jews}}
{{Distinguish|Anti-Judaism|Anti-Zionism}}
{{pp-move|small=yes}}
{{pp-extended|small=yes}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=September 2024}}
{{Antisemitism}}
{{Judaism}}
{{Status of religious freedom|persecution}}
<!--Before making an edit to this article's definition of "antisemitism" to include prejudice against all Semitic people, please review the relevant discussions on the article's talk page and the related archives. If you still want to change the definition on this article, please discuss first on the talk page.-->
'''Antisemitism''',{{Efn|Also spelled '''anti-semitism''' or '''anti-Semitism'''; The [[International Holocaust Remembrance Alliance]] has stated that the spelling without hyphenation is preferred, because the spelling with hyphenation implies that "[[wikt:Semitism|Semitism]]" is a valid concept.<ref name=IHRA2 />}} or '''Jew-hatred''',<ref>{{Cite OED|term=Jew-hatred|id=2854443694|access-date=2 September 2024}}</ref> is hostility to, prejudice towards, or discrimination against [[Jews]]. A person who harbours it is called an '''antisemite'''.<ref name="Oxford2">{{cite web |title=anti-Semitism |url=https://en.oxforddictionaries.com/definition/us/anti-semitism |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180808034525/https://en.oxforddictionaries.com/definition/us/anti-semitism |archive-date=8 August 2018 |access-date=27 October 2018 |website=Oxford Dictionaries—English}}</ref><ref name="MWdef">{{cite web |title=anti-Semitism |url=https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/anti-Semitism |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181031195040/https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/anti-Semitism |archive-date=31 October 2018 |access-date=27 October 2018 |work=[[Merriam-Webster Dictionary]]}}</ref><ref>See, for example:
* {{cite encyclopedia |year=2006 |title=Anti-Semitism |encyclopedia=Encyclopædia Britannica}}
* {{harvp|Johnson|1987|p=133}}
* {{cite magazine |last=Lewis |first=Bernard |author-link=Bernard Lewis |date=Winter 2006 |title=The New Anti-Semitism |url=http://hnn.us/blogs/entries/21832.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110908010822/http://hnn.us/blogs/entries/21832.html |archive-date=8 September 2011 |magazine=[[The American Scholar (magazine)|The American Scholar]] |pages=25–36 |volume=75 |number=1}}</ref> Whether antisemitism is considered a form of [[racism]] depends on the school of thought.{{Efn|See the {{section link||Eternalism–contextualism debate}} paragraph.}}<ref>{{cite web |date=1 March 1999 |title=Measures to combat contemporary forms of racism, racial discrimination, xenophobia and related intolerance |url=https://documents-dds-ny.un.org/doc/UNDOC/GEN/N99/770/59/PDF/N9977059.pdf?OpenElement#page=4 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230827100852/https://documents-dds-ny.un.org/doc/UNDOC/GEN/N99/770/59/PDF/N9977059.pdf?OpenElement#page=4 |archive-date=27 August 2023 |access-date=27 August 2023 |publisher=[[United Nations]] |page=4}}{{void|comment|Fabrickator|following "UN doc" template is not resolving to a working url}}<!-- {{UN doc |docid=A-RES-53-133 |body=A |session=53 |type=R |resolution_number=133 |title=Measures to combat contemporary forms of racism, racial discrimination, xenophobia and related intolerance |page=4 |date=1 March 1999}}{{dl|date=April 2023}} --></ref><ref>{{cite web |last=Nathan |first=Julie |date=9 November 2014 |title=2014 Report on Antisemitism in Australia |url=http://www.ecaj.org.au/wp-content/uploads/2012/08/2014_antisemitism_report.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150412202844/http://www.ecaj.org.au/wp-content/uploads/2012/08/2014_antisemitism_report.pdf |archive-date=12 April 2015 |access-date=27 October 2018 |publisher=[[Executive Council of Australian Jewry]] |page=9}}</ref> Antisemitic tendencies may be motivated primarily by negative sentiment towards [[Jewish peoplehood|Jews as a people]] or negative sentiment towards Jews with regard to [[Judaism]]. In the former case, usually known as [[racial antisemitism]], a person's hostility is driven by the belief that Jews constitute a distinct race with inherent traits or characteristics that are repulsive or inferior to the preferred traits or characteristics within that person's society.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Antisemitism in History: Racial Antisemitism, 1875–1945 |url=https://encyclopedia.ushmm.org/content/en/article/antisemitism-in-history-racial-antisemitism-18751945 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200331191034/https://www.ushmm.org/wlc/en/article.php?ModuleId=10007171 |archive-date=31 March 2020 |access-date=20 September 2023 |website=[[United States Holocaust Memorial Museum]] |quote=These new 'antisemites,' as they called themselves, drew upon older stereotypes to maintain that the Jews behaved the way they did—and would not change—because of innate racial qualities inherited from the dawn of time. Drawing as well upon the pseudoscience of racial [[eugenics]], they argued that the Jews spread their so-called pernicious influence to weaken nations in [[Central Europe]] not only by political, economic, and media methods, but also literally by 'polluting' so-called pure [[Aryan race|Aryan blood]] by intermarriage and sexual relations with non-Jews. They argued that Jewish 'racial intermixing,' by 'contaminating' and weakening the host nations, served as part of a conscious [[International Jewish conspiracy|Jewish plan for world domination]].}}</ref> In the latter case, known as [[religious antisemitism]], a person's hostility is driven by their religion's perception of Jews and Judaism, typically encompassing doctrines of supersession that expect or demand that Jews turn away from Judaism and submit to the religion presenting itself as Judaism's successor faith—this is a common theme within the other [[Abrahamic religions]].<ref>{{cite web |last1=Novak |first1=David |date=February 2019 |title=Supersessionism hard and soft |url=https://www.firstthings.com/article/2019/02/supersessionism-hard-and-soft |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230929133324/https://www.firstthings.com/article/2019/02/supersessionism-hard-and-soft |archive-date=29 September 2023 |access-date=24 September 2023 |website=firstthings.com}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Keating |first=Sandra Toenies |title=Nicholas of Cusa and Islam |publisher=[[Brill Publishers|Brill]] |year=2014 |isbn=978-90-04-27476-1 |pages=202–217 |chapter=Revisiting the Charge of Taḥrīf: The Question of Supersessionism in Early Islam and the Qurʾān |doi=10.1163/9789004274761_014 |access-date=24 September 2023 |chapter-url=http://booksandjournals.brillonline.com/content/books/b9789004274761_014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181129100206/http://booksandjournals.brillonline.com/content/books/b9789004274761_014 |archive-date=29 November 2018 |url-status=live |chapter-url-access=subscription |s2cid=170395646}}</ref> The development of racial and religious antisemitism has historically been encouraged by [[anti-Judaism]],<ref>{{Cite web |date=1 August 2017 |title=From Religious Prejudice to Antisemitism |url=https://www.facinghistory.org/resource-library/religious-prejudice-antisemitism |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230922224125/https://www.facinghistory.org/resource-library/religious-prejudice-antisemitism |archive-date=22 September 2023 |access-date=20 September 2023 |website=[[Facing History and Ourselves]]}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |last=Zauzmer Weil |first=Julie |date=22 August 2019 |title=How anti-Semitic beliefs have taken hold among some evangelical Christians |url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/religion/2019/08/22/how-anti-semitic-beliefs-have-quietly-taken-hold-among-some-evangelical-christians/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210519162501/https://www.washingtonpost.com/religion/2019/08/22/how-anti-semitic-beliefs-have-quietly-taken-hold-among-some-evangelical-christians/ |archive-date=19 May 2021 |access-date=20 September 2023 |newspaper=[[The Washington Post]]}}</ref> which is distinct from antisemitism itself.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Freidenreich |first=David M. |date=18 November 2022 |title=How Christians Have Used Anti-Jewish and Anti-Muslim Rhetoric for Their Own Ends |url=https://www.ucpress.edu/blog/60853/how-christians-have-used-anti-jewish-and-anti-muslim-rhetoric-for-their-own-ends/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230925160443/https://www.ucpress.edu/blog/60853/how-christians-have-used-anti-jewish-and-anti-muslim-rhetoric-for-their-own-ends/ |archive-date=25 September 2023 |access-date=20 September 2023 |website=[[University of California Press]]}}</ref>

There are various ways in which antisemitism is manifested, ranging in the level of severity of [[Persecution of Jews|Jewish persecution]]. On the more subtle end, it consists of expressions of hatred or discrimination against individual Jews and may or may not be accompanied by violence. At the extreme, it consists of [[pogrom]]s or [[genocide]], which may or may not be state-sponsored. Although the term ''antisemitism'' did not come into common usage until the 19th century, it is also applied to previous and later anti-Jewish incidents.{{efn|Notable instances of antisemitic persecution include the [[Rhineland massacres]] in 1096; the [[Edict of Expulsion]] in 1290; the [[persecution of Jews during the Black Death|European persecution of Jews during the Black Death]], between 1348 and 1351; the [[Massacre of 1391|massacre of Spanish Jews]] in 1391, the crackdown of the [[Spanish Inquisition]], and the [[Alhambra Decree|expulsion of Jews from Spain]] in 1492; the [[Tach VeTat|Cossack massacres in Ukraine]], between 1648 and 1657; various [[Pogroms in the Russian Empire|anti-Jewish pogroms in the Russian Empire]], between 1821 and 1906; the [[Dreyfus affair]], between 1894 and 1906; [[the Holocaust]] by [[Nazi Germany]] during [[World War II]]; and various [[antisemitism in the Soviet Union|Soviet anti-Jewish policies]].}} Historically, most of the world's violent antisemitic events have taken place in Europe, where modern antisemitism began to emerge from [[Antisemitism in Christianity|antisemitism in Christian communities]] during the Middle Ages. Since the early 20th century, there has been a sharp rise in [[Antisemitism in the Arab world|antisemitic incidents across the Arab world]], largely due to the advent of [[Conspiracy theories in the Arab world|Arab antisemitic conspiracy theories]], which were influenced by [[Antisemitism in Europe|European antisemitic conspiracy theories]].<ref name="Herf 2009">{{cite journal |last=Herf |first=Jeffrey |author-link=Jeffrey Herf |date=December 2009 |title=Nazi Germany's Propaganda Aimed at Arabs and Muslims During World War II and the Holocaust: Old Themes, New Archival Findings |journal=[[Central European History]] |publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]] |volume=42 |issue=4 |pages=709–736 |doi=10.1017/S000893890999104X |jstor=40600977 |s2cid=145568807 |issn=0008-9389}}</ref><ref name="JCPA 2020">{{cite journal |last=Spoerl |first=Joseph S.|date=January 2020 |title=Parallels between Nazi and Islamist Anti-Semitism |url=https://jcpa.org/article/parallels-between-nazi-and-islamist-anti-semitism/ |url-status=live |journal=[[Jerusalem Center for Public Affairs|Jewish Political Studies Review]] |publisher=[[Jerusalem Center for Public Affairs]] |volume=31 |issue=1/2 |pages=210–244 |issn=0792-335X |jstor=26870795 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200609120031/https://jcpa.org/article/parallels-between-nazi-and-islamist-anti-semitism/ |archive-date=9 June 2020 |access-date=14 October 2020}}</ref>

Beginning in 1879,{{sfnp|Bein|1990|p=595}} the compound word {{lang|de|Antisemitismus}} was first used in print in [[History of the Jews in Germany|Germany]] as a "scientific-sounding term" for {{lang|de|Judenhass}} ({{Literal translation|Jew-hatred}}),<ref>{{bulleted list||{{harvp|Lipstadt|2019|pp=22–25}}|{{harvp|Chanes|2004|p=150}}|{{harvp|Rattansi|2007|pp=4–5}}|{{harvp|Johnston|1983|p=27}}|{{harvp|Laqueur|2006|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=IaloAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA21 21]}}}}</ref> and it has since been used to refer to anti-Jewish sentiment alone.{{sfnp|Lipstadt|2019|pp=22–25}}{{sfnp|Johnson|1987|p=133}}<ref name="JustJews">{{bulleted list||{{cite web |first=Bernard |last=Lewis |author-link=Bernard Lewis |url=http://middleeastinfo.org/library/lewis_antisemitism.html |title=Semites and Anti-Semites |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110514133732/http://middleeastinfo.org/library/lewis_antisemitism.html |archive-date=14 May 2011 |access-date=27 October 2018}}. Extract from ''Islam in History: Ideas, Men and Events in the Middle East'', The Library Press, 1973.|{{cite magazine |author-link=Bernard Lewis |last=Lewis |first=Bernard |url=https://historynewsnetwork.org/blog/21832 |title=The New Anti-Semitism |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171108130056/http://historynewsnetwork.org/blog/21832 |archive-date=8 November 2017 |magazine=[[The American Scholar (magazine)|The American Scholar]] |volume=75 |number=1 |date=Winter 2006 |pages=25–36}}}}</ref> In the 21st century, the idea that there is a variation of antisemitism known as "[[new antisemitism]]" has been discussed. According to this view, since [[Israel]] is a [[Jewish state]], expressions of [[anti-Zionist]] positions could harbour antisemitic sentiments, and [[criticism of Israel]] can serve as a vehicle for attacks against Jews in general.<ref>{{Cite news |date=28 April 2016 |title=What's the difference between anti-Semitism and anti-Zionism? |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/magazine-36160928 |access-date=20 February 2024 |work=[[BBC News]] |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20241225145904/https://www.bbc.com/news/magazine-36160928 |archive-date=25 December 2024}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |last=Malik |first=Kenan |date=24 February 2019 |title=Antisemites use the language of anti-Zionism. The two are distinct |url=https://www.theguardian.com/commentisfree/2019/feb/24/antisemites-use-language-of-anti-zionism-the-two-are-distinct |access-date=20 February 2024 |work=[[The Observer]] |issn=0029-7712 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20241225064555/https://www.theguardian.com/commentisfree/2019/feb/24/antisemites-use-language-of-anti-zionism-the-two-are-distinct |archive-date=25 December 2024}}</ref><ref name="JP"/>

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==Origin and usage==
===Etymology===
{{Anchor|Etmyology and uses}}
[[File:Statuten der Antisemiten-Liga.jpg|thumb|1879 statute of the Antisemitic League]]

First used in the 1770s by members of the [[Göttingen school of history]], the coining of "[[Semitic people|Semites]]" as [[biblical terminology for race]] was derived from {{lang|he-Latn|[[Shem]]}} ({{lang|he|שֵׁם}}), the name of one of the three [[sons of Noah]] in the [[Book of Genesis]],{{sfnp|Baasten|2003|pp=57–73}} together with the parallel terms ''[[Hamites]]'' and ''[[Japhetites]]''.

The origin of "antisemitic" terminologies is found in the responses of Orientalist [[Moritz Steinschneider]] to the views of Orientalist [[Ernest Renan]]. Historian [[Alex Bein]] writes: "The compound ''anti-Semitism'' appears to have been used first by Steinschneider, who challenged Renan on account of his 'anti-Semitic prejudices' [i.e., his derogation of the Semites as a [[Race (human categorization)|race]]]."{{sfnp|Bein|1990|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=cQOn0y8ENg4C&pg=PA594 594]}} Psychologist [[Avner Falk]] similarly writes: "The German word {{lang|de|antisemitisch}} was first used in 1860 by the Austrian Jewish scholar Moritz Steinschneider (1816–1907) in the phrase {{lang|de|antisemitische Vorurteile}} ({{gloss|antisemitic prejudices}}). Steinschneider used this phrase to characterise the French philosopher Ernest Renan's false ideas about how '[[Semitic Race|Semitic races]]' were inferior to '[[Aryan race]]s{{'"}}.{{sfnp|Falk|2008|p=21}}

[[Pseudoscience|Pseudoscientific]] theories [[Scientific racism|concerning race]], civilization, and "progress" had become quite widespread in Europe in the second half of the 19th century, especially as [[Prussia]]n nationalistic historian [[Heinrich von Treitschke]] did much to promote this form of racism. He coined the phrase "the Jews are our misfortune", which would later be widely used by [[Nazism|Nazis]].<ref>{{cite book |last=Poliakov |first=Léon |author-link=Léon Poliakov |title=The History of Anti-Semitism |volume=3: From Voltaire to Wagner |publisher=[[University of Pennsylvania Press]] |year=2003 |page=404 |isbn=978-0-8122-1865-7}}</ref> According to Falk, Treitschke uses the term "Semitic" almost synonymously with "Jewish", in contrast to Renan's use of it to refer to a whole range of peoples,{{sfnp|Falk|2008|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=VWL4ja2BbnEC&pg=PA21 21]}} based generally on linguistic criteria.<ref>{{cite book |last=Brustein |first=William I. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Hc3HabBQsdsC&pg=PA118 |title=Roots of Hate: Anti-Semitism in Europe before the Holocaust |location=Cambridge |publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]] |year=2003 |page=118 |access-date=27 October 2018 |isbn=978-0-521-77478-9}}</ref>

According to philologist [[Jonathan M. Hess]], the term was originally used by its authors to "stress the radical difference between their own 'antisemitism' and earlier forms of antagonism toward Jews and Judaism".<ref name="Hess">{{cite journal |first=Jonathan M. |last=Hess |title=Johann David Michaelis and the Colonial Imaginary: Orientalism and the Emergence of Racial Antisemitism in Eighteenth-Century Germany |journal=[[Jewish Social Studies]] |volume=6 |number=2 |date=Winter 2000 |pages=56–101 |doi=10.1353/jss.2000.0003 |s2cid=153434303 |quote=When the term "antisemitism" was first introduced in Germany in the late 1870s, those who used it did so in order to stress the radical difference between their own "antisemitism" and earlier forms of antagonism toward Jews and Judaism.}}</ref>

[[File:Bookcover-1880-Marr-German uber Juden.jpg|thumb|Cover page of Marr's ''The Way to Victory of Germanicism over Judaism'', 1880 edition]]

In 1879, German journalist [[Wilhelm Marr]] published a pamphlet, {{lang|de|Der Sieg des Judenthums über das Germanenthum. Vom nicht confessionellen Standpunkt aus betrachtet}} (''The Victory of the Jewish Spirit over the Germanic Spirit. Observed from a non-religious perspective''), in which he used the word {{lang|de|Semitismus}} interchangeably with the word {{lang|de|Judentum}} to denote both "Jewry" (the Jews as a collective) and "Jewishness" (the quality of being Jewish, or the Jewish spirit).<ref>{{cite book |last=Jaspal |first=Rusi |year=2014 |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=qS_jBAAAQBAJ&pg=PT38 |title=Antisemitism and Anti-Zionism: Representation, Cognition and Everyday Talk |location=Farnham, Surrey |publisher=[[Ashgate Publishing]] |chapter=Antisemitism: Conceptual Issues |isbn=978-1-4724-0725-2 |access-date=27 October 2018 |archive-date=29 December 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231229235525/https://books.google.com/books?id=qS_jBAAAQBAJ&pg=PT38#v=onepage&q&f=false |url-status=live}} Jaspal erroneously gives the date of publication as 1873.</ref><ref>{{cite book |author-link=Wilhelm Marr |last=Marr |first=Wilhelm |url=https://archive.org/details/Marr-Wilhelm-Der-Sieg-des-Judenthums-ueber-das-Germanenthum-2-2 |title=Der Sieg des Judenthums über das Germanenthum. Vom nicht confessionellen Standpunkt aus betrachtet |language=de |trans-title=The Victory of Judaism over Germanism. Viewed from a Non-Confessional Point of View |publisher=Rudolph Costenoble |date=1879 |edition=8th |via=[[Internet Archive]]}} Marr uses the word "{{lang|de|Semitismus}}" (Semitism) on pages 7, 11, 14, 30, 32, and 46; for example, one finds in the conclusion the following passage: "{{lang|de|Ja, ich bin überzeugt, ich habe ausgesprochen, was Millionen Juden im Stillen denken: Dem Semitismus gehört die Weltherrschaft!}}" (Yes, I am convinced that I have articulated what millions of Jews are quietly thinking: World domination belongs to Semitism!) (p. 46).</ref>{{sfnp|Levy|2010|pp=123–129}} He accused the Jews of a worldwide conspiracy against non-Jews, called for resistance against "this foreign power", and claimed that "there will not be a single office in the land, including the highest, which will not have been usurped by the Jews".<ref>{{Cite book |last=Marr |first=Wilhelm |author-link=Wilhelm Marr |url=http://archive.org/details/marr-wilhelm-the-victory-of-judaism-over-germanism-viewed-from |trans-title=The Victory Of Judaism Over Germanism Viewed From a Nonreligious Point of View |year=2009 |page=22 |translator-last=Rohringer |translator-first=Gerhard |title=Der Sieg des Judenthums über das Germanenthum. Vom nicht confessionellen Standpunkt aus betrachtet. |via=[[Internet Archive]]}}</ref>

This followed his 1862 book {{lang|de|Der Judenspiegel}} (''A Mirror to the Jews''), in which he argued that "Judaism must cease to exist if humanity is to commence", demanding that Judaism be both dissolved as a "religious-denominational sect" and subject to criticism "as a race, a civil and social entity".<ref name="WM">{{Cite web |first=Werner |last=Bergmann |title=Wilhelm Marr's A Mirror to the Jews |url=https://keydocuments.net/article/bergmann-marr-mirror-jews |access-date=29 July 2024 |website=Key Documents of German-Jewish History |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240929082823/https://keydocuments.net/article/bergmann-marr-mirror-jews |archive-date=29 September 2024}}</ref><ref>{{Cite magazine |last=Levy |first=Richard S. |author-link=Richard S. Levy |date=1 April 1987 |title=Wilhelm Marr: The Patriarch of Anti-Semitism, by Moshe Zimmermann |url=https://www.commentary.org/articles/richard-levy/wilhelm-marr-the-patriarch-of-anti-semitism-by-moshe-zimmermann/ |access-date=29 July 2024 |magazine=[[Commentary Magazine]] |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250104044741/https://www.commentary.org/articles/richard-levy/wilhelm-marr-the-patriarch-of-anti-semitism-by-moshe-zimmermann/ |archive-date=4 January 2025}}</ref> In the introductions to the first through fourth editions of "{{lang|de|Der Judenspiegel}}", Marr denied that he intended to preach Jew-hatred and claimed he instead intended to help "the Jews reach their full human potential", which he said could happen only "through the downfall of Judaism, a phenomenon that negates everything purely human and noble".<ref name="WM"/>

This use of {{lang|de|Semitismus}} was followed by a coining of {{lang|de|[[Wikt:Antisemitismus|Antisemitismus]]}}, which was used to indicate opposition to the Jews as a people<ref>{{Cite book |last=Benz |first=Wolfgang |author-link=Wolfgang Benz |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=FaGpj0ORpwAC&dq=%22Antisemitismus%22&pg=PA7 |title=Was ist Antisemitismus? |trans-title=What is Antisemitism? |date=2004 |publisher=[[C. H. Beck]] |isbn=978-3-406-52212-3 |language=de |access-date=29 October 2023 |archive-date=29 December 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231229235555/https://books.google.com/books?id=FaGpj0ORpwAC&dq=%22Antisemitismus%22&pg=PA7#v=onepage&q=%22Antisemitismus%22&f=false |url-status=live}}</ref>{{sfnp|Williams|2024|p=286}} and opposition to the Jewish spirit, which Marr interpreted as infiltrating German culture.
	
The pamphlet became very popular, and in the same year Marr founded the {{lang|de|Antisemiten-Liga}} ('League of Antisemites'),{{sfnp|Zimmermann|1987|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=tYW013SjKM4C&pg=PA71 71]}}{{sfnp|Troy|2024|p=391}}{{sfnp|Levy|2010|pp=123–129}} apparently named to follow the {{lang|de|Anti-Kanzler-Liga}} ('Anti-Chancellor League').<ref name="MZ1987">{{harvp|Zimmermann|1987|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=tYW013SjKM4C&pg=PA112 112]|ps=: "The term "anti-Semitism" was unsuitable from the beginning for the real essence of Jew-hatred, which remained anchored, more or less, in the Christian tradition even when it moved, via the natural sciences, into racism. It is doubtful whether the term which was first publicized in an institutional context (the Anti-Semitic League) would have appeared at all if the "Anti-Chancellor League," which fought Bismarck's policy, had not been in existence since 1875. The founders of the new Organization adopted the elements of "anti" and "league," and searched for the proper term: Marr exchanged the term "Jew" for "Semite" which he already favored. It is possible that the shortened form "Sem" is used with such frequency and ease by Marr (and in his writings) due to its literary advantage and because it reminded Marr of Sem Biedermann, his Jewish employer from the Vienna period."}}</ref> The league was the first German organisation committed specifically to combating the alleged threat to Germany and German culture posed by the Jews and their influence and advocating their [[population transfer|forced removal]] from the country.{{citation needed|date=June 2024}}

So far as can be ascertained, the word was first widely printed in 1881, when Marr published {{lang|de|Zwanglose Antisemitische Hefte}}, and [[Wilhelm Scherer]] used the term {{lang|de|Antisemiten}} in the January issue of {{lang|de|[[Neue Freie Presse]]}}.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Botsch |first1=Gideon |author1-link=:de:Gideon Botsch |last2=Treß |first2=Werner |date=2020 |chapter=Moderner Antisemitismus und Sattelzeit: Das Beispiel Paul de Lagarde |trans-chapter=Modern Antisemitism and the Saddle Period: The Example of Paul de Lagarde |title=Der Nachlass Paul de Lagarde: Orientalistische Netzwerke und Antisemitische Verflechtungen |language=de |trans-title=The Estate of Paul de Lagarde: Orientalist Networks and Antisemitic Entanglements |editor1-first=Heike |editor1-last=Behlmer |editor1-link=:de:Heike Behlmer |editor2-first=Thomas L. |editor2-last=Gertzen |editor3-first=Orell |editor3-last=Witthuhn |series=Europäisch-jüdische Studien Beiträge |volume=46 |publisher=[[De Gruyter]] |location=Oldenburg |isbn=978-3-11-061546-3 |page=122}}</ref>{{sfnp|Levy|2010|pp=123–129}}

The ''[[Jewish Encyclopedia]]'' reports, "In February 1881, a correspondent of the {{lang|de|[[Allgemeine Zeitung des Judentums]]}} speaks of 'Anti-Semitism' as a designation which recently came into use ('Allg. Zeit. d. Jud.' 1881, p.&nbsp;138). On 19 July 1882, the editor says, 'This quite recent Anti-Semitism is hardly three years old.{{'"}}<ref name="DeutschG">{{Cite encyclopedia |last=Deutsch |first=Gotthard |author-link=Gotthard Deutsch |year=1901 |title=Anti-Semitism |url=https://archive.org/details/b29000488_0001/page/640/mode/2up |encyclopedia=[[The Jewish Encyclopedia]] |publisher=[[Funk & Wagnalls]] |volume=1 |page=641 |access-date=21 August 2023 |via=[[Internet Archive]]}}</ref>

The word ''antisemitism'' was borrowed into English from German in 1881. ''[[Oxford English Dictionary]]'' editor [[James Murray (lexicographer)|James Murray]] wrote that it was not included in the first edition because "''Anti-Semite'' and its family were then probably very new in English use, and not thought likely to be more than passing nonce-words... Would that anti-Semitism had had no more than a fleeting interest!"<ref>{{Cite web |last=Rothbart |first=Zack |date=4 May 2020 |title=Why 'Anti-Semitism' Was Not in the Original Oxford English Dictionary |url=https://blog.nli.org.il/en/djm_oxford/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200517081045/https://blog.nli.org.il/en/djm_oxford/ |archive-date=17 May 2020 |access-date=9 October 2025 |website=blog.nli.org.il}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last1=Oster |first1=Marcy |title='Anti-Semite,' thought to be a short-lived term, was omitted from original Oxford English Dictionary |url=https://www.jta.org/quick-reads/anti-semite-thought-to-be-a-short-lived-term-was-omitted-from-original-oxford-english-dictionary |website=Jewish Telegraphic Agency |access-date=4 November 2025 |date=4 May 2020}}</ref> The related term ''[[philosemitism]]'' was used by 1881.<ref name="philosemitism">{{cite magazine |title=The Jews in Germany |magazine=[[The Eclectic Magazine of Foreign Literature, Science, and Art]] |publisher=[[Jonathan Leavitt (publisher)|Leavitt, Trow & Company]] |volume=XXXIII |date=March 1881 |page=350 |quote=...the position of German Liberals in this matter of philo-Semitism.}}</ref>

===Usage===
From the outset the term ''anti-Semitism'' bore special racial connotations and meant specifically prejudice against [[Jews]].<ref name="MWdef"/>{{sfnp|Lipstadt|2019|pp=22–25}}<ref name="JustJews" /> The word ''Semitic'' was coined for use in linguistics by German Orientalist [[August Ludwig von Schlözer]] in 1781 to designate the [[Semitic languages|Semitic group of languages]]—[[Aramaic]], [[Arabic]], [[Hebrew language|Hebrew]] and others—allegedly spoken by the descendants of the Biblical figure [[Shem]], son of [[Noah]].<ref name="Vermeulen 2015 p. 252">{{cite book |last=Vermeulen |first=H. F. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=B1nxCQAAQBAJ&pg=PT252 |title=Before Boas: The Genesis of Ethnography and Ethnology in the German Enlightenment |publisher=[[University of Nebraska Press]] |year=2015 |isbn=978-0-8032-7738-0 |series=Critical Studies in the History of Anthropology Series |quote=Schlözer 1781: p.161 "From the Mediterranean to the Euphrates, from Mesopotamia to Arabia ruled one language, as is well known. Thus Syrians, Babylonians, Hebrews, and Arabs were one people (ein Volk). Phoenicians (Hamites) also spoke this language, which I would like to call the Semitic (die Semitische). To the north and east of this Semitic language and national district (Semitische Sprach- und VölkerBezirke) begins a second one: With Moses and Leibniz I would like to call it the Japhetic." |access-date=7 October 2022}}</ref><ref>{{harvp|Kiraz|2001|p=25}}; {{harvp|Baasten|2003|p=67}}</ref>

===Definition===
Though the general definition of ''antisemitism'' is 'hostility or prejudice against Jews', and, according to [[Olaf Blaschke]], the word has become an "umbrella term for negative stereotypes about Jews",{{sfnp|Weinberg|2010|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=0HDeEPouQm0C&pg=PA18 18]}} a number of authorities have developed more formal definitions.<ref name="USDS" />

Writing in 1987, Holocaust scholar and [[City University of New York]] professor [[Helen Fein]] defined it as "a persisting latent structure of hostile beliefs towards Jews as a collective manifested in individuals as attitudes, and in culture as myth, ideology, folklore and imagery, and in actions—social or legal discrimination, political mobilization against the Jews, and collective or state violence—which results in and/or is designed to distance, displace, or destroy Jews as Jews."<ref>{{Cite book |editor-last=Fine |editor-first=Helen |title=The persisting question: sociological perspectives and social contexts of modern antisemitism |date=1987 |page=67 |publisher=[[De Gruyter]] |isbn=978-3-11-010170-6 |location=Berlin}}</ref>

Elaborating on Fein's definition, Dietz Bering of the [[University of Cologne]] writes that, to antisemites, "Jews are not only partially but totally bad by nature, that is, their bad traits are incorrigible. Because of this bad nature: (1) Jews have to be seen not as individuals but as a collective. (2) Jews remain essentially alien in the surrounding societies. (3) Jews bring disaster on their 'host societies' or on the whole world, they are doing it secretly, therefore the anti-Semites feel obliged to unmask the conspiratorial, bad Jewish character."{{sfnp|Falk|2008|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=zL_0WOiZj0oC&pg=PA5 5]}}

For Swiss historian Sonja Weinberg, as distinct from economic and religious [[anti-Judaism]], antisemitism in its specifically modern form shows conceptual innovation, a resort to "science" to defend itself, new functional forms, and organisational differences. It was anti-liberal, racialist and nationalist. It promoted the myth that [[The Protocols of the Elders of Zion|Jews conspired to 'judaise' the world]]; it served to consolidate social identity; it channeled dissatisfactions among victims of the capitalist system; and it was used as a conservative cultural code to fight emancipation and liberalism.{{sfnp|Weinberg|2010|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=0HDeEPouQm0C&pg=PA18 18–19]}}

[[File:Antisemiticroths.jpg|thumb|A caricature by [[Charles Lucien Léandre]] (France, 1898) showing [[Rothschild family|Rothschild]] with the world in his hands]]
In 2003, Israeli politician [[Natan Sharansky]] developed [[Three Ds of antisemitism|what he called the "three D" test]] to distinguish antisemitism from criticism of Israel, giving [[Legitimacy of the State of Israel|Delegitimization]], Demonization, and Double standards as a litmus test for the former.<ref>{{bulleted list|
|{{cite journal |title=So what's new? Rethinking the 'new antisemitism' in a global age |first=Jonathan |last=Judaken |author-link=Jonathan Judaken |journal=[[Patterns of Prejudice]] |volume=42 |issue=4–5 |pages=531–560 |year=2008 |doi=10.1080/00313220802377453 |url=https://umdrive.memphis.edu/jjudaken/public/publications/PoP%20New%20Antisemitism.pdf?uniq=-5aa3 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100618033045/https://umdrive.memphis.edu/jjudaken/public/publications/PoP%20New%20Antisemitism.pdf?uniq=-5aa3 |archive-date=18 June 2010}}
|{{cite journal |last=Younes |first=Anna-Esther |title=Fighting Anti-Semitism in Contemporary Germany |journal=Islamophobia Studies Journal |volume=5 |issue=2 |date=1 October 2020|issn=2325-8381 |doi=10.13169/islastudj.5.2.0249 |doi-access=free}}
|{{cite web |title=The Louis D. Brandeis Center FAQs About Defining Anti-Semitism |website=Brandeis Center—Advance the civil and human rights of the Jewish people and promote justice for all |date=14 March 2022 |url=https://brandeiscenter.com/the-louis-d-brandeis-center-faqs-about-defining-anti-semitism-2/ |access-date=16 September 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250106075541/https://brandeiscenter.com/the-louis-d-brandeis-center-faqs-about-defining-anti-semitism-2/ |archive-date=6 January 2025}}
}}</ref>

British-American historian [[Bernard Lewis]], writing in 2006, defined antisemitism as a special case of prejudice, hatred, or persecution directed against people who are in some way different from the rest. According to Lewis, antisemitism is marked by two distinct features: Jews are judged according to a standard different from that applied to others, and they are accused of "cosmic evil".{{sfnp|Lindemann|Levy|2010|p=8}} Thus, "it is perfectly possible to hate and even to persecute Jews without necessarily being anti-Semitic" unless this hatred or persecution displays one of the two features specific to antisemitism.<ref>{{cite magazine |author-link=Bernard Lewis |last=Lewis |first=Bernard |url=http://hnn.us/blogs/entries/21832.html |title=The New Anti-Semitism |magazine=[[The American Scholar (magazine)|The American Scholar]] |volume=75 |number=1 |date=Winter 2006 |pages=25–36 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110908010822/http://hnn.us/blogs/entries/21832.html |archive-date=8 September 2011}}</ref>

There have been a number of efforts by international and governmental bodies to define antisemitism formally. In 2005, the [[United States Department of State]] stated that "while there is no universally accepted definition, there is a generally clear understanding of what the term encompasses." For the purposes of its 2005 Report on Global Anti-Semitism, the term was considered to mean "hatred toward Jews—individually and as a group—that can be attributed to the Jewish religion and/or ethnicity."<ref name="USDS">{{cite report |url=https://2009-2017.state.gov/j/drl/rls/40258.htm |title=Report on Global Anti-Semitism |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210125182906/https://2009-2017.state.gov/j/drl/rls/40258.htm |archive-date=25 January 2021 |publisher=[[United States Department of State|U.S. State Department]] |date=5 January 2005}}</ref>

In 2005, the European Monitoring Centre on Racism and [[Xenophobia]] (EUMC, now the [[Fundamental Rights Agency]]), an agency of the [[European Union]], developed a more detailed [[EUMC Working Definition of Antisemitism|working definition]], which stated: "Antisemitism is a certain perception of Jews, which may be expressed as hatred toward Jews. Rhetorical and physical manifestations of antisemitism are directed toward Jewish or non-Jewish individuals and/or their property, toward Jewish community institutions and religious facilities." It also adds that "such manifestations could also target the state of Israel, conceived as a Jewish collectivity," but that "criticism of Israel similar to that leveled against any other country cannot be regarded as antisemitic."<ref name="antisemitic"/> It provided contemporary examples of ways in which antisemitism may manifest itself, including promoting the harming of Jews in the name of an ideology or religion; promoting negative stereotypes of Jews; holding Jews collectively responsible for the actions of an individual Jewish person or group; [[Holocaust denial|denying the Holocaust]] or accusing Jews or Israel of exaggerating it; and accusing Jews of [[dual loyalty]] or a greater allegiance to Israel than their own country. It also lists ways in which attacking Israel could be antisemitic, and states that denying the Jewish people their right to self-determination, e.g., by claiming that the existence of a state of Israel is a racist endeavor, can be a manifestation of antisemitism—as can applying double standards by requiring of Israel a behavior not expected or demanded of any other democratic nation, or holding Jews collectively responsible for the actions of the State of Israel.<ref name="antisemitic">{{cite web |url=http://fra.europa.eu/fraWebsite/material/pub/AS/AS-WorkingDefinition-draft.pdf |title=Working Definition of Antisemitism |publisher=[[Fundamental Rights Agency|European Union Agency for Fundamental Rights]] |access-date=24 July 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110304162430/http://www.fra.europa.eu/fraWebsite/material/pub/AS/AS-WorkingDefinition-draft.pdf |archive-date=4 March 2011 }}</ref>
[[File:1889 French election poster for antisemitic candidate Adolphe Willette.jpg|thumb|1889 Paris, France elections poster for self-described "{{lang|fr|candidat antisémite}}" [[Adolphe Willette]]: "The Jews are a different race, hostile to our own... Judaism, there is the enemy!" (See file for complete translation.)]]
	
The EUMC working definition was adopted by the [[European Parliament]] Working Group on Antisemitism in 2010,{{sfnp|Maizels|2023|pp=14–15}}<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.antisem.eu/projects/eumc-working-definition-of-antisemitism/ |title=EUMC Working Definition of Antisemitism |website=antisem.eu |access-date=23 August 2016 |archive-date=1 July 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160701214816/http://www.antisem.eu/projects/eumc-working-definition-of-antisemitism/ |url-status=live}}</ref> by the [[United States Department of State]] in 2017,{{sfnp|Maizels|2023|pp=15–16}}<ref>{{cite web |title=Defining Anti-Semitism |url=https://www.state.gov/s/rga/resources/267538.htm |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170210041344/https://www.state.gov/s/rga/resources/267538.htm |archive-date=10 February 2017 |access-date=5 August 2018}}</ref> in the Operational Hate Crime Guidance of the UK [[College of Policing]] in 2014<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.app.college.police.uk/app-content/major-investigation-and-public-protection/hate-crime/ |title=Hate crime |website=app.college.police.uk |access-date=23 August 2016 |archive-date=11 September 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160911161627/https://www.app.college.police.uk/app-content/major-investigation-and-public-protection/hate-crime/ }}</ref>{{primary source inline|date=September 2024}} and by the UK's [[Campaign Against Antisemitism]].<ref>{{cite web |url=https://antisemitism.uk/definition/ |title=Definition of antisemitism |date=13 July 2015 |access-date=23 August 2016 |archive-date=24 September 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160924061521/https://antisemitism.uk/definition/ |url-status=live}}</ref>{{primary source inline|date=September 2024}} In 2016, the working definition was adopted by the [[International Holocaust Remembrance Alliance]].{{sfnp|Maizels|2023|pp=15–17}}<ref>{{cite web |title=Working Definition of Antisemitism |website=IHRA |url=https://www.holocaustremembrance.com/sites/default/files/press_release_document_antisemitism.pdf |access-date=23 August 2016 |archive-date=25 August 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180825032144/https://www.holocaustremembrance.com/sites/default/files/press_release_document_antisemitism.pdf |url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.thejc.com/news/us-news/us-house-of-representatives-passes-motion-condemning-antisemitism-ilhan-omar-1.481185 |title=US House of Representatives votes to condemn antisemitism after Ilhan Omar's 'Israel loyalty' remarks |quote=Accusing Jewish citizens of being more loyal to Israel than to their interests of their own nation is listed by the International Holocaust Remembrance Alliance as an example of contemporary antisemitism in public life |work=[[The Jewish Chronicle]] |access-date=10 March 2019 |archive-date=3 December 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201203163852/https://www.thejc.com/news/us-news/us-house-of-representatives-passes-motion-condemning-antisemitism-ilhan-omar-1.481185 |url-status=live}}</ref> IHRA's [[Working definition of antisemitism]] is among the most controversial documents related to opposition to antisemitism, and critics argue that it has been used to censor criticism of Israel.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Ruth Gould |first1=Rebecca |author1-link=Rebecca Ruth Gould |title=The IHRA Definition of Antisemitism: Defining Antisemitism by Erasing Palestinians |journal=[[The Political Quarterly]] |year=2020 |volume=91 |issue=4 |pages=825–831 |doi=10.1111/1467-923X.12883 |s2cid=225366096 |doi-access=free}}</ref> In response to the perceived lack of clarity in the IHRA definition, two new definitions of antisemitism were published in 2021, the [[Nexus Document]] in February 2021 and the [[Jerusalem Declaration on Antisemitism]] in March 2021.<ref>{{bulleted list|
| {{harvp|Maizels|2023|p=17}}
| {{Cite news |last=Shamir |first=Jonathan |date=18 April 2021 |title=Two Jews, Three Definitions: New Documents Challenge Mainstream View of Antisemitism |work=[[Haaretz]] |url=https://www.haaretz.com/israel-news/2021-04-18/ty-article/.highlight/two-jews-three-definitions-new-documents-challenge-mainstream-view-of-antisemitism/0000017f-db27-db22-a17f-ffb71c8f0000?lts=1674173929738 |url-access=subscription |access-date=20 January 2023 |archive-url=https://archive.today/20230630082911/https://www.haaretz.com/israel-news/2021-04-18/ty-article/.highlight/two-jews-three-definitions-new-documents-challenge-mainstream-view-of-antisemitism/0000017f-db27-db22-a17f-ffb71c8f0000 |archive-date=30 June 2023}}
| {{Cite news |last=Starr |first=Michael |date=22 April 2021 |title=War of the words: The conflict between definitions of antisemitism |url=https://www.jpost.com/diaspora/antisemitism/war-of-the-words-the-conflict-between-definitions-of-antisemitism-665935 |access-date=19 January 2023 |work=[[The Jerusalem Post]] |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20241226204831/https://www.jpost.com//diaspora/antisemitism/war-of-the-words-the-conflict-between-definitions-of-antisemitism-665935 |archive-date=26 December 2024}}
| {{Cite news |last=Kampeas |first=Ron |date=17 March 2021 |title=A liberal definition of antisemitism that allows for Israel criticism |url=https://www.jpost.com/diaspora/antisemitism/a-liberal-definition-of-antisemitism-that-allows-for-israel-criticism-662248 |access-date=22 January 2023 |work=[[The Jerusalem Post]] |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210605005943/https://www.jpost.com/diaspora/antisemitism/a-liberal-definition-of-antisemitism-that-allows-for-israel-criticism-662248 |archive-date=5 June 2021}}
| {{Cite news |last=Kampeas |first=Ron |date=17 March 2021 |title=US Jewish scholars push anti-Semitism definition allowing more Israel criticism |url=https://www.timesofisrael.com/us-jewish-scholars-push-anti-semitism-definition-allowing-more-israel-criticism/ |access-date=19 January 2023 |work=[[The Times of Israel]] |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210628094031/https://www.timesofisrael.com/us-jewish-scholars-push-anti-semitism-definition-allowing-more-israel-criticism/ |archive-date=28 June 2021}}
| {{Cite news |last=McGreal |first=Chris |date=24 April 2023 |title=UN urged to reject antisemitism definition over 'misuse' to shield Israel |url=https://www.theguardian.com/news/2023/apr/24/un-ihra-antisemitism-definition-israel-criticism |access-date=5 February 2024 |work=[[The Guardian]] |issn=0261-3077 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231022130932/https://www.theguardian.com/news/2023/apr/24/un-ihra-antisemitism-definition-israel-criticism |archive-date=22 October 2023}}
| {{Cite news |last=Hofmann |first=Sarah Judith |date=17 June 2021 |title=A new definition for antisemitism? |url=https://www.dw.com/en/the-jerusalem-declaration-redefining-antisemitism/a-57895132 |access-date=5 February 2024 |work=[[Deutsche Welle]] |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20241226153227/https://www.dw.com/en/the-jerusalem-declaration-redefining-antisemitism/a-57895132 |archive-date=26 December 2024}}
}}</ref>

===Evolution of usage<!--'Judaeophobia' and 'Judeophobia' redirect here-->===
In 1879, [[Wilhelm Marr]] founded the {{lang|de|Antisemiten-Liga|italics=no}} (Anti-Semitic League).<ref>Richard S. Levy, "Marr, Wilhelm (1819–1904)" in {{harvp|Levy|2005|loc=vol. 2|pp=445–446}}</ref> Identification with antisemitism and as an antisemite was politically advantageous in Europe during the late 19th century. For example, [[Karl Lueger]], the popular mayor of [[fin de siècle]] [[Vienna]], skillfully exploited antisemitism as a way of channeling public discontent to his political advantage.<ref name="Karl">{{cite book |first=Richard S. |last=Geehr |title=Karl Lueger, Mayor of Fin-de-Siècle Vienna |publisher=[[Wayne State University Press]] |location=Detroit |date= |isbn=0-8143-2077-5|year=1990|pages=172-173, 197-199}}</ref> In its 1910 obituary of Lueger, ''[[The New York Times]]'' notes that Lueger was "Chairman of the Christian Social Union of the Parliament and of the Anti-Semitic Union of the Diet of Lower Austria.<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.nytimes.com/1910/03/11/archives/dr-karl-lueger-dead-antisemitic-leader-and-mayor-of-vienna-was-66.html |title=Dr. Karl Lueger Dead; Anti-Semitic Leader and Mayor of Vienna Was 66 Years Old |work=[[The New York Times]] |date=11 March 1910 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210126110903/https://www.nytimes.com/1910/03/11/archives/dr-karl-lueger-dead-antisemitic-leader-and-mayor-of-vienna-was-66.html |archive-date=26 January 2021}}</ref> In 1895, [[A. C. Cuza]] organized the {{lang|ro|Alianța Antisemită}} and the {{lang|ro|Liga Antisemită Universală}} in Bucharest.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia |first=Leon |last=Volovici |title=Antisemitic Parties and Movements |translator-first=Anca |translator-last=Mircea |url=https://encyclopedia.yivo.org/article/3 |encyclopedia=The YIVO Encyclopedia of Jews in Eastern Europe |access-date=6 February 2025 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250121114739/https://encyclopedia.yivo.org/article/3 |archive-date=21 January 2025}}</ref> In the period before [[World War II]], when animosity towards Jews was far more commonplace,<ref>{{Cite journal |first1=William I. |last1=Brustein |first2=Ryan D. |last2=King |date=January 2004 |title=Anti-Semitism in Europe before the Holocaust |url=https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/0192512104038166 |access-date=2026-04-10 |journal=International Political Science Review |volume=25 |number=1 |language=en |doi=10.1177/0192512104038166 |pages=35–53 [36] |quote=It is commonly accepted that the years 1899–1939 are a highpoint in anti-Semitism in western societies (Weinberg, 1986; Bernstein, 1996).}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Were the Nazis the only antisemites in pre-war Europe? |url=https://aboutholocaust.org/en/facts/were-the-nazis-the-only-antisemites-in-pre-war-europe |access-date=2026-04-10 |website=Facts About The Holocaust |publisher=[[World Jewish Congress]], [[UNESCO]] |url-status=live |archive-url= |archive-date=}}</ref> it was not uncommon for a person, an organization, or a political party to self-identify as an antisemite or antisemitic.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Leicht |first=Johannes |date=2015 |title=Antisemitische Parteien |trans-title=Antisemitic Parties |url=https://www.dhm.de/lemo/kapitel/kaiserreich/antisemitismus/antisem |access-date=2026-04-10 |website=[[German Historical Museum]] |language=de |url-status=live |archive-url= |archive-date=}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Brustein |first=William I |title=Roots of Hate: Anti-Semitism in Europe before the Holocaust |publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]] |year=2003 |isbn=978-0-521-77308-9 |chapter=Introduction: Anti-Semitism in Europe before the Holocaust}}</ref>{{pn|date=April 2026}}

The early [[Zionist]] pioneer [[Leon Pinsker]], a professional physician, preferred the clinical-sounding term '''''Judeophobia'''''<!--boldface per WP:R#PLA--> (also '''''Judaeophobia'''''<!--boldface per WP:R#PLA-->) to antisemitism, which he regarded as a misnomer. The word ''Judeophobia'' first appeared in his pamphlet ''[[Auto-Emancipation]]'', published anonymously in German in September 1882, where it was described as an irrational fear or hatred of Jews.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Schoeps |first=Julius H. |date=2013 |title=Pioneers of Zionism: Hess, Pinsker, Rülf |chapter=Auto-emancipation and self-help |url=https://www.degruyter.com/document/doi/10.1515/9783110314724.34/html?lang=de |publisher=[[De Gruyter]] |doi=10.1515/9783110314724.34 |pages=34–39 |isbn=978-3-11-031472-4 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20241212042301/https://www.degruyter.com/document/doi/10.1515/9783110314724.34/html |archive-date=12 December 2024}}</ref> According to Pinsker, this irrational fear was an inherited predisposition.<ref name="Bartlett2005">{{cite book |last=Bartlett |first=Steven J. |title=The Pathology of Man: A Study of Human Evil |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=U5KQ0Yi76GMC&pg=PA30 |year=2005 |publisher=Charles C. Thomas Publisher |isbn=978-0-398-07557-6 |page=30}}</ref> {{blockquote|Judeophobia is a form of demonopathy, with the distinction that the Jewish ghost has become known to the whole race of mankind, not merely to certain races... Judeophobia is a psychic disorder. As a psychic disorder, it is hereditary, and as a disease transmitted for two thousand years it is incurable... Thus have Judaism and Jew-hatred passed through history for centuries as inseparable companions... Having analyzed Judeophobia as a hereditary form of demonopathy, peculiar to the human race, and represented Jew-hatred as based upon an inherited aberration of the human mind, we must draw the important conclusion, that we must give up contending against these hostile impulses, just as we give up contending against every other inherited predisposition.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Pinsker |first1=Leon |author1-link=Leon Pinsker |translator-last=Blondheim |translator-first=D. S. |title=Auto-Emancipation |series=Zionist publications |date=1906 |publisher=The Maccabaean Publishing Company |location=New York |pages=3, 4 |url=https://babel.hathitrust.org/cgi/pt?id=hvd.hw5rcs;view=1up;seq=15 |access-date=30 March 2018 |archive-date=20 February 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210220161903/https://babel.hathitrust.org/cgi/pt?id=hvd.hw5rcs&view=1up&seq=15 |url-status=live}} [[s:Auto-Emancipation|English]] and [[s:אוטו-אמאנציפציה|Hebrew]] translations. </ref>}}

In the aftermath of the [[Kristallnacht]] pogrom in 1938, German propaganda minister [[Joseph Goebbels|Goebbels]] announced: "The German people is anti-Semitic. It has no desire to have its rights restricted or to be provoked in the future by parasites of the Jewish race."<ref>''Daily Telegraph'', 12 November 1938. Cited in {{cite book |author-link=Martin Gilbert |last=Gilbert |first=Martin |title=Kristallnacht: Prelude to Destruction |publisher=[[HarperCollins]] |date=2006 |page=142}}</ref>

After 1945 [[End of World War II in Europe|victory of the Allies over Nazi Germany]], and particularly after the full extent of the [[The Holocaust|Nazi genocide against the Jews]] became known, the term ''antisemitism'' acquired [[pejorative]] connotations. This marked a full circle shift in usage, from an era just decades earlier when "Jew" was used as a pejorative term.<ref>{{cite book |first=Jacob Rader |last=Marcus |title=United States Jewry, 1776–1985 |publisher=[[Wayne State University Press]] |date=1989 |page=286 |isbn=0-8143-2186-0}}</ref>{{sfnp|Bein|1990|p=580}} Yehuda Bauer wrote in 1984: "There are no anti-Semites in the world&nbsp;... Nobody says, 'I am anti-Semitic.' You cannot, after Hitler. The word has gone out of fashion."<ref>{{cite book |last=Bauer |first=Yehuda |author-link=Yehuda Bauer |chapter=The Most Ancient Group Prejudice |editor-first=Leo |editor-last=Eitinger |date=1984 |title=The Anti-Semitism of Our Time |location=Oslo |publisher=Nansen Committee |page=14}}, cited in: {{cite book |first=Jocelyn |last=Hellig |date=2003 |title=The Holocaust and Antisemitism: A Short History |publisher=Oneworld Publications |page=73 |isbn=1-85168-313-5}}</ref>

The term has been described as confusing, for in modern usage ''Semitic'' designates a language group, not a race. In this sense, the term is a misnomer, since there are many speakers of [[Semitic languages]] (e.g., [[Arabs]], [[Ethiopian Semitic languages|Ethiopians]], and [[Assyrian people|Assyrians]]) who are not the objects of antisemitic prejudices, while there are many Jews who do not speak [[Hebrew language|Hebrew]], a Semitic language. Though ''antisemitism'' could be construed as [[prejudice]] against people who speak Semitic languages, this is not how the term is commonly used.<ref>{{bulleted list|
|{{harvp|Lewis|1999|p=117}}
|{{cite book |first=Benjamin |last=Isaac |author-link=Isaac Benjamin |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=eem1AQAAQBAJ&pg=PA442 |title=The Invention of Racism in Classical Antiquity |publisher=[[Princeton University Press]] |year=2004 |page=442 |access-date=27 October 2018 |isbn=978-1-4008-4956-7 |archive-date=29 December 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231229235521/https://books.google.com/books?id=eem1AQAAQBAJ&pg=PA442#v=onepage&q&f=false |url-status=live}}
|{{cite book |author-link=David Matas |last=Matas |first=David |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=DYR7SqcMe9gC&pg=PA34 |title=Aftershock: Anti-Zionism and Antisemitism |publisher=Dundurn Press |year=2005 |page=34 |access-date=27 October 2018 |isbn=978-1-55002-553-8 |archive-date=29 December 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231229235524/https://books.google.com/books?id=DYR7SqcMe9gC&pg=PA34#v=onepage&q&f=false |url-status=live}}
|{{cite web |url=https://www.holocaustremembrance.com/sites/default/files/memo-on-spelling-of-antisemitism_final-1.pdf |title=Memo on Spelling of Antisemitism |publisher=[[International Holocaust Remembrance Alliance]] |date=April 2015 |quote=... the hyphenated spelling allows for the possibility of something called 'Semitism', which not only legitimizes a form of pseudo-scientific racial classification that was thoroughly discredited by association with Nazi ideology, but also divides the term, stripping it from its meaning of opposition and hatred toward Jews. |access-date=24 May 2019 |archive-date=31 October 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201031085825/https://www.holocaustremembrance.com/sites/default/files/memo-on-spelling-of-antisemitism_final-1.pdf |url-status=live}}
}}</ref>

Characterizations of "Semite" as having little to no value on the socially constructed racial spectrum<ref>{{Cite book |url=https://nap.nationalacademies.org/read/26902/chapter/1 |title=Using Population Descriptors in Genetics and Genomics Research: A New Framework for an Evolving Field (Consensus Study Report) |publisher=[[National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine]] |date=2023 |doi=10.17226/26902 |pmid=36989389 |isbn=978-0-309-70065-8 |archive-url= |archive-date= |quote=In humans, race is a socially constructed designation, a misleading and harmful surrogate for population genetic differences, and has a long history of being incorrectly identified as the major genetic reason for phenotypic differences between groups.}}</ref><ref name="Malina2021">{{cite journal |last1=Amutah |first1=C. |last2=Greenidge |first2=K. |last3=Mante |first3=A. |last4=Munyikwa |first4=M. |last5=Surya |first5=S. L. |last6=Higginbotham |first6=E. |last7=Jones |first7=D. S. |last8=Lavizzo-Mourey |first8=R. |last9=Roberts |first9=D. |last10=Tsai |first10=J. |last11=Aysola |first11=J. |date=March 2021 |title=Misrepresenting Race—The Role of Medical Schools in Propagating Physician Bias |editor-last=Malina |editor-first=D. |journal=[[The New England Journal of Medicine]] |publisher=[[Massachusetts Medical Society]] |volume=384 |issue=9 |pages=872–878 |doi=10.1056/NEJMms2025768 |pmid=33406326 |issn=1533-4406 |s2cid=230820421 |doi-access=free}}</ref><ref name="Gannon2016">{{cite magazine |last=Gannon |first=Megan |title=Race Is a Social Construct, Scientists Argue |date=5 February 2016 |url=https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/race-is-a-social-construct-scientists-argue/ |url-status=live |magazine=[[Scientific American]] |issn=0036-8733 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230214120609/https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/race-is-a-social-construct-scientists-argue/ |archive-date=14 February 2023 |access-date=1 March 2023}}</ref> combined with its overuse due to popularization stemming from pro-Caucasian racism, as identification with antisemitism and as an antisemite was politically advantageous in Europe at least during the late 19th century, as previously discussed,<ref name=Karl/> thereby diluting [[anti-Judaism]], have been made since at least the 1930s.<ref name="Sevenster1975">{{cite book |last=Sevenster |first=Jan Nicolaas |title=The Roots of Pagan Anti-Semitism in the Ancient World |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=yLE3AAAAIAAJ&pg=PA1 |year=1975 |publisher=Brill Archive |isbn=978-90-04-04193-6 |pages=1–2 |quote=It has long been realised that there are objections to the term anti-Semitism and therefore an endeavour has been made to find a word which better interprets the meaning intended. Already in 1936 Bolkestein, for example, wrote an article on Het "antisemietisme" in de oudheid (Anti-Semitism in the ancient world) in which the word was placed between quotation marks and a preference was expressed for the term hatred of the Jews… Nowadays the term anti-Judaism is often preferred. It certainly expresses better than anti-Semitism the fact that it concerns the attitude to the Jews and avoids any suggestion of racial distinction, which was not or hardly, a factor of any significance in ancient times. For this reason Leipoldt preferred to speak of anti-Judaism when writing his Antisemitsmus in der alten Welt (1933). Bonsirven also preferred this word to Anti-Semitism, "mot moderne qui implique une théorie des races".}}</ref><ref name="MZ1987" />

In 1973, Bernard Lewis wrote that "the Semite [... was] strictly linguistic in origin and use" and the idea that anything could be intuited beyond hatred of Jews through the use of the root word ''[[Wikt:Semite|Semite]]'', such as by ''[[The Economist]]'' and acclaimed biographer [[Isaac Deutscher]], was an effective [[etymological fallacy]], arguing "on the contrary [to the idea that t]he Nazis['], who may be accepted as the most authoritative exponents of anti-Semitism, hostility was limited to Jews only, and did not include the other so-called Semitic peoples[, they] found and still find no difficulty in simultaneously hating Jews and courting Arabs [...]."<ref name="JustJews" />

The term may be spelled with or without a hyphen (''antisemitism'' or ''anti-Semitism''). Many scholars and institutions favor the unhyphenated form.<ref name="IHRA2">{{cite web |title=Memo on Spelling of Antisemitism |url=https://www.holocaustremembrance.com/sites/default/files/memo-on-spelling-of-antisemitism_final-1.pdf |publisher=[[International Holocaust Remembrance Alliance]] |date=April 2015 |quote=The unhyphenated spelling is favored by many scholars and institutions in order to dispel the idea that there is an entity 'Semitism' which 'anti-Semitism' opposes. |access-date=24 May 2019 |archive-date=31 October 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201031085825/https://www.holocaustremembrance.com/sites/default/files/memo-on-spelling-of-antisemitism_final-1.pdf |url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{bulleted list|
|{{cite web |title=The Power of Myth |url=https://www.facinghistory.org/campus/reslib.nsf/99ca830bb4f483948525717f005abfc7/2820f36c177cc758852571860065e8c2/$FILE/complete_antisemitism.pdf |website=Facing History |access-date=27 October 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090305002701/http://www2.facinghistory.org/Campus/reslib.nsf/99ca830bb4f483948525717f005abfc7/2820f36c177cc758852571860065e8c2/%24FILE/complete_antisemitism.pdf |archive-date=5 March 2009 }}
|{{cite web |last1=Bauer |first1=Yehuda |author-link=Yehuda Bauer |title=Problems of Contemporary Antisemitism |url=http://humwww.ucsc.edu/jewishstudies/docs/YBauerLecture.pdf |access-date=27 October 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080307094003/http://humwww.ucsc.edu/jewishstudies/docs/YBauerLecture.pdf |archive-date=7 March 2008}}
|{{cite book |last=Bauer |first=Yehuda |author-link=Yehuda Bauer |title=A History of the Holocaust |url=https://archive.org/details/historyofholocau00yehu |url-access=registration |publisher=Franklin Watts |year=1982 |page=[https://archive.org/details/historyofholocau00yehu/page/52 52] |isbn=978-0-531-05641-7}}
}}</ref>

Identifying the operative [[referent]] in the original usage of ''antisemitism'', referring to an action, state, condition, or doctrine and using the noun-creating suffix ''[[-ism]]'', to be ''Semite'', and without addressing the scientific value of said term, in 1989, Shmuel Almog argued, "If you use the hyphenated form, you consider the words 'Semitism', 'Semite', 'Semitic' as meaningful&nbsp;... [I]n antisemitic parlance, 'Semites' really stands for Jews, just that."<ref>{{Cite news |last=Almog |first=Shmuel |date=Summer 1989 |title=What's in a Hyphen? |work=SICSA Report |location=Jerusalem |url=http://sicsa.huji.ac.il/hyphen.htm |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/19990428121824/http://sicsa.huji.ac.il/hyphen.htm |archive-date=28 April 1999 |access-date=3 April 2024 |publisher=[[Vidal Sassoon International Center for the Study of Antisemitism]]}} Republished in 2014 by Alabama Holocaust Education Center: ahecinfo.org/wp-content/uploads/Why-antisemitism-with-no-hyphen.pdf</ref> In 2002, Padraic O'Hare, professor of Religious and Theological Studies and Director of the Center for the Study of Jewish–Christian–Muslim Relations at [[Merrimack College]]; and historians [[Yehuda Bauer]] and [[James Carroll (author)|James Carroll]]. According to Carroll, who first cites O'Hare and Bauer on "the existence of something called 'Semitism{{'"}}, "the hyphenated word thus reflects the bipolarity that is at the heart of the problem of antisemitism".<ref>{{cite book |last=Carroll |first=James |author-link=James Carroll (author) |title=Constantine's Sword: The Church and the Jews |publisher=Mariner |location=New York |year=2002 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=n7EUdvSQs70C&pg=PT421 |isbn=978-0-618-21908-7|pages=628–629 |access-date=27 October 2018 |archive-date=29 December 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231229235554/https://books.google.com/books?id=n7EUdvSQs70C&pg=PT421 |url-status=live}}</ref> In 2003, [[Emil Fackenheim]] supported the unhyphenated spelling, in order to "[dispel] the notion that there is an entity 'Semitism' which 'anti-Semitism' opposes."{{sfnp|Prager|Telushkin|2003|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=VK0llzUqQ2YC&pg=PA199 199]}} Others endorsing an unhyphenated term for the same reason include the [[International Holocaust Remembrance Alliance]];<ref name="IHRA2"/> historian [[Deborah Lipstadt]];{{sfnp|Lipstadt|2019|pp=22–25}} Conversely, in 2000, philologist Jonathan M. Hess identified the operative referent in the original usage to have been "antisemit[e]".<ref name="Hess"/>

The [[Associated Press]] and its accompanying ''[[AP Stylebook]]'' adopted the unhyphenated spelling in 2021.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Bandler |first=Aaron |date=27 April 2021 |title=AP Changes Spelling of "Anti-Semitism" to "Antisemitism" |work=Jewish Journal |url=https://jewishjournal.com/news/united-states/336003/ap-changes-spelling-of-anti-semitism-to-antisemitism/ |access-date=18 July 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20241130063127/https://jewishjournal.com/news/united-states/336003/ap-changes-spelling-of-anti-semitism-to-antisemitism/ |archive-date=30 November 2024}}</ref> Style guides for the ''[[New York Times]]'' and ''[[Wall Street Journal]]'' later adopted this spelling as well.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Hanau |first=Shira |date=8 December 2021 |title=The New York Times updates style guide to 'antisemitism,' losing the hyphen |publisher=[[Jewish Telegraphic Agency]] |url=https://www.jta.org/2021/12/08/united-states/the-new-york-times-updates-style-guide-to-antisemitism-losing-the-hyphen |access-date=18 July 2023 |archive-date=19 July 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230719040045/https://www.jta.org/2021/12/08/united-states/the-new-york-times-updates-style-guide-to-antisemitism-losing-the-hyphen |url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |date=15 December 2022|title=Vol. 35, No. 11: Antisemitism |work=The Wall Street Journal|url=https://www.wsj.com/articles/vol-35-no-11-antisemitism-11671114285 |access-date=19 July 2023 |issn=0099-9660 |archive-date=19 July 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230719040044/https://www.wsj.com/articles/vol-35-no-11-antisemitism-11671114285 |url-status=live}}</ref> It has also been adopted by many [[Holocaust museums]], such as the [[United States Holocaust Memorial Museum]] and [[Yad Vashem]].<ref>{{Cite news |last=Jo Zerivitz |first=Marcia |date=1 February 2021 |title=In a word, it's antisemitism |work=Jewish Press of Tampa Bay |url=https://www.jewishpresstampa.com/articles/in-a-word-its-antisemitism/ |access-date=18 July 2023 |archive-date=19 July 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230719040045/https://www.jewishpresstampa.com/articles/in-a-word-its-antisemitism/ |url-status=live}}</ref>

===Eternalism–contextualism debate===
The study of antisemitism has become politically controversial because of differing interpretations of the Holocaust and the Israeli–Palestinian conflict.{{sfnp|Judaken|2018|pp=1123–1124}} There are two competing views of antisemitism—eternalism and contextualism.{{sfnp|Consonni|2022|p=25}} The eternalist view sees antisemitism as separate from other forms of racism and prejudice and an exceptionalist, transhistorical force [[teleological]]ly culminating in the Holocaust.{{sfnp|Consonni|2022|p=25}}{{sfnp|Judaken|2018|pp=1123, 1130}} Hannah Arendt criticized this approach, writing that it provoked "the uncomfortable question: 'Why the Jews of all people?' ... with the question begging reply: Eternal hostility."{{sfnp|Judaken|2018|p=1130}} Zionist thinkers and antisemites draw different conclusions from what they perceive as the eternal hatred of Jews; according to antisemites, it proves the inferiority of Jews, while for Zionists it means that Jews need their own state as a refuge.{{sfnp|Judaken|2018|p=1135}}{{sfnp|Ury|2018|p=1151}} Most Zionists do not believe that antisemitism can be combatted with education or other means.{{sfnp|Judaken|2018|p=1135}}

The contextual approach treats antisemitism as a type of racism and focuses on the historical context in which hatred of Jews emerges.{{sfnp|Consonni|2022|p=27}} Some contextualists restrict the use of "antisemitism" to refer exclusively to the era of modern racism, treating anti-Judaism as a separate phenomenon.{{sfnp|Judaken|2018|p=1132}} Historian [[David Engel (historian)|David Engel]] has challenged the project to define antisemitism, arguing that it essentializes Jewish history as one of persecution and discrimination.{{sfnp|Consonni|2022|p=26}} Engel argues that the term "antisemitism" is not useful in historical analysis because it implies that there are links between anti-Jewish prejudices expressed in different contexts, without evidence of such a connection.{{sfnp|Judaken|2018|p=1130}}

==Manifestations==
[[File:Medieval manuscript-Jews identified by rouelle are being burned at stake.jpg|thumb|Jews (identified by the mandatory [[Jewish badge]] and [[Jewish hat]]) being burned]]

Antisemitism manifests itself in a variety of ways. [[René König]] mentions social antisemitism, economic antisemitism, religious antisemitism, and political antisemitism as examples. König points out that these different forms demonstrate that the "origins of anti-Semitic prejudices are rooted in different historical periods." König asserts that differences in the chronology of different antisemitic prejudices and the irregular distribution of such prejudices over different segments of the population create "serious difficulties in the definition of the different kinds of anti-Semitism."<ref>{{cite book |title=Materialien zur Kriminalsoziologie |language=de |trans-title=Materials on Criminal Sociology |first=René |last=König |publisher=[[VS Verlag für Sozialwissenschaften|VS Verlag]] |year=2004 |page=231 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=N9oL2cljv8QC&pg=PA231 |isbn=978-3-8100-3306-2 |access-date=23 August 2020 |archive-date=30 December 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231230000128/https://books.google.com/books?id=N9oL2cljv8QC&pg=PA231 |url-status=live}}</ref>

These difficulties may contribute to the existence of different taxonomies that have been developed to categorize the forms of antisemitism. The forms identified are substantially the same; it is primarily the number of forms and their definitions that differ. [[Bernard Lazare]], writing in the 1890s, identified three forms of antisemitism: [[Christianity and antisemitism|Christian antisemitism]], economic antisemitism, and ethnologic antisemitism.<ref>{{cite book |title=Anti-Semitism: Its History and Causes |first=Bernard |last=Lazare |publisher=Cosimo, Inc. |year=2006 |page=224 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=VP81v2Y24HUC&pg=PA224 |isbn=978-1-59605-601-5 |access-date=23 August 2020 |archive-date=30 December 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231230000042/https://books.google.com/books?id=VP81v2Y24HUC&pg=PA224#v=onepage&q&f=false |url-status=live}}</ref> [[William I. Brustein|William Brustein]] names four categories: religious, racial, economic, and political.<ref>{{cite book |title=Roots of hate: anti-semitism in Europe before the Holocaust |first=William |last=Brustein |publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]] |year=2003 |page=46 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Hc3HabBQsdsC&pg=PA46 |isbn=978-0-521-77478-9 |access-date=23 August 2020 |archive-date=30 December 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231230000114/https://books.google.com/books?id=Hc3HabBQsdsC&pg=PA46#v=onepage&q&f=false |url-status=live}}</ref> The [[Roman Catholic]] historian [[Edward Flannery]] distinguished four varieties of antisemitism:{{sfnp|Flannery|1985|p={{page needed|date=July 2022}}}}
* Political and economic antisemitism, giving as examples [[Cicero]]{{sfnp|Flannery|1985|p=16}} and [[Charles Lindbergh]];{{sfnp|Flannery|1985|p=260}}
* [[Religious antisemitism|Theological or religious antisemitism]], also called "traditional antisemitism"<ref>{{Cite news |last1=Sherwood |first1=Harriet |date=11 April 2018 |title=Traditional antisemitism is back, global study finds |work=[[The Guardian]] |url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2018/apr/11/traditional-antisemitism-is-back-global-study-finds |access-date=17 October 2023 |issn=0261-3077 |archive-date=17 October 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231017211114/https://www.theguardian.com/world/2018/apr/11/traditional-antisemitism-is-back-global-study-finds |url-status=live}}</ref> and sometimes known as [[anti-Judaism]];{{sfnp|Flannery|1985|p=289}}
* Nationalistic antisemitism, citing [[Voltaire]] and other [[Age of Enlightenment|Enlightenment]] thinkers, who attacked Jews for supposedly having certain characteristics, such as greed and arrogance, and for observing customs such as [[kashrut]] and [[Shabbat]];{{sfnp|Flannery|1985|p=176}}
* [[Racial antisemitism]], with its extreme form resulting in [[the Holocaust]] by the [[Nazi]]s.{{sfnp|Flannery|1985|p=179}}
{{Quote box
|quote=[[Antisemitism in Europe|Europe has blamed the Jews]] for an encyclopedia of [[sin]]s.<br/>[[Catholic Church|The Church]] blamed the Jews for [[Jewish deicide|killing Jesus]]; [[Voltaire]] blamed the Jews for [[Jewish Christian|inventing Christianity]]. In the febrile minds of anti-Semites, Jews were [[Usury#Judaism|usurers]] and [[Well poisoning#Medieval accusations against Jews|well-poisoners]] and [[Persecution of Jews during the Black Death|spreaders of disease]]. Jews were the creators of both [[Jewish Bolshevism|communism]] and [[Economic antisemitism|capitalism]]; they were [[Jewish quarter (diaspora)|clannish]] but also [[Rootless cosmopolitan|cosmopolitan]]; cowardly and warmongering; self-righteous moralists and defilers of culture.<br/>Ideologues and demagogues of many permutations have understood the Jews to be a singularly malevolent force standing between the world and its perfection.
|author=[[Jeffrey Goldberg]], 2015.<ref>{{cite magazine |last1=Goldberg |first1=Jeffrey |author1-link=Jeffrey Goldberg |title=Is It Time for the Jews to Leave Europe?|url=https://www.theatlantic.com/magazine/archive/2015/04/is-it-time-for-the-jews-to-leave-europe/386279/ |magazine=[[The New Yorker]] |date=April 2015 |access-date=21 April 2023 |archive-date=21 April 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230421112016/https://www.theatlantic.com/magazine/archive/2015/04/is-it-time-for-the-jews-to-leave-europe/386279/ |url-status=live}}</ref>
|source=
|style=max-width:30em
}}
[[Louis Harap]], writing in the 1980s, separated "economic antisemitism" and merges "political" and "nationalistic" antisemitism into "ideological antisemitism". Harap also adds a category of "social antisemitism".<ref>{{cite book |title=Creative awakening: the Jewish presence in twentieth-century American literature, 1900-1940s |first=Louis |last=Harap |publisher=[[Greenwood Publishing Group]] |year=1987 |page=24 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=mAPvam-n_DYC&pg=PA24 |isbn=978-0-313-25386-7 |access-date=23 August 2020 |archive-date=30 December 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231230000143/https://books.google.com/books?id=mAPvam-n_DYC&pg=PA24 |url-status=live}}</ref>
* Religious (Jew as Christ-killer),
* Economic (Jew as banker, usurer, money-obsessed),
* Social (Jew as social inferior, "pushy", vulgar, therefore excluded from personal contact),
* Racist (Jews as an inferior "race"),
* Ideological (Jews regarded as subversive or revolutionary),
* Cultural (Jews regarded as undermining the moral and structural fiber of civilization).

===Religious antisemitism===
{{Main|Religious antisemitism}}

{{See also|Anti-Judaism|Antisemitism in Christianity|Antisemitism in Islam}}
[[File:Execution of Mariana de Carabajal.jpg|thumb|The execution of [[Francisca Nuñez de Carabajal|Mariana de Carabajal]] (converted Jew), accused of a relapse into Judaism, [[Mexico City]], 1601]]

[[Religious antisemitism]], also known as [[anti-Judaism]], is antipathy towards Jews because of their perceived religious beliefs. In theory, antisemitism and attacks against individual Jews would stop if Jews stopped practicing Judaism or changed their public faith, especially by [[Religious conversion|conversion]] to the official or right religion. However, in some cases, discrimination continues after conversion, as in the case of ''[[marrano]]s'' (Christianized Jews in Spain and Portugal) in the late 15th century and 16th century, who were suspected of secretly practising Judaism or Jewish customs.{{sfnp|Flannery|1985|pp=135–141}}

Although the origins of antisemitism are rooted in the Judeo-Christian conflict, other forms of antisemitism have developed in modern times. Frederick Schweitzer asserts that "most scholars ignore the Christian foundation on which the modern antisemitic edifice rests and invoke political antisemitism, cultural antisemitism, racism or racial antisemitism, economic antisemitism, and the like."<ref>{{cite book |title=A concise history of American antisemitism |first=Robert |last=Michael |publisher=[[Rowman & Littlefield]] |year=2005 |page=vii |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=5G3feplFBYUC&pg=PR7 |isbn=978-0-7425-4313-3 |access-date=23 August 2020 |archive-date=30 December 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231230001047/https://books.google.com/books?id=5G3feplFBYUC&pg=PR7#v=onepage&q&f=false |url-status=live}}</ref> William Nicholls draws a distinction between religious antisemitism and modern antisemitism based on racial or ethnic grounds: "The dividing line was the possibility of effective conversion [...] a Jew ceased to be a Jew upon [[baptism]]." From the perspective of racial antisemitism, however, "the assimilated Jew was still a Jew, even after baptism.[...] From the [[Age of Enlightenment|Enlightenment]] onward, it is no longer possible to draw clear lines of distinction between religious and racial forms of hostility towards Jews[...] Once Jews have been emancipated and secular thinking makes its appearance, without leaving behind the old Christian hostility towards Jews, the new term antisemitism becomes almost unavoidable, even before explicitly racist doctrines appear."<ref>{{cite book |last=Nicholls |first=William |date=1993 |title=Christian Antisemitism: A History of Hate |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=cg00E0gk9PQC |location=[[Lanham, Maryland]] |publisher=[[Jason Aronson]] / [[Rowman & Littlefield]] |page=314 |isbn=0-87668-398-7}}</ref>

Some Christians such as the Catholic priest [[Ernest Jouin]], who published the first French translation of the ''Protocols'', combined religious and racial antisemitism, as in his statement that "From the triple viewpoint of race, of nationality, and of religion, the Jew has become the enemy of humanity."{{sfnp|Michael|2008|p=171}} The virulent antisemitism of [[Édouard Drumont]], one of the most widely read Catholic writers in France during the Dreyfus Affair, likewise combined religious and racial antisemitism.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Arnal |first1=Oscar L. |title=Ambivalent Alliance: The Catholic Church and the Action Française, 1899–1939 |date=1985 |publisher=[[University of Pittsburgh Press]] |page=32 |isbn=978-0-8229-8563-1}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Rubenstein |first1=Richard L. |title=Approaches to Auschwitz: The Holocaust and Its Legacy |date=2003 |publisher=[[Westminster John Knox Press]] |page=81 |isbn=978-0-664-22353-3}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Brustein |first1=William |title=Roots of Hate: Anti-Semitism in Europe Before the Holocaust |date=2003 |publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]] |page=60 |isbn=978-0-521-77478-9}}</ref> Drumont founded the [[Antisemitic League of France]].

===Economic antisemitism===
{{Main|Economic antisemitism}}

<!-- [[File:The Kingdom of Shylock.jpg|thumb|right|Front cover of ''The Kingdom of Shylock'' (1917), a pamphlet by Australian politician [[Frank Anstey]] asserting Jewish control of banking and finance]]
-->
[[File:"Nebuď služobníkom žida"—Slovak propaganda poster.jpg|thumb|alt=Man kissing feet of another man with hooked nose, dropping money on his head|A World War II-era [[Antisemitism in Slovakia|Slovak]] propaganda poster exhorts readers not to "be a servant to the Jew".]]
The underlying premise of economic antisemitism is that Jews perform harmful economic activities or that economic activities become harmful when they are performed by Jews.<ref name=MeyerBrenner220>{{cite book |first1=Michael |last1=Meyer |first2=Michael |last2=Brenner |title=German-Jewish History in Modern Times: Integration in dispute, 1871–1918 |publisher=[[Columbia University Press]] |year=1998 |page=220 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=HFFoSglsovoC&pg=PA220 |isbn=978-0-231-07476-6 |access-date=23 August 2020 |archive-date=30 December 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231230001150/https://books.google.com/books?id=HFFoSglsovoC&pg=PA220#v=onepage&q&f=false |url-status=live}}</ref>

Linking Jews and money underpins the most damaging and lasting [[antisemitic canard]]s.<ref>{{cite web |title=Jews & Money—The story of a stereotype |url=http://www.adl.org/Anti_semitism/jewsandmoney/default.asp |access-date=18 April 2011 |website=[[Anti-Defamation League]] |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110228220753/http://www.adl.org/Anti_semitism/jewsandmoney/default.asp |archive-date=28 February 2011 }}</ref> Antisemites claim that Jews control the world finances, a theory promoted in the fraudulent ''[[The Protocols of the Elders of Zion]]'' and later repeated by [[Henry Ford]] and his ''[[The Dearborn Independent]]''. In the modern era, such myths continue to be spread in books such as ''[[The Secret Relationship Between Blacks and Jews]]'' published by the [[Nation of Islam]] and on the internet.

[[Derek Penslar]] writes that there are two components to the financial canards:{{sfnp|Penslar|2001|p=5}}
:a) Jews are savages that "are temperamentally incapable of performing honest labor"
:b) Jews are "leaders of a financial cabal seeking world domination"

[[Abraham Foxman]] describes six facets of the financial canards:
#All Jews are wealthy{{sfnp|Foxman|2010|p=84}}
#Jews are stingy and greedy{{sfnp|Foxman|2010|p=89}}
#Powerful Jews control the business world{{sfnp|Foxman|2010|p=93}}
#Jewish religion emphasizes profit and materialism{{sfnp|Foxman|2010|p=98}}
#It is okay for Jews to cheat non-Jews{{sfnp|Foxman|2010|p=102}}
#Jews use their power to benefit "their own kind"{{sfnp|Foxman|2010|p=105}}

[[Gerald Krefetz]] summarizes the myth as "[Jews] control the banks, the money supply, the economy, and businesses—of the community, of the country, of the world".{{sfnp|Krefetz|1982|p=45}} Krefetz gives, as illustrations, many slurs and proverbs (in several different languages) which suggest that Jews are stingy, or greedy, or miserly, or aggressive bargainers.{{sfnp|Krefetz|1982|pp=6–7}} During the nineteenth century, Jews were described as "scurrilous, stupid, and tight-fisted", but after the [[Jewish Emancipation]] and the rise of Jews to the middle- or upper-class in Europe were portrayed as "clever, devious, and manipulative financiers out to dominate [world finances]".{{sfnp|Krefetz|1982|p=47}}

[[Léon Poliakov]] asserts that economic antisemitism is not a distinct form of antisemitism, but merely a manifestation of theologic antisemitism (because, without the theological causes of economic antisemitism, there would be no economic antisemitism). In opposition to this view, Derek Penslar contends that in the modern era, economic antisemitism is "distinct and nearly constant" but theological antisemitism is "often subdued".{{sfnp|Penslar|2001|p=12}}

An academic study by Francesco D'Acunto, Marcel Prokopczuk, and Michael Weber showed that people who live in areas of Germany that contain the most brutal history of antisemitic persecution are more likely to be distrustful of finance in general. Therefore, they tended to invest less money in the stock market and make poor financial decisions. The study concluded, "that the persecution of minorities reduces not only the long-term wealth of the persecuted but of the persecutors as well."<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=D'Acunto |first1=Francesco |first2=Marcel |last2=Prokopczuk |first3=Michael |last3=Weber |date=2015 |url=http://faculty.haas.berkeley.edu/francesco_dacunto/papers/AntisemFinW_Jun14.pdf |title=Distrust in Finance Lingers: Jewish Persecution and Households' Investments |journal=Meeting Papers, Society for Economic Dynamics |number=26 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141107191848/http://faculty.haas.berkeley.edu/francesco_dacunto/papers/AntisemFinW_Jun14.pdf |archive-date=7 November 2014 |via=[[Haas School of Business]] |access-date=20 October 2014}}</ref>

===Racial antisemitism===
{{Main|Racial antisemitism}}

[[File:Bundesarchiv Bild 101I-267-0111-36, Russland, russische Kriegsgefangene (Juden).jpg|thumb|A Jewish Soviet soldier taken prisoner by the German Army, August 1941. At least 50,000 Jewish soldiers were shot after selection.<ref>{{cite book |last=Lewy |first=Guenter |author-link=Guenter Lewy |title=Perpetrators: The World of the Holocaust Killers |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=iDoqDwAAQBAJ&q=50,000+red+army+Jewish+soldiers+were+shot&pg=PA42 |publisher=[[Oxford University Press]] |year=2017 |page=42 |isbn=978-0-19-066113-7 |access-date=14 October 2020 |archive-date=30 December 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231230001159/https://books.google.com/books?id=iDoqDwAAQBAJ&q=50,000+red+army+Jewish+soldiers+were+shot&pg=PA42#v=snippet&q=50%2C000%20red%20army%20Jewish%20soldiers%20were%20shot&f=false|url-status=live}}</ref>]]
Racial antisemitism is prejudice against [[Jew]]s as a racial/ethnic group, rather than [[Judaism]] as a religion.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia |url=http://jewishencyclopedia.com/view.jsp?artid=1603&letter=A&search=Anti-semitism |title=Anti-Semitism |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110921041255/http://www.jewishencyclopedia.com/view.jsp?artid=1603&letter=A&search=anti-semitism |archive-date=21 September 2011 |encyclopedia=[[Jewish Encyclopedia]]}}</ref>

Racial antisemitism is the idea that the Jews are a distinct and inferior race compared to their host nations. In the late 19th century and early 20th century, it gained mainstream acceptance as part of the [[eugenics]] movement, which categorized non-Europeans as inferior. It more specifically claimed that Northern Europeans, or "Aryans", were superior. Racial antisemites saw the Jews as part of a Semitic race and emphasized their non-European origins and culture. They saw Jews as beyond redemption even if they converted to the majority religion.<ref>{{cite web |title=Jesus—The Jewish religion in the 1st century |url=https://www.britannica.com/biography/Jesus/The-Jewish-religion-in-the-1st-century |website=Encyclopædia Britannica |access-date=31 August 2022 |archive-date=11 December 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201211142824/https://www.britannica.com/biography/Jesus/The-Jewish-religion-in-the-1st-century |url-status=live}}</ref>

Racial antisemitism replaced the hatred of Judaism with the hatred of Jews as a group. In the context of the [[Industrial Revolution]], following the [[Jewish Emancipation]], Jews rapidly urbanized and experienced a period of greater social mobility. With the decreasing role of religion in public life tempering religious antisemitism, a combination of growing [[nationalism]], the rise of eugenics, and resentment at the socio-economic success of the Jews led to the newer, and more virulent, racist antisemitism.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.ushmm.org/wlc/en/article.php?ModuleId=10007171 |title=Antisemitism in History: Racial Antisemitism, 1875–1945 |website=[[United States Holocaust Memorial Museum]] |access-date=15 September 2017 |archive-date=23 August 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170823210503/https://www.ushmm.org/wlc/en/article.php?ModuleId=10007171 |url-status=live}}</ref>

In the early 19th century, a number of laws enabling the emancipation of the Jews were enacted in Western European countries.<ref>{{cite book |first=Paul |last=Webster |date=2001 |title=Petain's Crime: The Full Story of French Collaboration |location=London |publisher=[[Pan Books]] |isbn=978-0-330-48785-6 |pages=13, 15}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |first=Dan |last=Cohn-Sherbok |author-link=Dan Cohn-Sherbok |date=2006 |title=The Paradox of Anti-Semitism |publisher=[[Continuum International Publishing Group|Continuum]] |isbn=978-0-8264-8896-1 |pages=44–46}}</ref> The old laws restricting them to [[ghetto]]s, as well as the many laws that limited their property rights, rights of worship and occupation, were rescinded. Despite this, traditional discrimination and hostility to Jews on religious grounds persisted and was supplemented by [[racial antisemitism]], encouraged by the work of racial theorists such as [[Joseph Arthur de Gobineau]] and particularly his ''Essay on the Inequality of the Human Race'' of 1853–1855. [[Nationalist]] agendas based on [[ethnicity]], known as [[ethnonationalism]], usually excluded the Jews from the national community as an alien race.{{sfnp|Beller|2007|p=64}} Allied to this were theories of [[Social Darwinism]], which stressed a putative conflict between higher and lower races of human beings. Such theories, usually posited by northern Europeans, advocated the superiority of white [[Aryan]]s to [[Semitic people|Semitic]] Jews.{{sfnp|Beller|2007|pp=57–59}}

===Political antisemitism===
{{Quote box
| quote = The whole problem of the Jews exists only in nation states, for here their energy and higher intelligence, their accumulated capital of spirit and will, gathered from generation to generation through a long schooling in suffering, must become so preponderant as to arouse mass envy and hatred. In almost all contemporary nations, therefore—in direct proportion to the degree to which they act up nationalistically—the literary obscenity of leading the Jews to slaughter as scapegoats of every conceivable public and internal misfortune is spreading.
| author = [[Friedrich Nietzsche]]
| source = 1886, [MA 1 475]<ref>{{cite book |title=Nietzsche, der Philosoph und Politiker |language=de |trans-title=Nietzsche, the Philosopher and Politician |pages=8, 63, ''et passim'' |first=Alfred |last=Baeumler |author-link=Alfred Baeumler |publisher=[[Reclam]] |year=1931 |asin=B002803IJK}}</ref>
| style = max-width:30em
}}
[[William I. Brustein|William Brustein]] defines political antisemitism as hostility toward Jews based on the belief that Jews seek national or world power. Yisrael Gutman characterizes political antisemitism as tending to "lay responsibility on the Jews for defeats and political economic crises" while seeking to "exploit opposition and resistance to Jewish influence as elements in political party platforms."<ref>{{cite book |title=Genocide, critical issues of the Holocaust: a companion to the film, Genocide |publisher=Behrman House, Inc |year=1983 |page=100 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=DcdiVs9lwvcC&pg=PA100 |isbn=978-0-940646-04-9 |access-date=23 August 2020 |archive-date=30 December 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231230001125/https://books.google.com/books?id=DcdiVs9lwvcC&pg=PA100 |url-status=live}}</ref> [[Derek J. Penslar]] wrote, "Political antisemitism identified the Jews as responsible for all the anxiety-provoking social forces that characterized [[modernity]]."<ref>{{cite book |author-link=Derek J. Penslar |last=Penslar |first=Derek J. |chapter=Introduction |title=Contemporary Antisemitism: Canada and the World |editor1-first=Derek J. |editor1-last=Penslar |editor2-first=Michael R. |editor2-last=Marrus |editor3-first=Janice Gross |editor3-last=Stein |publisher=[[University of Toronto Press]] |date=2005 |pages=3–12 |doi=10.3138/9781442673342 |isbn=978-1-4426-7334-2}}</ref>

According to Viktor Karády, political antisemitism became widespread after the legal emancipation of the Jews and sought to reverse some of the consequences of that emancipation.<ref>{{cite book |title=The Jews of Europe in the modern era: a socio-historical outline |first=Viktor |last=Karády |publisher=[[Central European University Press]] |year=2004|page=348 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=4hGg9rMQpEEC&pg=PA351 |isbn=978-963-9241-52-7 |access-date=23 August 2020 |archive-date=30 December 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231230001153/https://books.google.com/books?id=4hGg9rMQpEEC&pg=PA351#v=onepage&q&f=false |url-status=live}}</ref>

===Cultural antisemitism===
Louis Harap defines cultural antisemitism as "that species of anti-Semitism that charges the Jews with corrupting a given culture and attempting to supplant or succeeding in supplanting the preferred culture with a uniform, crude, "Jewish" culture."<ref>{{cite book |title=Creative awakening: the Jewish presence in twentieth-century American literature |first=Louis |last=Harap |publisher=[[Greenwood Publishing Group]] |year=1987 |page=76 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=mAPvam-n_DYC&pg=PA76 |isbn=978-0-313-25386-7 |access-date=23 August 2020 |archive-date=30 December 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231230000109/https://books.google.com/books?id=mAPvam-n_DYC&pg=PA76 |url-status=live}}</ref> Similarly, [[Eric Kandel]] characterizes cultural antisemitism as being based on the idea of "Jewishness" as a "religious or cultural tradition that is acquired through learning, through distinctive traditions and education." According to Kandel, this form of antisemitism views Jews as possessing "unattractive psychological and social characteristics that are acquired through acculturation."<ref name=Kandel30>{{cite book |title=In search of memory: the emergence of a new science of mind |first=Eric R. |last=Kandel |publisher=[[W. W. Norton & Company]] |year=2007 |page=30 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=PFnRwWXzypgC&pg=PA30 |isbn=978-0-393-32937-7 |access-date=23 August 2020 |archive-date=30 December 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231230000111/https://books.google.com/books?id=PFnRwWXzypgC&pg=PA30#v=onepage&q&f=false |url-status=live}}</ref> Niewyk and Nicosia characterize cultural antisemitism as focusing on and condemning "the Jews' aloofness from the societies in which they live."<ref>{{cite book |title=The Columbia Guide to the Holocaust |first1=Donald L. |last1=Niewyk |first2=Francis R. |last2=Nicosia |publisher=[[Columbia University Press]] |year=2003 |page=215 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=z-6vKBHggVwC&pg=PA215 |isbn=978-0-231-11201-7 |access-date=23 August 2020 |archive-date=30 December 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231230000044/https://books.google.com/books?id=z-6vKBHggVwC&pg=PA215#v=onepage&q&f=false |url-status=live}}</ref>
An important feature of cultural antisemitism is that it considers the negative attributes of Judaism to be redeemable by education or by religious conversion.<ref name=Kandel3031>{{cite book |title=In search of memory: the emergence of a new science of mind |first=Eric R. |last=Kandel |publisher=[[W. W. Norton & Company]] |year=2007 |pages=30–31 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=PFnRwWXzypgC&pg=PA30 |isbn=978-0-393-32937-7 |access-date=23 August 2020 |archive-date=30 December 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231230000111/https://books.google.com/books?id=PFnRwWXzypgC&pg=PA30#v=onepage&q&f=false |url-status=live}}</ref>

===Conspiracy theories===
{{See also|List of conspiracy theories#Antisemitic conspiracy theories}}
<!-- refs need sorting out -->
[[Holocaust denial]] and [[Jewish conspiracy]] theories are also considered forms of antisemitism.<ref name="antisemitic"/><ref>{{bulleted list|
|{{Cite web |last=Mathis |first=Andrew E. |url=http://www.phdn.org/archives/holocaust-history.org/denial/abc-clio/ |title=Holocaust Denial, a Definition |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210213171733/https://phdn.org/archives/holocaust-history.org/denial/abc-clio/ |archive-date=13 February 2021 |website=[[The Holocaust History Project]] |date=2 July 2004 |access-date=15 August 2016}}
|{{cite book |first1=Michael |last1=Shermer |first2=Alex |last2=Grobman |title=Denying History: who Says the Holocaust Never Happened and why Do They Say It? |publisher=[[University of California Press]] |date=2000 |isbn=0-520-23469-3 |page=106}}
|{{cite web |url=http://www.tau.ac.il/Anti-Semitism/asw2000-1/usa.htm |title=Antisemitism and Racism Country Reports: United States |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110628184616/http://www.tau.ac.il/Anti-Semitism/asw2000-1/usa.htm |archive-date=28 June 2011 |website=[[Stephen Roth Institute]] |date=2000 |access-date=17 May 2007}}
|{{harvp|Lipstadt|1994|p=27}}
|{{Cite web |url=http://www.adl.org/holocaust/theory.asp |title=Introduction: Denial as Anti-Semitism |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110604020743/http://www.adl.org/holocaust/theory.asp |archive-date=4 June 2011 |series=Holocaust Denial: An Online Guide to Exposing and Combating Anti-Semitic Propaganda |website=[[Anti-Defamation League]] |date=2001 |access-date=12 June 2007}}
|{{cite book |first=Lawrence N. |last=Powell |title=Troubled Memory: Anne Levy, the Holocaust, and David Duke's Louisiana |publisher=[[University of North Carolina Press]] |date=2000 |isbn=0-8078-5374-7 |page=445}}
}}</ref> [[Zoological conspiracy theories]] have been propagated by Arab media and Arabic language websites, alleging a "Zionist plot" behind the use of animals to attack civilians or to conduct espionage.<ref>{{cite news |last=Tait |first=Robert |date=10 December 2012 |title='Vulture spying for Israel' caught in Sudan |newspaper=[[The Daily Telegraph]] |url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/middleeast/israel/9734674/Vulture-spying-for-Israel-caught-in-Sudan.html |access-date=11 January 2014 |url-access=subscription |url-status=live |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20220110/https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/middleeast/israel/9734674/Vulture-spying-for-Israel-caught-in-Sudan.html |archive-date=10 January 2022}}{{cbignore}}</ref>

===New antisemitism===
{{Main|New antisemitism}}

[[Image:Protests Edinburgh 10 1 2009 5.JPG|right|thumb|A sign held at a protest in [[Edinburgh]], Scotland, January 2009]]
Starting in the 1990s, some scholars have advanced the concept of [[new antisemitism]], coming simultaneously from the [[Left-wing politics|left]], the [[Right-wing politics|right]], and [[Islamism|radical Islam]], which tends to focus on opposition to the creation of a Jewish homeland in what is now the State of Israel (formerly Mandatory Palestine),<ref name="New-AS-List">{{bulleted list|
| {{cite book |last=Chesler |first=Phyllis |author-link=Phyllis Chesler |title=The New Antisemitism: The Current Crisis and What We Must Do About It |publisher=Jossey-Bass |date=2003 |pages=158–159, 181}}
| {{cite web |last=Kinsella |first=Warren |author-link=Warren Kinsella |url=http://warrenkinsella.com/oldsite/old/words_extremism_nas.htm |title=The New antisemitism |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120729171012/http://warrenkinsella.com/oldsite/old/words_extremism_nas.htm |archive-date=29 July 2012 |access-date=5 March 2006}}
| {{cite news |last=Doward |first=Jamie |date=8 August 2004 |url=https://www.theguardian.com/uk/2004/aug/08/race.religion |title=Jews predict record level of hate attacks: Militant Islamic media accused of stirring up new wave of antisemitism |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080115132604/http://observer.guardian.co.uk/uk_news/story/0,6903,1278580,00.html |archive-date=15 January 2008 |url-status=live |work=[[The Observer]]}}
| {{cite book |last=Endelman |first=Todd M. |author-link=Todd Endelman |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Lmym8zUBCKcC&pg=PA65 |chapter=Antisemitism in Western Europe Today |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221117161939/https://books.google.com/books?id=Lmym8zUBCKcC&pg=PA65 |archive-date=17 November 2022 |title=Contemporary Antisemitism: Canada and the World |publisher=[[University of Toronto Press]] |date=2005 |pages=65–79 |isbn=978-0-8020-3931-6}}
| {{cite book |last=Matas |first=David |author-link=David Matas |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=DYR7SqcMe9gC&pg=PA30 |title=Aftershock: Anti-Zionism and Antisemitism |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221117161942/https://books.google.com/books?id=DYR7SqcMe9gC&pg=PA30 |archive-date=17 November 2022 |publisher=Dundurn Press |date=2005 |pages=30–31 |isbn=978-1-55002-553-8}}
| {{cite book |last=Wistrich |first=Robert S. |author-link=Robert S. Wistrich |title=From Ambivalence to Betrayal: The Left, the Jews, and Israel |series=Studies in Antisemitism |publisher=[[University of Nebraska Press]] |date=2012}}{{page needed|date=February 2025}}
}}</ref> and they argue that the language of [[anti-Zionism]] and [[criticism of Israel]] are used to attack Jews more broadly. In this view, the proponents of the new concept believe that criticisms of Israel and [[Zionism]] are often disproportionate in degree and unique in kind, and they attribute this to antisemitism.<ref name="JP">[https://web.archive.org/web/20031205153139/http://yaleglobal.yale.edu/display.article?id=2791 "Antiglobalism's Jewish Problem"] in [[Ron Rosenbaum|Rosenbaum, Ron]] (ed.). ''Those who forget the past: The Question of Anti-Semitism'', [[Random House]] 2004, p.&nbsp;272.</ref>

Jewish scholar [[Gustavo Perednik]] posited in 2004 that anti-Zionism in itself represents a form of discrimination against Jews, in that it singles out Jewish national aspirations as an illegitimate and racist endeavor, and "proposes actions that would result in the death of millions of Jews".<ref name="JP"/> Proponents of this theory assert that the new antisemitism deploys traditional antisemitic motifs, including older motifs such as the [[blood libel]].<ref name="New-AS-List"/>

Critics of the concept view it as trivializing the meaning of antisemitism, and as [[Weaponization of antisemitism|exploiting antisemitism in order to silence debate]] and to deflect attention from legitimate criticism of the State of Israel, and, by associating anti-Zionism with antisemitism, misusing it to taint anyone opposed to Israeli actions and policies.<ref>{{cite news |author-link=Brian Klug |last=Klug |first=Brian |url=http://www.thenation.com/doc.mhtml?i=20040202&s=klug |title=The Myth of the New Anti-Semitism |archive-url=http://arquivo.pt/wayback/20090701082702/http://www.thenation.com/doc.mhtml?i=20040202&s=klug |archive-date=1 July 2009 |work=[[The Nation (U.S. periodical)|The Nation]] |date=15 January 2004 |access-date=9 January 2006}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |author-link=Michael Lerner (rabbi) |last=Lerner |first=Michael |url=http://baltimorechronicle.com/2007/020207LERNER.shtml |title=There Is No New Anti-Semitism |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110126094118/http://baltimorechronicle.com/2007/020207LERNER.shtml |archive-date=26 January 2011 |date=5 February 2007 |access-date=6 February 2007}}</ref>

==History==
{{Main|History of antisemitism}}

{{For timeline}}
{{Jews and Judaism sidebar |History}}

Many authors see the roots of modern antisemitism in both pagan antiquity and early Christianity. Jerome Chanes identifies six stages in the historical development of antisemitism:{{sfnp|Chanes|2004}}
#Pre-Christian anti-Judaism in ancient Greece and Rome, which was primarily ethnic in nature
#Christian antisemitism in antiquity and the Middle Ages, which was religious in nature and has extended into modern times
#Traditional Muslim antisemitism, which was—at least, in its classical form—nuanced in that Jews were a protected class
#Political, social and economic antisemitism of Enlightenment and post-Enlightenment Europe, which laid the groundwork for racial antisemitism
#Racial antisemitism that arose in the 19th century and culminated in Nazism in the 20th century
#Contemporary antisemitism, which has been labeled by some as the [[New Antisemitism]]

Chanes suggests that these six stages could be merged into three categories: "ancient antisemitism, which was primarily ethnic in nature; [[Christian antisemitism]], which was religious; and the racial antisemitism of the nineteenth and twentieth centuries."{{sfnp|Chanes|2004|pp=5–6}}

===Ancient world===
The first clear examples of anti-Jewish sentiment can be traced to the 3rd century BCE to [[Alexandria]],{{sfnp|Flannery|1985|p=11}} the home to the largest Jewish diaspora community in the world at the time and where the [[Septuagint]], a Greek translation of the [[Hebrew Bible]], was produced. [[Manetho]], an Egyptian priest and historian of that era, wrote scathingly of the Jews. His themes are repeated in the works of [[Chaeremon of Alexandria|Chaeremon]], [[Lysimachus]], [[Poseidonius]], [[Apollonius Molon]], and in [[Apion]] and [[Tacitus]].{{sfnp|Flannery|2004|p=12}} [[Agatharchides of Cnidus]] ridiculed the practices of the Jews and the "absurdity of [[Torah|their Law]]", making a mocking reference to how [[Ptolemy Lagus]] was able to invade [[Jerusalem]] in 320 BCE because its inhabitants were observing the ''[[Shabbat]]''.{{sfnp|Flannery|2004|p=12}} One of the earliest anti-Jewish [[edict]]s, promulgated by [[Antiochus IV Epiphanes]] in about 170–167 BCE, sparked a revolt of the [[Maccabees]] in [[Judea]].<ref name="gruen">{{cite encyclopedia |author-link=Erich S. Gruen |first=Erich S. |last=Gruen |year=1993|title=Hellenism and Persecution: Antiochus IV and the Jews |encyclopedia=Hellenistic History and Culture |editor-first=Peter |editor-last=Green |publisher=[[University of California Press]] |pages=250–252 [238]}}</ref>

In view of Manetho's anti-Jewish writings, antisemitism may have originated in Egypt and been spread by "the [[Greeks|Greek]] retelling of [[Ancient Egypt]]ian prejudices".<ref name="Schäfer">Schäfer, Peter. ''Judeophobia'', [[Harvard University Press]], 1997, p. 208.[[Peter Schaefer (author)|Peter Schäfer]]</ref> The ancient Jewish philosopher [[Philo of Alexandria]] describes an attack on Jews in Alexandria in 38 CE in which thousands of Jews died.<ref name="Barclay">{{cite book |last=Barclay |first=John M. G. |date=1999 |title=Jews in the Mediterranean Diaspora: From Alexander to Trajan (323 BCE–117 CE) |publisher=[[University of California]] |pages=78–79}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |author=Philo of Alexandria |author-link=Philo of Alexandria |url=http://www.earlychristianwritings.com/yonge/book36.html |title=Flaccus |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070804174650/http://www.earlychristianwritings.com/yonge/book36.html |archive-date=4 August 2007}}</ref> The violence in Alexandria may have been caused by the Jews being portrayed as [[misanthropy|misanthropes]].<ref name="vanderhorst">{{cite book |last=Van Der Horst |first=Pieter Willem |date=2003 |title=Philo's Flaccus: The First Pogrom |series=Philo of Alexandria Commentary Series |publisher=[[Brill Publishers|Brill]] |author-link=Pieter Willem van der Horst}}</ref> Tcherikover argues that the reason for hatred of Jews in the Hellenistic period was their separateness in the Greek cities, the ''[[polis|poleis]]''.<ref name="tcherikover">{{cite book |last=Tcherikover |first=Victor |title=Hellenistic Civilization and the Jews |location=New York |publisher=Atheneum |date=1975}}</ref>{{page needed|date=January 2025}} Bohak has argued, however, that early animosity against the Jews cannot be regarded as being anti-Judaic or antisemitic unless it arose from attitudes that were held against the Jews alone, and that many Greeks showed animosity toward any group they regarded as barbarians.<ref name="Bohak">{{cite book |last=Bohak |first=Gideon |chapter=The Ibis and the Jewish Question: Ancient 'Antisemitism' in Historical Context |editor1-first=Menachem |editor1-last=Mor |editor2-first=Jack |editor2-last=Pastor |editor3-first=Aharon |editor3-last=Oppenheimer |editor4-first=Daniel R. |editor4-last=Schwartz |title=Jews and Gentiles in the Holy Land in the Days of the Second Temple, the Mishna and the Talmud |publisher=Yad Ben-Zvi Press |date=2003 |pages=27–43 |isbn=965-217-205-7}}</ref>

Statements exhibiting prejudice against Jews and their religion can be found in the works of many [[pagan]] [[ancient Greece|Greek]] and [[ancient Rome|Roman]] writers.<ref>{{cite journal |jstor=3265911 |last=Daniels |first=J. L. |title=Anti-Semitism in the Hellenistic-Roman Period |journal=[[Journal of Biblical Literature]] |volume=98 |issue=1 |year=1979 |pages=45–65 |doi=10.2307/3265911}}</ref> Edward Flannery writes that it was the Jews' refusal to accept Greek religious and social standards that marked them out. Hecataetus of Abdera, a Greek historian of the early third century BCE, wrote that Moses "in remembrance of the exile of his people, instituted for them a misanthropic and inhospitable way of life." Manetho wrote that the Jews were expelled Egyptian [[Leprosy|lepers]] who had been taught by [[Moses]] "not to adore the gods."{{sfnp|Flannery|1985|pp=11–12}} Edward Flannery describes antisemitism in ancient times as essentially "cultural, taking the shape of a national xenophobia played out in political settings."{{sfnp|Flannery|1985|pp=24–26}}

There are examples of [[Hellenistic]] rulers desecrating the [[Temple in Jerusalem|Temple]] and banning Jewish religious practices, including [[Antiochus IV Epiphanes]], who in 167 BCE erected an altar to Zeus in the temple directed the sacrifice of pigs to at the altar.<ref name="EB">{{Cite encyclopedia |title=Temple of Jerusalem |url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/Temple-of-Jerusalem |archive-url=http://web.archive.org/web/20260325155918/https://www.britannica.com/topic/Temple-of-Jerusalem |archive-date=2026-03-25 |access-date=2026-04-10 |encyclopedia=Encyclopedia Britannica |language=en}}</ref><ref name="cdlib">{{Cite book |last=Gruen |first=Erich S. |title=Hellenistic History and Culture |chapter=Hellenism and Persecution: Antiochus IV and the Jews |chapter-url=https://publishing.cdlib.org/ucpressebooks/view?docId=ft0000035f&doc.view=content&chunk.id=ch8&toc.depth=100&anchor.id=0&brand=ucpress |access-date=2026-04-10 |via=publishing.cdlib.org}}</ref> He also banned Jewish practices such as circumcision, Shabbat observance, and the study of Torah scrolls, sparking the Maccabean Revolt.<ref name="cdlib" />

The Jewish diaspora on the [[Nile River|Nile]] island [[Elephantine]], which was founded by mercenaries, experienced the destruction of its temple in 410 BCE.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia |last=Colpe |first=Carsten |title=Anti-Semitism |encyclopedia=Brill's New Pauly Online |editor1-first=Hubert |editor1-last=Cancik |editor2-first=Helmuth |editor2-last=Schneider |publisher=[[Brill Publishers|Brill]] |date=2008}}</ref>{{pn|date=April 2026}}

[[History of the Jews in the Roman Empire|Relationships between the Jewish people and the occupying Roman Empire]] were at times antagonistic and resulted in [[Jewish-Roman wars|several rebellions]], most notably the [[First Jewish–Roman War]] and the [[Bar Kokhba revolt]].<ref>{{cite journal |last=Woods |first=David |date=2008 |title=Tiberius, Tacfarinas, and the Jews |url=https://cora.ucc.ie/items/054071b4-7931-4698-b7cf-9aa3444c2073 |journal=Arctos |volume=42 |pages=267–284 |access-date=10 April 2026}}</ref> According to [[Suetonius]], the emperor [[Tiberius]] took measures against Jews in Rome in 19 CE, expelling and relocating some Jewish‑affiliated groups in response to unrest and alleged religious‑moral offenses.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2012-09-29 |title=Tiberius, Tacfarinas, and the Jews |url=https://www.historyoftheancientworld.com/2012/09/tiberius-tacfarinas-and-the-jews/ |access-date=2026-04-10 |website=History of the Ancient World |language=en-US}}</ref> The 18th-century English historian [[Edward Gibbon]] identified a more tolerant period in Roman–Jewish relations beginning in about 160 CE.{{citation needed|date=February 2025}} However, with the rise of Christianity as the dominant religion, [[History of antisemitism#Late Roman Empire|increasingly restrictive legislation and rhetoric]] was directed against Jews.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Gibbon |first=Edward |author-link=Edward Gibbon |chapter=Fall In The West |title=The Decline And Fall Of The Roman Empire |url=https://www.ccel.org/g/gibbon/decline/volume1/chap15.htm |access-date=2026-04-10 |via=www.ccel.org |url-status=live |archive-url= |archive-date=}}</ref>

[[James Carroll (novelist)|James Carroll]] asserted: "Jews accounted for 10% of the total population of the Roman Empire. By that ratio, if other factors such as [[pogrom]]s and [[forced conversion|conversion]]s had not intervened, there would be 200 million Jews in the world today, instead of something like 13 million."<ref>{{cite book |last=Carroll |first=James |title=[[Constantine's Sword]] |publisher=[[Houghton Mifflin]] |date=2001 |isbn=0-395-77927-8 |page=26}}</ref>

===Persecutions during the Middle Ages===
{{Main|History of European Jews in the Middle Ages|Antisemitism in Islam#Pre-modern Islam}}

[[File:Banu Qurayza.png|thumb|The massacre of the [[Banu Qurayza]], a Jewish tribe in [[Medina]], 627]]

In the late 6th century CE, the newly Catholicised Visigothic kingdom in Hispania issued a series of anti-Jewish edicts which forbade Jews from marrying Christians, practicing circumcision, and observing Jewish holy days.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Lowney |first1=Chris |title=A Vanished World: Muslims, Christians, and Jews in Medieval Spain |date=1999 |publisher=[[Brill Publishers|Brill]] |isbn=978-90-04-11206-3 |pages=124–125}}</ref> Continuing throughout the 7th century, both Visigothic kings and the Church were active in creating social aggression and towards Jews with "civic and ecclesiastic punishments",<ref>{{cite book |editor-first=Alberto |editor-last=Ferreiro |last1=Gonzalez Salinero |first1=Raul |title=The Visigoths: Studies in Culture and Society |date=1996 |publisher=[[Oxford University Press]] |isbn=978-0-19-531191-4 |pages=29–31}}</ref> ranging between forced conversion, slavery, exile and death.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Gorsky |first1=Jeffrey |title=Exiles in Sepharad: The Jewish Millennium in Spain |date=2015 |publisher=[[University of Nebraska Press]] |isbn=978-0-8276-1241-9 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=964eCAAAQBAJ&pg=PT26 |access-date=28 August 2016}}</ref>

From the 9th century, the [[Islamic Golden Age|medieval Islamic world]] classified Jews and Christians as ''[[dhimmis]]'' and allowed Jews to practice their religion more freely than they could do in [[Middle Ages|medieval Christian Europe]]. Under [[Al-Andalus|Islamic rule]], there was a [[Golden age of Jewish culture in Spain]] that lasted until at least the 11th century.<ref>{{Cite book |first=María Rosa |last=Menocal |author-link=María Rosa Menocal |title=The Ornament of the World: How Muslims, Jews and Christians Created a Culture of Tolerance in Medieval Spain |date=April 2003 |publisher=Back Bay Books |isbn=978-0-316-16871-7 |url=https://archive.org/details/ornamentofworldh00meno}}</ref> It ended when several Muslim [[pogrom]]s against Jews took place on the [[Iberian Peninsula]], including those that occurred in [[Córdoba, Spain|Córdoba]] in 1011 and in [[1066 Granada massacre|Granada in 1066]].{{sfnp|Perry|Schweitzer|2002|pp=267–268}}<ref>{{cite web |url=http://jewishencyclopedia.com/view.jsp?artid=412&letter=G&search=Granada |title=Granada |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101224005745/http://jewishencyclopedia.com/view.jsp?artid=412&letter=G&search=Granada |archive-date=24 December 2010 |first1=Richard |last1=Gottheil |first2=Meyer |last2=Kayserling |website=[[Jewish Encyclopedia]] |date=1906}}</ref>{{sfnp|Harzig|Hoerder|Shubert|2003|p=42}} Several decrees ordering the destruction of synagogues were also enacted in Egypt, Syria, Iraq and Yemen from the 11th century. In addition, Jews were forced to convert to Islam or face death in some parts of Yemen, Morocco and Baghdad several times between the 12th and 18th centuries.<ref>{{cite book |first=Bat |last=Ye'or |year=1985 |title=The Dhimmi: Jews and Christians Under Islam |place=Madison, New Jersey |publisher=[[Fairleigh Dickinson University Press]] |page=61 |isbn=978-0-8386-3262-8 |author-link=Bat Ye'or}}</ref>

The [[Almohad Caliphate|Almohads]], who had taken control of the [[Almoravid dynasty|Almoravids]]' [[Maghreb|Maghribi]] and Andalusian territories by 1147,<ref name="islamicworldeb">{{cite encyclopedia |title=Islamic world |date=2007 |encyclopedia=Encyclopædia Britannica |access-date=2 September 2007 |url=https://www.britannica.com/eb/article-26925 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071213154933/http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-26925 |archive-date=13 December 2007}}</ref> were far more fundamentalist in outlook compared to their predecessors, and they treated the ''dhimmis'' harshly. Faced with the choice of either death or conversion, many Jews and Christians emigrated.{{sfnp|Frank|Leaman|2003|pp=137–138}}<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.myjewishlearning.com/history_community/Medieval/IntergroupTO/JewishMuslim/Almohads.htm |title=The Almohads |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090213223723/http://www.myjewishlearning.com/history_community/Medieval/IntergroupTO/JewishMuslim/Almohads.htm |archive-date=13 February 2009 |website=Myjewishlearning.com |access-date=2 June 2012}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.theforgottenrefugees.com/index.php?option=com_content&task=view&id=66&Itemid=39 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070728230344/http://www.theforgottenrefugees.com/index.php?option=com_content&task=view&id=66&Itemid=39 |archive-date=28 July 2007 |title=Historical Timeline |access-date=27 October 2018}}. The Forgotten Refugees</ref> Some, such as the family of [[Maimonides]], fled east to more tolerant Muslim lands,{{sfnp|Frank|Leaman|2003|pp=137–138}} while some others went northward to settle in the growing Christian kingdoms.{{sfnp|Frank|Leaman|2003|pp=137–138}}

[[File:Expulsion judios-en.svg|thumb|upright=1.25|right|[[Expulsions and exoduses of Jews|Expulsions of Jews]] in Europe from 1100 to 1600]]
In [[Middle Ages|medieval]] Europe, Jews were persecuted with [[blood libel]]s, expulsions, [[forced conversion]]s and [[massacre]]s. These persecutions were often justified on religious grounds and reached a first peak during the [[Crusades]]. In 1096, hundreds or thousands of [[Rhineland massacres|Jews were killed]] during the [[First Crusade]].<ref>{{cite web |last=Chazan |first=Robert |author-link=Robert Chazan |title=In the Year 1096: The First Crusade and the Jews |date=1996 |url=https://www.questia.com/library/5684490/in-the-year-1096-the-first-crusade-and-the-jews |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200726053850/https://www.questia.com/library/5684490/in-the-year-1096-the-first-crusade-and-the-jews |archive-date=26 July 2020}}</ref> This was the first major outbreak of anti-Jewish violence in Christian Europe outside Spain and was cited by Zionists in the 19th century as indicating the need for a state of Israel.<ref>{{cite book |first=Corliss K. |last=Slack |title=Historical Dictionary of the Crusades |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=uX8e2zU_TG0C&pg=PA108 |year=2013 |publisher=[[Scarecrow Press]] |pages=108–109 |isbn=978-0-8108-7831-0 |access-date=13 August 2015 |archive-date=30 December 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231230001632/https://books.google.com/books?id=uX8e2zU_TG0C&pg=PA108#v=onepage&q&f=false |url-status=live}}</ref>

In 1147, there were several massacres of Jews during the [[Second Crusade]]. The [[Shepherds' Crusade (1251)|Shepherds' Crusades of 1251]] and [[Shepherds' Crusade (1320)|1320]] both involved attacks, as did the [[Rintfleisch massacres]] in 1298. Expulsions followed, such as the 1290 banishment of Jews from England, the expulsion of 100,000 Jews from France in 1394,<ref>History of the reign of Charles VI, titled {{lang|fr|[[Chronique de Religieux de Saint-Denys]]}}, encompasses the king's full reign in six volumes. Originally written in Latin, the work was translated to French in six volumes by L. Bellaguet between 1839 and 1852.</ref> and the 1421 expulsion of thousands of Jews from Austria. Many of the expelled Jews fled to Poland.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.holocaustcenterpgh.net/2-3.html |title=Why the Jews?—Black Death |access-date=22 November 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20031211173212/http://www.holocaustcenterpgh.net/2-3.html |archive-date=11 December 2003}}</ref>

In medieval and Renaissance Europe, a major contributor to the deepening of antisemitic sentiment and legal action among the Christian populations was the popular preaching of the zealous reform religious orders, the Franciscans (especially [[Bernardino of Feltre]]) and Dominicans (especially [[Vincent Ferrer]]), who combed Europe and promoted antisemitism through their often fiery, emotional appeals.<ref>{{cite book |first=Franco |last=Mormando |title=The Preacher's Demons: Bernardino of Siena and the Social Underworld of Early Renaissance Italy |location=Chicago |publisher=[[University of Chicago Press]] |date=1999 |chapter=2}}</ref>

As the [[Black Death]] epidemics devastated Europe in the mid-14th century, causing the death of a large part of the population, Jews were used as [[scapegoating#Psychology and sociology|scapegoats]]. Rumors spread that they caused the disease by deliberately poisoning wells. Hundreds of Jewish communities were [[Black Death Jewish persecutions|destroyed in numerous persecutions]]. Although [[Pope Clement VI]] tried to protect them by issuing two [[papal bull]]s in 1348, the first on 6 July and an additional one several months later, 900 Jews were [[Strasbourg massacre|burned alive in Strasbourg]], where the plague had not yet affected the city.<ref name="Black">{{cite magazine |first1=Stéphane |last1=Barry |first2=Norbert |last2=Gualde |title=La plus grande épidémie de l'histoire |language=fr |trans-title=The greatest epidemics in history |magazine=[[L'Histoire]] |number=310 |date=June 2006 |page=47}}</ref>

===Reformation===
{{Main|Martin Luther and antisemitism}}

[[Martin Luther]], an [[ecclesiastical]] reformer whose teachings inspired the [[Protestant Reformation|Reformation]], wrote antagonistically about Jews in his pamphlet ''[[On the Jews and Their Lies (Martin Luther)|On the Jews and their Lies]]'', written in 1543. He portrays the Jews in extremely harsh terms, excoriates them and provides detailed recommendations for a [[pogrom]] against them, calling for their permanent oppression and expulsion. At one point he writes: "...we are at fault in not slaying them...", a passage that, according to historian [[Paul Johnson (writer)|Paul Johnson]], "may be termed the first work of modern antisemitism, and a giant step forward on the road to [[the Holocaust]]."{{sfnp|Johnson|1987|p=242}}

===17th century===
[[File:Vertreibung der Juden 1614.jpg|thumb|Etching of the [[Frankfurter Judengasse#The Fettmilch Uprising|expulsion of the Jews from Frankfurt]] in 1614]]

During the mid-to-late 17th century the [[Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth]] was devastated by several conflicts, in which the Commonwealth lost over a third of its population (over 3&nbsp;million people), and Jewish losses were counted in the hundreds of thousands. The first of these conflicts was the [[Khmelnytsky Uprising]], when [[Bohdan Khmelnytsky]]'s supporters massacred tens of thousands of [[History of Jews in Poland|Jews]] in the eastern and southern areas he controlled (today's [[Ukraine]]). The precise number of dead may never be known, but the decrease of the Jewish population during that period is estimated at 100,000 to 200,000, which also includes emigration, deaths from diseases, and [[Slavery (Ottoman Empire)|captivity in the Ottoman Empire]], called ''jasyr''.<ref>{{cite news |quote=Bogdan Chmelnitzki leads Cossack uprising against Polish rule; 100,000 Jews are killed and hundreds of Jewish communities are destroyed. |url=http://www.cbsnews.com/htdocs/religion/judaism/timeline.html |title=Judaism Timeline 1618–1770 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121020024503/http://www.cbsnews.com/htdocs/religion/judaism/timeline.html |archive-date=20 October 2012 |work=[[CBS News]] |access-date=13 May 2007}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |quote=... as many as 100,000 Jews were murdered throughout the Ukraine by Bogdan Chmielnicki's soldiers on the rampage. |last=Gilbert |first=Martin |author-link=Martin Gilbert |title=Holocaust Journey: Traveling in Search of the Past |publisher=[[Columbia University Press]] |date=1999 |isbn=0-231-10965-2 |page=219}}</ref>

European immigrants to the United States brought antisemitism to the country as early as the 17th century. [[Peter Stuyvesant]], the Dutch governor of [[New Amsterdam]], implemented plans to prevent Jews from settling in the city. During the Colonial Era, the American government limited the political and economic rights of Jews. It was not until the [[American Revolutionary War]] that Jews gained legal rights, including the right to vote. However, even at their peak, the restrictions on Jews in the United States were never as stringent as they had been in Europe.<ref>{{cite book |editor-last=Boyer |editor-first=Paul S. |title=The Oxford companion to United States history |year=2006 |publisher=[[Oxford University Press]] |location=Oxford |isbn=978-0-19-508209-8 |page=[https://archive.org/details/oxfordcompaniont00paul_0/page/42 42] |url=https://archive.org/details/oxfordcompaniont00paul_0/page/42}}</ref>

In the [[Zaydi|Zaydi imamate]] of [[Yemen]], Jews were also singled out for discrimination in the 17th century, which culminated in the general expulsion of all Jews from places in Yemen to the arid coastal plain of [[Tihamah]] and which became known as the [[Mawza Exile]].<ref>Yosef Qafiḥ, ''Ketavim'' (''Collected Papers''), Vol. 2, Jerusalem 1989, pp. 714–716 (Hebrew)</ref>

===Enlightenment===
In 1744, Archduchess of Austria [[Maria Theresa of Austria|Maria Theresa]] ordered Jews out of [[Bohemia]] but soon reversed her position, on the condition that Jews pay for their readmission every ten years. This [[extortion]] was known among the Jews as {{lang|de|[[malke-geld]]}} ("queen's money" in Yiddish).<ref>{{cite book |last=Büchler |first=Alexander |chapter=Hungary |editor1-last=Singer |editor1-first=Isidore |title=The Jewish Encyclopedia |date=1904 |publisher=[[Funk and Wagnalls]] |location=New York and London |volume=6 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/TheJewishEncyclopediaVIGodIstria/page/n511 494–503]}}</ref> In 1752, she introduced the law limiting each Jewish family to one son.

In 1782, [[Joseph II, Holy Roman Emperor|Joseph II]] abolished most of these persecution practices in his {{lang|de|[[Toleranzpatent]]}},{{sfnp|O'Brien|1969|p=29}}<ref>{{cite book |last=Ingrao |first=W. Charles |title=The Habsburg Monarchy 1618-1815 |publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]] |date=1994 |page=199}}</ref> on the condition that [[Yiddish language|Yiddish]] and [[Hebrew language|Hebrew]] were eliminated from public records and that judicial autonomy was annulled.{{sfnp|O'Brien|1969|p=30}} [[Moses Mendelssohn]] wrote that "Such a tolerance... is even more dangerous play in tolerance than open persecution."

====Voltaire====
According to [[Arnold Ages]], [[Voltaire]]'s "Lettres philosophiques, Dictionnaire philosophique, and Candide, to name but a few of his better known works, are saturated with comments on Jews and Judaism and the vast majority are negative".<ref>Ages Arnold. "Tainted Greatness: The Case of Voltaire's Anti-Semitism: The Testimony of the Correspondence." Neohelicon 21.2 (Sept. 1994): 361.</ref> Paul H. Meyer adds: "There is no question but that Voltaire, particularly in his latter years, nursed a violent hatred of the Jews and it is equally certain that his animosity...did have a considerable impact on public opinion in France."<ref>Meyer, Paul H. "The Attitude of the Enlightenment Toward the Jew." Studies on Voltaire and the Eighteenth Century, 26 (1963): 1177.</ref> Thirty of the 118 articles in Voltaire's ''[[Dictionnaire Philosophique]]'' concerned Jews and described them in consistently negative ways.<ref>[[Léon Poliakov|Poliakov, L.]] ''The History of Anti-Semitism: From Voltaire to Wagner''. [[Routledge]] & Kegan Paul, Ltd., 1975 (translated). page 88-89.</ref>

===Louis de Bonald and the Catholic Counter-Revolution===
The [[counter-revolutionary]] Catholic royalist [[Louis de Bonald]] stands out among the earliest figures to explicitly call for the reversal of Jewish emancipation in the wake of the [[French Revolution]].<ref name="Battini1">{{Cite book |title=Socialism of Fools: Capitalism and Modern Anti-Semitism |last=Battini |first=Michele |publisher=[[Columbia University Press]] |year=2016 |pages=2–7 and 30–37}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Katz |first1=Jacob |title=From Prejudice to Destruction: Anti-Semitism, 1700–1933 |url=https://archive.org/details/fromprejudicetod00katz |url-access=registration |date=1980 |publisher=[[Harvard University Press]] |pages=[https://archive.org/details/fromprejudicetod00katz/page/112 112–115] |isbn=978-0-674-32505-0}}</ref> Bonald's attacks on the Jews are likely to have influenced [[Napoleon]]'s decision to limit the civil rights of Alsatian Jews.<ref>{{bulleted list|
|{{Cite book |title=Socialism of Fools: Capitalism and Modern Anti-Semitism |last=Battini |first=Michele |publisher=[[Columbia University Press]] |year=2016 |page=164}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Garṭner |first1=Aryeh |last2=Gartner |first2=Lloyd P. |title=History of the Jews in Modern Times |url=https://archive.org/details/historyofjewsinm00gart |url-access=registration |date=2001 |publisher=[[Oxford University Press]] |page=[https://archive.org/details/historyofjewsinm00gart/page/116 116] |isbn=978-0-19-289259-1}}
|{{cite book |last1=Joskowicz |first1=Ari |title=The Modernity of Others: Jewish Anti-Catholicism in Germany and France |date=2013 |publisher=[[Stanford University Press]] |page=99}}
|{{cite book |last1=Michael |first1=Robert |last2=Rosen |first2=Philip |title=Dictionary of Antisemitism from the Earliest Times to the Present |date=2007 |publisher=[[Scarecrow Press]] |page=67}}
}}</ref> Bonald's article {{lang|fr|Sur les juifs}} (1806) was one of the most venomous screeds of its era and furnished a paradigm which combined anti-liberalism, a defense of a rural society, traditional Christian antisemitism, and the identification of Jews with bankers and finance capital, which would in turn influence many subsequent right-wing reactionaries such as [[Roger Gougenot des Mousseaux]], [[Charles Maurras]], and [[Édouard Drumont]], nationalists such as [[Maurice Barrès]] and [[Paolo Orano]], and antisemitic socialists such as [[Alphonse Toussenel]].<ref name="Battini1" /><ref>{{cite book |last1=Sanos |first1=Sandrine |title=The Aesthetics of Hate: Far-Right Intellectuals, Antisemitism, and Gender in 1930s France |date=2012 |publisher=[[Stanford University Press]] |page=47}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Laqueur |first1=Walter |author1-link=Walter Laqueur |last2=Baumel |first2=Judith Tydor |title=The Holocaust Encyclopedia |date=2001 |publisher=[[Yale University Press]] |page=20}}</ref> Bonald furthermore declared that the Jews were an "alien" people, a "state within a state", and should be forced to wear a distinctive mark to more easily identify and discriminate against them.<ref name="Battini1" />{{sfnp|Michael|2008|pages=128–129}}

Under the French Second Empire, the popular counter-revolutionary Catholic journalist [[Louis Veuillot]] propagated Bonald's arguments against the Jewish "financial aristocracy" along with vicious attacks against the Talmud and the Jews as a "deicidal people" driven by hatred to "enslave" Christians.{{sfnp|Michael|2008|pages=128–129}}<ref>{{cite book |last1=Graetz |first1=Michael |title=The Jews in Nineteenth-century France: From the French Revolution to the Alliance Israélite Universelle |date=1996 |publisher=[[Stanford University Press]] |page=208}}</ref> Between 1882 and 1886 alone, French priests published twenty antisemitic books blaming France's ills on the Jews and urging the government to consign them back to the ghettos, expel them, or hang them from the gallows.{{sfnp|Michael|2008|pages=128–129}} Gougenot des Mousseaux's {{lang|fr|Le Juif, le judaïsme et la judaïsation des peuples chrétiens}} (1869) has been called a "Bible of modern antisemitism" and was translated into German by Nazi ideologue [[Alfred Rosenberg]].{{sfnp|Michael|2008|pages=128–129}}

===Imperial Russia===
[[File:Ekaterinoslav1905.jpg|thumb|upright=1.3|The victims of a 1905 [[pogrom]] in [[Dnipro|Yekaterinoslav]], Russian Empire (modern-day Ukraine)]]

Thousands of Jews were slaughtered by Cossack [[Haidamaka|Haidamaks]] in the 1768 [[massacre of Uman]], in the [[Crown of the Kingdom of Poland|Kingdom of Poland]]. In 1772, the empress of Russia, [[Catherine the Great|Catherine II]], forced the Jews into the [[Pale of Settlement]]—which was located primarily in present-day Poland, Ukraine, and Belarus—and to stay in their [[shtetls]] and forbade them from returning to the towns that they occupied before the [[partition of Poland]]. From 1804, Jews were banned from their villages and began to stream into the towns.{{sfnp|Johnson|1987|p=358}} A decree by emperor [[Nicholas I of Russia]] in 1827 conscripted Jews under 18 years of age into the [[cantonist]] schools for a 25-year military service in order to promote baptism.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.yivoencyclopedia.org/article.aspx/Military_Service_in_Russia |title=Military Service in Russia |author1-link=Yohanan Petrovsky-Shtern |last=Petrovsky-Shtern |first=Yohanan |date=8 June 2017 |website=YIVO Encyclopedia of Jews in Eastern Europe |access-date=20 October 2017 |archive-date=7 February 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210207052626/https://yivoencyclopedia.org/article.aspx/Military_Service_in_Russia |url-status=live}}</ref>

Policy towards Jews was liberalised somewhat under [[Czar Alexander II]] ({{reign|1855|1881}}).{{sfnp|Johnson|1987|p=359}} However, his assassination in 1881 served as a pretext for further repression, such as the [[May Laws]] of 1882. [[Konstantin Pobedonostsev]], nicknamed the "black czar" and tutor to the [[czarevitch]], later crowned [[Czar Nicholas II]], declared that "One-third of the Jews must die, one-third must emigrate, and one third be converted to Christianity".<ref>{{cite book |last=Van der Kriste |first=John |author-link=John Van der Kiste |title=The Romanovs 1818–1959 |publisher=Sutton |date=1998 |page=104}}</ref>

===Islamic antisemitism in the 19th century===
Historian [[Martin Gilbert]] writes that it was in the 19th century that the position of Jews worsened in [[Muslim]] countries. [[Benny Morris]] writes that one symbol of Jewish degradation was the phenomenon of stone-throwing at Jews by Muslim children. Morris quotes a 19th-century traveler: "I have seen a little fellow of six years old, with a troop of fat toddlers of only three and four, teaching [them] to throw stones at a Jew, and one little urchin would, with the greatest coolness, waddle up to the man and literally spit upon his Jewish [[gaberdine]]. To all this the Jew is obliged to submit; it would be more than his life was worth to offer to strike a Mahommedan."<ref name="Morris10">{{cite book |author-link=Benny Morris |last=Morris |first=Benny |title=[[iarchive:righteousvictims0000morr|Righteous Victims: A History of the Zionist-Arab Conflict, 1881–2001]] |publisher=[[Vintage Books]] |date=2001 |pages=10–11}}</ref>

In the middle of the 19th century, [[J. J. Benjamin]] wrote about the life of [[Persian Jews]], describing conditions and beliefs that went back to the 16th century: "…they are obliged to live in a separate part of town… Under the pretext of their being unclean, they are treated with the greatest severity and should they enter a street, inhabited by Mussulmans, they are pelted by the boys and mobs with stones and dirt…."<ref>{{cite book |first=Bernard |last=Lewis |author-link=Bernard Lewis |title=The Jews of Islam |publisher=[[Princeton University Press]] |location=Princeton |year=1984 |pages=181–183 |isbn=978-0-691-00807-3}}</ref>

In Jerusalem at least, conditions for some Jews improved. [[Moses Montefiore]], on his seventh visit in 1875, noted that fine new buildings had sprung up and, "surely we're approaching the time to witness God's hallowed promise unto Zion." Muslim and Christian Arabs participated in [[Purim]] and [[Passover]]; Arabs called the [[Sephardi]]s 'Jews, sons of Arabs'; the [[Ulema]] and the Rabbis offered joint prayers for rain in time of drought.<ref>{{cite book |last=Montefiore |first=Simon Sebag |author-link=Simon Sebag Montefiore |title=Jerusalem |publisher=Phoenix |date=2011 |pages=429–432}}</ref>

At the time of the Dreyfus trial in France, "Muslim comments usually favoured the persecuted Jew against his Christian persecutors".<ref>{{cite book |last=Lewis |first=Bernard |author-link=Bernard Lewis |title=What Went Wrong? |publisher=Phoenix |date=2002 |page=172}}</ref>

===Secular or racial antisemitism===
[[Image:Wagner Das Judenthum in der Musik 1869.jpg|thumb|Title page of the second edition of ''Das Judenthum in der Musik'', published in 1869]]
[[File:L Agitation-Antisemite.jpg|thumb|Antisemitic agitators in Paris burn an effigy of Mathieu Dreyfus during the [[Dreyfus affair]]]]

In 1850, the German composer [[Richard Wagner]]—who has been called "the inventor of modern antisemitism"<ref name="bismarck" />—published {{lang|de|[[Das Judenthum in der Musik]]}} (roughly "Jewishness in Music")<ref name="bismarck">{{cite book |author-link=Jonathan Steinberg (historian) |last=Steinberg |first=Jonathan |date=2011 |title=Bismarck: A Life |location=New York |publisher=[[Oxford University Press]] |pages=388–390 |isbn=978-0-19-997539-6}}</ref> under a [[pseudonym]] in the ''[[Neue Zeitschrift für Musik]]''. The essay began as an attack on Jewish composers, particularly Wagner's contemporaries, and rivals, [[Felix Mendelssohn]] and [[Giacomo Meyerbeer]], but expanded to accuse Jews of being a harmful and alien element in [[Culture of Germany|German culture]], who corrupted morals and were, in fact, parasites incapable of creating truly "German" art. The crux was the manipulation and control by the Jews of the money economy:<ref name="bismarck" />

{{blockquote|According to the present constitution of this world, the Jew in truth is already more than emancipated: he rules, and will rule, so long as Money remains the power before which all our doings and our dealings lose their force.<ref name="bismarck" />}}

Although originally published anonymously, when the essay was republished 19 years later, in 1869, the concept of the corrupting Jew had become so widely held that Wagner's name was affixed to it.<ref name="bismarck" />

Antisemitism can also be found in many of the [[Grimms' Fairy Tales]] by [[Jacob Grimm|Jacob]] and [[Wilhelm Grimm]], published from 1812 to 1857.<ref name="White-2025">{{Cite web |last=White |first=Dan |date=2025-12-12 |title=Uncovering the troubling legacy of racism in fairy tales |url=https://news.ucsc.edu/2025/12/uncovering-the-troubling-legacy-of-racism-in-fairy-tales/ |access-date=2026-04-08 |website=News |language=en-US}}</ref><ref name="Helfer-2021">{{Cite journal |last=Helfer |first=Martha B. |date=2021 |title=Fairy Tales and the Transmission of Prejudice |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/27142487 |journal=Die Unterrichtspraxis / Teaching German |volume=54 |issue=1 |pages=74–87 |issn=0042-062X}}</ref> It is mainly characterized by Jews being the [[villain]] of a story, such as in "The Good Bargain" ("{{lang|de|Der gute Handel}}") and "[[The Jew Among Thorns]]" ("{{lang|de|Der Jude im Dorn}}").<ref name="White-2025" /><ref name="Helfer-2021" />

The middle 19th century saw continued official harassment of the Jews, especially in Eastern Europe under Czarist influence. For example, in 1846, 80 Jews approached the governor in Warsaw to retain the right to wear their traditional dress but were immediately rebuffed by having their hair and beards forcefully cut, at their own expense.<ref name=BDE>{{cite bklyn |title=The Despot of Russia... |image=50249029 |date=22 December 1846 |page=2}}</ref>

Even such influential figures as [[Walt Whitman]] tolerated bigotry toward the Jews in America. During his time as editor of the Brooklyn Eagle (1846–1848), the newspaper published historical sketches casting Jews in a bad light.<ref name=BDE-Whitman>{{cite bklyn |title=Anecdotes of Jews, and their peculiar traits |image=50243090 |page=2 |date=8 January 1847}}</ref>

The [[Dreyfus Affair]] was an infamous antisemitic event of the late 19th century and early 20th century. [[Alfred Dreyfus]], a Jewish artillery [[wikt:captain|captain]] in the [[French Army]], was accused in 1894 of passing secrets to the Germans. As a result of these charges, Dreyfus was convicted and sentenced to [[life imprisonment]] on [[Devil's Island]]. The actual spy, Marie Charles Esterhazy, was acquitted. The event caused great uproar among the French, with the public choosing sides on the issue of whether Dreyfus was actually guilty or not. [[Émile Zola]] accused the army of corrupting the French justice system. However, general consensus held that Dreyfus was guilty: 80% of the press in France condemned him. This attitude among the majority of the French population reveals the underlying antisemitism of the time period.<ref>Rapport, Michael. (2005) Nineteenth Century Europe. New York: [[Palgrave MacMillan]] {{ISBN|0333652460}}.</ref>

[[Adolf Stoecker]] (1835–1909), the [[Lutheran]] court chaplain to [[Kaiser Wilhelm I]], founded in 1878 an antisemitic, [[Liberalism|anti-liberal]] political party called the [[Christian Social Party (Germany)|Christian Social Party]].<ref>{{cite journal |first=Harold M. |last=Green |year=2003 |title=Adolf Stoecker: Portrait of a Demagogue |journal=[[Politics and Policy]] |volume=31 |doi=10.1111/j.1747-1346.2003.tb00889.x |issue=1 |pages=106–129}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |first=D. A. Jeremy |last=Telman |year=1995 |title=Adolf Stoecker: Anti-Semite with a Christian Mission |jstor=20101235 |journal=Jewish History |volume=9 |issue=2 |pages=93–112 |doi=10.1007/BF01668991 |s2cid=162391831}}</ref> This party always remained small, and its support dwindled after Stoecker's death, with most of its members eventually joining larger conservative groups such as the [[German National People's Party]].

Some scholars view [[Karl Marx]]'s essay "[[On The Jewish Question]]" as antisemitic, and argue that he often used antisemitic epithets in his published and private writings.{{sfnp|Flannery|2004|p=168}}<ref name="Jacobs2005">{{cite book |chapter=Marx, Karl (1818–1883) |title=Antisemitism: A Historical Encyclopedia of Prejudice and Persecution |last=Jacobs |first=Jack |editor-last=Levy |editor-first=Richard S. |editor-link=Richard S. Levy |year=2005 |publisher=[[ABC-CLIO]] |location=Santa Barbara, CA |isbn=978-1-85109-439-4 |pages=446–447}}</ref>{{sfnp|Lewis|1999|p=112}} These scholars argue that Marx equated Judaism with capitalism in his essay, helping to spread that idea. Some further argue that the essay influenced [[Nazism|National Socialist]], as well as Soviet and Arab antisemites.{{sfnp|Perry|Schweitzer|2005|pp=154–157}}<ref name="Stav2003">{{cite book |chapter=Israeli Anti-Semitism |title=Israel and the Post-Zionists: A Nation at Risk |last=Stav |first=Arieh |editor-last=Sharan |editor-first=Shlomo |year=2003 |publisher=[[Sussex Academic Press]] |location=Brighton |isbn=978-1-903900-52-9 |page=171 |quote=Hitler simply copied Marx's own anti-Semitism.}}</ref><ref name="Muravchik2003">According to Joshua Muravchik Marx's aspiration for "the emancipation of society from Judaism" because "the practical Jewish spirit" of "huckstering" had taken over the Christian nations is not that far from the Nazi program's twenty-four-point: "combat[ing] the Jewish-materialist spirit within us and without us" in order "that our nation can […] achieve permanent health." See {{cite book |title=Heaven on Earth: The Rise and Fall of Socialism |last=Muravchik |first=Joshua |author-link=Joshua Muravchik |year=2003 |publisher=[[Encounter Books]] |location=San Francisco |isbn=978-1-893554-45-0 |page=164}}</ref> Marx himself had Jewish ancestry, and [[Albert Lindemann]] and [[Hyam Maccoby]] have suggested that he was [[Self-hating Jew|embarrassed by it]].<ref>{{cite book |last=Lindemann |first=Albert S. |title=Modern Anti-Semitism and the Rise of the Jews |publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]] |date=2000 |isbn=978-0-521-79538-8 |page=166}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |title=Antisemitism and Modernity: Innovation and Continuity |last=Maccoby |first=Hyam |year=2006 |publisher=[[Routledge]] |location=London |isbn=978-0-415-31173-1 |pages=64–66}}</ref>

Others argue that Marx consistently supported Prussian Jewish communities' struggles to achieve equal political rights. These scholars argue that "On the Jewish Question" is a critique of Bruno Bauer's arguments that Jews must convert to Christianity before being emancipated, and is more generally a critique of liberal rights discourses and capitalism.{{sfnp|McLellan|1980|pp=141–142}}<ref>{{bulleted list|{{cite journal |first=Y. |last=Peled |title=From theology to sociology: Bruno Bauer and Karl Marx on the question of Jewish emancipation |journal=[[History of Political Thought]] |volume=13 |issue=3 |year=1992 |pages=463–485 |url=https://telaviv.academia.edu/YoavPeled/Papers/228344/From_Theology_to_Sociology_Bruno_Bauer_and_Karl_Marx_on_the_Question_of_Jewish_Emancipation |access-date=2 November 2017 |archive-date=20 February 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210220161924/https://www.academia.edu/280575/From_Theology_to_Sociology_Bruno_Bauer_and_Karl_Marx_on_the_Question_of_Jewish_Emancipation |url-status=live}}
|{{Cite book |last=Brown |first=Wendy |author-link=Wendy Brown (political scientist) |year=1995 |contribution=Rights and Identity in Late Modernity: Revisiting the 'Jewish Question' |editor1-last=Sarat |editor1-first=Austin |editor2-last=Kearns |editor2-first=Thomas |title=Identities, Politics, and Rights |publisher=[[University of Michigan Press]] |pages=85–130}}
|{{cite journal |first=Robert |last=Fine |title=Karl Marx and the Radical Critique of Anti-Semitism |journal=Engage |issue=2 |date=May 2006 |url=http://www.engageonline.org.uk/journal/index.php?journal_id=10&article_id=33 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120224193202/http://www.engageonline.org.uk/journal/index.php?journal_id=10 |archive-date=24 February 2012}}
}}</ref> Iain Hampsher-Monk wrote that "This work [On The Jewish Question] has been cited as evidence for Marx's supposed anti-Semitism, but only the most superficial reading of it could sustain such an interpretation."<ref>{{cite book |first=Iain |last=Hampsher-Monk |title=A History of Modern Political Thought |date=1992 |publisher=[[Blackwell Publishing]] |page=496}}</ref>

David McLellan and [[Francis Wheen]] argue that readers should interpret ''On the Jewish Question'' in the deeper context of Marx's debates with [[Bruno Bauer]], author of ''[[The Jewish Question]]'', about [[Jewish emancipation]] in Germany. Wheen says that "Those critics, who see this as a foretaste of 'Mein Kampf', overlook one, essential point: in spite of the clumsy phraseology and crude stereotyping, the essay was actually written as a defense of the Jews. It was a retort to Bruno Bauer, who had argued that Jews should not be granted full civic rights and freedoms unless they were baptised as Christians".<ref>{{cite book |last=Wheen |first=Francis |author-link=Francis Wheen |title=Karl Marx |date=1999 |publisher=Fourth Estate |page=56}}</ref> According to McLellan, Marx used the word {{lang|de|Judentum}} colloquially, as meaning ''commerce'', arguing that Germans must be emancipated from the [[capitalist mode of production (Marxist theory)|capitalist mode of production]] not Judaism or Jews in particular. McLellan concludes that readers should interpret the essay's second half as "an extended pun at Bauer's expense".{{sfnp|McLellan|1980|p=142}}

===20th century===
{{See also|Jewish Bolshevism|Racial policy of Nazi Germany|Soviet anti-Semitism}}
[[File:Bundesarchiv Bild 133-075, Worms, Antisemitische Presse, "Stürmerkasten".jpg|thumb|upright=1.25|Public reading of the antisemitic newspaper ''[[Der Stürmer]]'', [[Worms, Germany|Worms]], Germany, 1935]]

Between 1900 and 1924, approximately 1.75&nbsp;million Jews migrated to America, the bulk from Eastern Europe escaping [[Pogroms in the Russian Empire|the pogroms]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=The American Jewish Experience in the Twentieth Century: Antisemitism and Assimilation, The Twentieth Century, Divining America: Religion in American History, TeacherServe, National Humanities Center |url=https://nationalhumanitiescenter.org/tserve/twenty/tkeyinfo/jewishexp.htm |access-date=2026-04-09 |website=nationalhumanitiescenter.org}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=A People at Risk {{!}} Polish/Russian {{!}} Immigration and Relocation in U.S. History {{!}} Classroom Materials at the Library of Congress {{!}} Library of Congress |url=https://www.loc.gov/classroom-materials/immigration/polish-russian/a-people-at-risk/ |access-date=2026-04-09 |website=Library of Congress, Washington, D.C. 20540 USA}}</ref> This increase, combined with the [[upward social mobility]] of some Jews, contributed to a resurgence of antisemitism. In the first half of the 20th century, in the US, Jews were discriminated against in employment, access to residential and resort areas, membership in clubs and organizations, and in tightened quotas on Jewish enrolment and teaching positions in colleges and universities. The lynching of [[Leo Frank]] by a mob of prominent citizens in [[Marietta, Georgia]], in 1915 turned the spotlight on antisemitism in the United States.{{sfnp|Chanes|2004|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=ju7U83nRDt8C&pg=PA72 72]}} The case was also used to build support for the renewal of the [[Ku Klux Klan]] which had been inactive since 1870.{{sfnp|Levy|2005|loc=[https://books.google.com/books?id=Tdn6FFZklkcC&pg=PA243 vol. 1, p.&nbsp;72]}}

At the beginning of the 20th century, the [[Menahem Mendel Beilis|Beilis Trial]] in Russia represented modern incidents of [[blood libel|blood-libel]]s in Europe. During the [[Russian Civil War]], close to 50,000 Jews were [[Pogroms of the Russian Civil War|killed in pogroms]].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.yivoencyclopedia.org/article.aspx/Russian_Civil_War |title=Russian Civil War |last=Abramson |first=Henry |website=YIVO Encyclopedia of Jews in Eastern Europe |access-date=6 February 2019 |archive-date=15 January 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210115175836/https://yivoencyclopedia.org/article.aspx/Russian_Civil_War |url-status=live}}</ref>

Antisemitism in America reached its peak during the [[interwar period]]. The pioneer automobile manufacturer [[Henry Ford]] propagated antisemitic ideas in his newspaper ''[[The Dearborn Independent]]'' (published by Ford from 1919 to 1927). The radio speeches of [[Father Coughlin]] in the late 1930s attacked [[Franklin D. Roosevelt]]'s [[New Deal]] and promoted the notion of a Jewish financial conspiracy. Some prominent politicians shared such views: [[Louis T. McFadden]], Chairman of the [[United States House Committee on Banking and Currency]], blamed Jews for Roosevelt's decision to abandon the [[gold standard]], and claimed that "in the United States today, the Gentiles have the slips of paper while the Jews have the lawful money".<ref>{{cite book |last=Arad |first=Gulie Ne'eman |title=America, Its Jews, and the Rise of Nazism |year=2000 |publisher=[[Indiana University Press]] |location=Indianapolis |isbn=978-0-253-33809-9 |page=[https://archive.org/details/americaitsjewsri00arad/page/174 174] |url=https://archive.org/details/americaitsjewsri00arad/page/174}}</ref>

<!-- [[File:Selection Birkenau ramp.jpg|thumb|"Selection" on the ''Judenrampe'', [[Auschwitz concentration camp|Auschwitz]], May/June 1944. To be sent to the right meant slave labor; to the left, the [[gas chamber]]s. This image shows the arrival of [[Hungarian people|Hungarian]] Jews from [[Carpathian Ruthenia|Carpatho-Ruthenia]], many of them from the [[Berehove|Berehov]] ghetto. It was taken by Ernst Hofmann or Bernhard Walter of the [[SS]]. Courtesy of [[Yad Vashem]].<ref name=AuschwitzAlbum>{{cite web |url=http://www1.yadvashem.org/exhibitions/album_auschwitz/home_auschwitz_album.html |title=The Auschwitz Album |website=[[Yad Vashem]] |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20050401084652/http://www1.yadvashem.org/exhibitions/album_auschwitz/home_auschwitz_album.html |archive-date=1 April 2005}}</ref> {{FFDC|1=Selection Birkenau ramp.jpg|log=2009 April 6|date=May 2012}}]] -->
[[File:Buchenwald Corpses 60623.jpg|thumb|upright=1.25|A wagon piled high with corpses outside the crematorium at the recently liberated [[Buchenwald concentration camp]], 1945]]

In Germany, shortly after [[Adolf Hitler]] and the [[Nazi Party]] [[Machtergreifung|came to power]] in 1933, the government instituted repressive legislation which denied Jews basic civil rights.{{sfnp|Majer|2014|p=60}}<ref>see also [[Law for the Restoration of the Professional Civil Service]] (7 April 1933)</ref>

In September 1935, the Nuremberg Laws prohibited sexual relations and marriages between "Aryans" and Jews as Rassenschande ("race defilement") and stripped all German Jews, including many quarter- and half-Jews (Mischlinge), of full citizenship, reclassifying them as "protected subjects of the state" (Staatsangehörige).<ref>{{cite encyclopedia |title=The Nuremberg Race Laws |encyclopedia=Holocaust Encyclopedia |publisher=United States Holocaust Memorial Museum |url=https://encyclopedia.ushmm.org/content/en/article/the-nuremberg-race-laws |access-date=2026-04-10}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |date=2025-01-05 |title=The Nuremberg Race Laws |url=https://www.nationalww2museum.org/war/articles/nuremberg-laws |access-date=2026-04-10 |publisher=National WWII Museum}}</ref> These laws culminated in a state-sponsored pogrom on the night of 9–10 November 1938, known as Kristallnacht ("Night of Broken Glass"), during which at least 91 Jews were killed, thousands arrested, over 7,500 Jewish businesses destroyed, and about 1,400 synagogues burned or damaged.<ref>{{cite book |first=Ian |last=Kershaw |author-link=Ian Kershaw |date=2008 |title=Fateful Choices |pages=441–444}}</ref><ref>{{cite encyclopedia |title=Antisemitic Legislation 1933–1939 |encyclopedia=Holocaust Encyclopedia |publisher=United States Holocaust Memorial Museum |url=https://encyclopedia.ushmm.org/content/en/article/antisemitic-legislation-1933-1939 |access-date=2026-04-10}}</ref> Antisemitic legislation, agitation, and propaganda were subsequently extended to German-occupied Europe following the onset of war in 1939, frequently adapting or amplifying local antisemitic traditions (e.g., in Vichy France and occupied Poland).<ref>{{cite web |title=Antisemitic laws |url=https://www.theholocaustexplained.org/life-in-nazi-occupied-europe/oppression/anti-semitic-laws/ |access-date=2026-04-10 |publisher=The Holocaust Explained}}</ref><ref>{{cite encyclopedia |title=Antisemitic Legislation 1933–1939 |encyclopedia=Holocaust Encyclopedia |publisher=United States Holocaust Memorial Museum |url=https://encyclopedia.ushmm.org/content/en/article/antisemitic-legislation-1933-1939 |access-date=2026-04-10}}</ref>

In 1940, the famous aviator [[Charles Lindbergh]] and many prominent Americans led the [[America First Committee]] in opposing any involvement in a European war. Lindbergh alleged that Jews were pushing America to go to war against Germany.<ref>{{Cite news |url=https://www.latimes.com/politics/la-na-pol-trump-america-first-20170120-story.html |title='America First,' a phrase with a loaded anti-Semitic and isolationist history |last=Bennett |first=Brian |work=[[Los Angeles Times]] |date=20 January 2017 |access-date=23 November 2018 |archive-date=7 November 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191107115008/https://www.latimes.com/politics/la-na-pol-trump-america-first-20170120-story.html |url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite magazine |url=https://www.theatlantic.com/politics/archive/2017/01/trump-america-first/514037/ |title=A Short History of 'America First' |last=Calamur |first=Krishnadev |date=21 January 2017 |magazine=[[The Atlantic]] |access-date=23 November 2018 |archive-date=3 December 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191203044351/https://www.theatlantic.com/politics/archive/2017/01/trump-america-first/514037/ |url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=9ZUniR1uQcUC&pg=PA66 |title=1940: FDR, Willkie, Lindbergh, Hitler-the Election amid the Storm |last=Dunn |first=Susan |date=4 June 2013 |publisher=[[Yale University Press]] |isbn=978-0-300-19513-2 |pages=66 |access-date=26 November 2020 |archive-date=30 December 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231230001721/https://books.google.com/books?id=9ZUniR1uQcUC&pg=PA66#v=onepage&q&f=false |url-status=live}}</ref> Lindbergh adamantly denied being antisemitic, and yet he refers numerous times in his private writings—his letters and diary—to Jewish control of the media being used to pressure the U.S. to get involved in the European war. In one diary entry in November 1938, he responded to {{lang|de|Kristallnacht}} by writing "I do not understand these riots on the part of the Germans. ... They have undoubtedly had a difficult Jewish problem, but why is it necessary to handle it so unreasonably?", acknowledgement on Lindbergh's part that he agreed with the Nazis that Germany had a "Jewish problem".<ref>{{Cite book |last=Cole |first=Wayne S. |date=1974 |title=Charles Lindbergh and the Battle Against American Intervention in World War II |location=New York |publisher=Harcourt Brace Jovanovich |pages=171–174 |isbn=0-15-118168-3}}</ref> An article by Jonathan Marwil in ''Antisemitism, A Historical Encyclopedia of Prejudice and Persecution'' claims that "no one who ever knew Lindbergh thought him antisemitic" and that claims of his antisemitism were solely tied to the remarks he made in that one speech.<ref>Levy, Richard S. "Lindbergh, Charles (1902–1974)" in {{harvp|Levy|2005|loc=vol. 1, pp.423–424}}</ref>

In the east the Third Reich forced Jews into ghettos [[Warsaw Ghetto|in Warsaw]], [[Kraków Ghetto|in Kraków]], [[Lwów Ghetto|in Lvov]], [[Lublin Ghetto|in Lublin]] and [[Radom Ghetto|in Radom]].<ref>{{cite book|first=Martin|last=Kitchen|year=2007|title=The Third Reich: A Concise History|publisher=Tempus|isbn=978-0-7524-4354-6}}</ref>{{pn|date=February 2026}}
After [[Operation Barbarossa|the beginning]] of the war between Nazi Germany and the Soviet Union in 1941, a campaign of mass murder, conducted by the [[Einsatzgruppen]], culminated from 1942 to 1945 in systematic [[genocide]]: [[the Holocaust]].<ref name="saul1">[[Saul Friedländer]] (2008): ''The Years of Extermination: Nazi Germany and the Jews''. London, Phoenix</ref> Eleven million Jews were targeted for extermination by the Nazis, and some six million were eventually killed.<ref name="saul1"/><ref>{{cite book |last=Benz |first=Wolfgang |author-link=Wolfgang Benz |title=Dimension des Volksmords: Die Zahl der Jüdischen Opfer des Nationalsozialismus |language=de |trans-title=Dimension of Genocide: The Number of Jewish Victims of National Socialism |publisher=((Macmillan Reference Books: Deutscher Taschebuch Verlag)) |location=Munich |orig-date=1991 |editor-first=Israel |editor-last=Gutman |series=Encyclopedia of the Holocaust |edition=Reference |date=1 October 1995}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |author-link=Lucy Dawidowicz |last=Dawidowicz |first=Lucy |title=The War Against The Jews, 1933–1945 |location=New York |publisher=Holt, Rinehart and Winston |date=1975}}</ref>{{page needed|date=January 2025}}

===Soviet antisemitism===
{{See also|Soviet anti-Zionism|Soviet anti-Semitism}}

There have continued to be antisemitic incidents since WWII, some of which had been state-sponsored. In the [[Soviet Union]], antisemitism was even used as an instrument for settling personal conflicts, starting with the conflict between [[Joseph Stalin]] and [[Leon Trotsky]] and continuing through numerous conspiracy theories spread by official propaganda. [[Antisemitism in the Soviet Union|Antisemitism in the USSR]] reached new heights after 1948 during the campaign against the "[[rootless cosmopolitan]]" (euphemism for "Jew") in which numerous Yiddish-language poets, writers, painters, and sculptors were killed or arrested.<ref name="jcws">{{cite journal |first1=Konstantin |last1=Azadovskii |first2=Boris |last2=Egorov |title=From Anti-Westernism to Anti-Semitism |journal=[[Journal of Cold War Studies]] |year=2002 |volume=4 |number=1 |pages=66–80 |doi=10.1162/152039702753344834 |url=http://www.fas.harvard.edu/~hpcws/egorov.htm#REF31 |access-date=1 December 2008 |archive-date=20 February 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210220161918/https://sites.fas.harvard.edu/~hpcws/egorov.htm#REF31 |url-status=live|url-access=subscription }}</ref><ref name="Myth">{{cite book |title=The Myth of the Jewish Race |first1=Raphael |last1=Patai |first2=Jennifer |last2=Patai |year=1989 |page=178 |publisher=[[Wayne State University Press]] |isbn=978-0-8143-1948-2}}</ref> This culminated in the antisemitic conspiracy theory of the '[[Doctors' Plot]]' in 1952.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Doctors' Plot {{!}} Encyclopedia.com |url=https://www.encyclopedia.com/history/encyclopedias-almanacs-transcripts-and-maps/doctors-plot |access-date=2026-04-10 |website=www.encyclopedia.com}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=The YIVO Encyclopedia of Jews in Eastern Europe |url=https://encyclopedia.yivo.org/article/71 |access-date=2026-04-10 |website=encyclopedia.yivo.org}}</ref>

In the 20th century, [[Antisemitism in the Soviet Union|Soviet]] and [[Antisemitism in Russia|Russian]] antisemitism underwent significant transformations, shaped by political, social, and ideological shifts. During the early Soviet period, the [[Bolsheviks]] initially condemned antisemitism, seeing it as incompatible with [[Marxism|Marxist]] ideology. However, under [[Joseph Stalin]]'s regime, antisemitism reemerged, often cloaked in 'anti-Zionist' rhetoric. As early as 1943, Stalin and his propagandists intensified attacks against Jews as "[[rootless cosmopolitan]]s".<ref name="SO">{{Cite web |date=25 January 2024 |title=More than a Century of Antisemitism: How Successive Occupants of the Kremlin Have Used Antisemitism |url=https://www.state.gov/more-than-a-century-of-antisemitism-how-successive-occupants-of-the-kremlin-have-used-antisemitism/ |access-date=29 July 2024 |website=[[United States Department of State]] |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20241228034546/https://www.state.gov/more-than-a-century-of-antisemitism-how-successive-occupants-of-the-kremlin-have-used-antisemitism/ |archive-date=28 December 2024}}</ref> The Party issued confidential directives to fire Jews from positions of power, but state-controlled media did not openly attack Jews until the late 1940s.<ref name="SO"/> The [[Doctors' plot]] of 1952, a fabricated conspiracy accusing predominantly Jewish doctors of attempting to assassinate Soviet leaders, exemplified this resurgence. This campaign fostered widespread antisemitic sentiments and resulted in the arrest and execution of numerous Jewish professionals.

In that same year, the antisemitic [[Slánský trial|Slánský show trial]] alleged the existence of an 'international Zionist conspiracy' to destroy Socialism. Izabella Tabarovsky, a scholar of the history of antisemitism, argues that, "Manufactured by the Soviet secret services, the trial tied together Zionism, Israel, Jewish leaders, and American imperialism, turning 'Zionism' and 'Zionist' into dangerous labels that could be used against one's political enemies."<ref name="AZ">{{Cite web |last=Tabarovsky |first=Izabella |date=1 May 2019 |title=Soviet Anti-Zionism and Contemporary Left Antisemitism |url=https://fathomjournal.org/soviet-anti-zionism-and-contemporary-left-antisemitism/ |access-date=29 July 2024 |website=[[Fathom Journal]] |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20241224092904/https://fathomjournal.org/soviet-anti-zionism-and-contemporary-left-antisemitism/ |archive-date=24 December 2024}}</ref> In the post-Stalin era, state-sanctioned antisemitism persisted and intensified. In February 1953, the Soviet Union severed diplomatic relations with the [[Israel|State of Israel]] and "soon the state media was saturated with anti-Zionist propaganda, depicting bloated, hook-nosed Jewish bankers and all-consuming serpents embossed with the Star of David."<ref>{{Cite web |last=Ryvchin |first=Alex |date=10 September 2019 |title=Red Terror: How the Soviet Union Shaped the Modern Anti-Zionist Discourse |url=https://www.internationalaffairs.org.au/australianoutlook/red-terror-how-the-soviet-union-shaped-the-modern-anti-zionist-discourse/ |access-date=29 July 2024 |website=[[Australian Institute of International Affairs]] |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20241226061534/https://www.internationalaffairs.org.au/australianoutlook/red-terror-how-the-soviet-union-shaped-the-modern-anti-zionist-discourse/ |archive-date=26 December 2024}}</ref> The 1963 publication of the antisemitic book ''[[Judaism Without Embellishment]],'' written under orders from the central Soviet government, echoed [[Propaganda in Nazi Germany|Nazi propaganda]], alleging a global Jewish conspiracy to subvert the Soviet Union.<ref name="AZ"/>

The [[Six-Day War]] in 1967 led to an intensification in Soviet anti-Zionist propaganda as the Soviets had backed the defeated Arab states.<ref name="AZ"/> This propaganda often blurred the lines with antisemitism, leading to discriminatory policies against Jews and restricting their emigration. By the end of the war, "the "corporate Jew", whether "cosmopolitan" or "Zionist", became identified as the enemy. Popular anti-Semitic stereotyping had been absorbed into official channels, generated by chauvinist needs and totalitarian requirements."<ref name="AA">{{Cite journal |last=Korey |first=William |author-link=William Korey |year=1972 |title=The Origins and Development of Soviet Anti-Semitism: An Analysis |url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/slavic-review/article/origins-and-development-of-soviet-antisemitism-an-analysis/99945786B60F74C869F8F1E36BE7280E |journal=[[Slavic Review]] |volume=31 |issue=1 |pages=111–135 |doi=10.2307/2494148 |jstor=2494148 |issn=0037-6779 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250121191433/https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/slavic-review/article/abs/origins-and-development-of-soviet-antisemitism-an-analysis/99945786B60F74C869F8F1E36BE7280E |archive-date=21 January 2025}}</ref> The [[Anti-Zionist Committee of the Soviet Public]] shut down and expropriated [[synagogue]]s, [[yeshiva]]s, and Jewish civil organisations and prohibited the learning of [[Hebrew language|Hebrew]].<ref name="AZ" /> It also engaged in a wide-scale propaganda campaign between 1967 and 1988 overseen by the [[KGB]] and published pamphlets featuring antisemitic conspiracy theories, for example falsely claiming that Zionist Jews collaborated with the Nazi regime in the Holocaust and of inflating the significance and scale of anti-Jewish persecution.<ref name="AZ"/>

Their propaganda frequently borrowed directly from the forged [[The Protocols of the Elders of Zion|Protocols of the Elders of Zion]] and sometimes relied upon [[Adolf Hitler]]'s ''[[Mein Kampf]]'' as a source of information about Zionism.<ref name="AZ"/> Antizionism helped Moscow "bond both with its Arab allies and the Western hard left of all shades. Having appointed Zionism as a scapegoat for humanity's greatest evils, Soviet propaganda could score points by equating it with racism in African radio broadcasts and with Ukrainian nationalism on Kyiv TV."<ref name="DB">{{Cite journal |last=Tabarovsky |first=Izabella |date=1 March 2022 |title=Demonization Blueprints: Soviet Conspiracist Antizionism in Contemporary Left-Wing Discourse |journal=[[Journal of Contemporary Antisemitism]] |volume=5 |issue=1 |pages=1–20 |doi=10.26613/jca/5.1.97 |issn=2472-9906 |doi-access=free}}</ref> The still-extant [[Novosti Press Agency]], a key element in the Soviet propaganda machine, also participated in the spreading of antisemitic anti-Zionism. Its chairman, Ivan Udaltsov, published a memorandum on 27 January 1971, to the [[Communist Party of the Soviet Union|CPSU]] in which he claimed that "Zionists, by provoking antisemitism, recruit volunteers for the Israeli army", blaming Jews for antisemitism, and falsely alleged that Zionists were responsible for "subversive activities" during the 1968 [[Prague Spring]].<ref name="DB"/> According to historian [[William Korey]], "Judaism was singled out for condemnation as prescribing 'racial exclusivism' and as justifying 'crimes against 'Gentiles.'"<ref name="AA"/>

Similar [[Antisemitism in Poland|antisemitic propaganda in Poland]] resulted in the flight of Polish Jewish survivors from the country.<ref name="Myth"/> After the war, the [[Kielce pogrom]] and the "[[March 1968 events]]" in communist Poland represented further incidents of antisemitism in Europe. The [[Anti-Jewish violence in Poland, 1944–1946|anti-Jewish violence in postwar Poland]] had a common theme of [[blood libel]] rumours.<ref>{{Cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=4Iiw0KB31rgC&pg=PA233 |title=Contested memories: Poles and Jews during the Holocaust and its aftermath |isbn=978-0-8135-3158-8 |last1=Zimmerman |first1=Joshua D. |author1-link=Joshua D. Zimmerman |year=2003 |publisher=[[Rutgers University Press]] |access-date=23 August 2020 |archive-date=30 December 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231230001712/https://books.google.com/books?id=4Iiw0KB31rgC&pg=PA233#v=onepage&q&f=false |url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=xZ5Ceq6l0M0C&pg=PA74 |title=World without civilization: Mass murder and the Holocaust, history and analysis |isbn=978-0-7618-2963-8 |last1=Spector |first1=Robert Melvin |year=2005 |publisher=University Press of America |access-date=23 August 2020 |archive-date=30 December 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231230001648/https://books.google.com/books?id=xZ5Ceq6l0M0C&pg=PA74#v=onepage&q&f=false |url-status=live}}</ref>

==Contemporary antisemitism==
===The contemporary far-right===
Antisemitism is still prevalent in contemporary far-right politics across much of the globe, whether as overt claims or covert dog-whistles.{{sfn|Subotic|2022|p=459}}<ref>{{harvnb|Simonsen|2020|pp=640–641}}; {{harvnb|Kahn|2022|pp=164–165}}; {{harvnb|Beirich|2021|pp=1–2}}; {{harvnb|Feinberg|Stewart|2019|p=192}}; {{harvnb|Barna|Knap|2018|pp=78–79}}; {{harvnb|Perlinger|2024|p=91}}</ref> Antisemitism has been a key factor for multiple perpetrators of far-right violence and terrorism in recent years, including the [[Pittsburgh synagogue shooting]], the [[2018 United States mail bombing attempts]], and the [[Poway synagogue shooting]].{{sfn|Byington|2019|p=10}}<ref>{{harvnb|Beirich|2021|p=1}}; {{harvnb|Glanville|2021|pp=90, 101–104}}; {{harvnb|Paul|Mettler|2019}}; {{harvnb|Perlinger|2024|p=89}}</ref> While many far-right parties that express antisemitism have seen increasing electoral success, especially in Europe,{{sfn|Feinberg|Stewart|2019|pp=192–193}}{{sfn|Schut|2025}}{{sfn|Henley|2024}} a noted development in the rhetoric and positions of these parties from their far-right predecessors has been their increasing support of Zionism, while maintaining antisemitic views of diaspora Jews.{{sfn|Subotic|2022|p=460}} [[Judith Butler]], [[Masha Gessen]], and others have identified a mainstreaming of [[Zionist antisemitism]] from the far-right under the Trump administrations in the US,{{sfn|Butler|2017|pp=182–183}}{{sfn|Gessen|2019}} with the [[Zionist Organization of America]] honouring [[Steve Bannon]] in 2017.{{sfn|Stephens|2017}}{{sfn|Baroud|Rubeo|2018}}

===Holocaust denial===
{{main|Holocaust denial}}

Holocaust denial, the claim that the Nazi genocide of European Jews during the [[Second World War]] either never happened or is substantially exaggerated by historical accounts, is a form of antisemitism and conspiracy theory.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Schweitzer |first1=Frederick M. |last2=Perry |first2=Marvin |title=Anti-Semitism: myth and hate from antiquity to the present |publisher=[[Palgrave Macmillan]] |date=2002 |isbn=0-312-16561-7 |page=3 |quote=This books treats several of the myths that have made antisemitism so lethal.... In addition to these historic myths, we also treat the new, maliciously manufactured myth of Holocaust denial, another groundless belief that is used to stir up Jew-hatred.}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.adl.org/holocaust/theory.asp |title=Introduction: Denial as Anti-Semitism |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110604020743/http://www.adl.org/holocaust/theory.asp |archive-date=4 June 2011 |series=Holocaust Denial: An Online Guide to Exposing and Combating Anti-Semitic Propaganda |website=[[Anti-Defamation League]] |date=2001 |access-date=12 June 2007 |quote=While appearing on the surface as a rather arcane pseudo-scholarly challenge to the well-established record of Nazi genocide during the Second World War, Holocaust denial serves as a powerful conspiracy theory uniting otherwise disparate fringe groups....}}</ref> Political movements seeking to revive the ideologies of the Nazis and other states that participated in the Holocaust, like [[neo-Nazism]] and [[neofascism]], practice Holocaust denial.<ref name=Atkins>{{cite book |first=Stephen E. |last=Atkins |author-link=Stephen E. Atkins |title=Holocaust Denial as an International Movement |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=M9Uj6u6b-ZIC |year=2009 |publisher=[[ABC-CLIO]] |isbn=978-0-313-34538-8 |quote=Holocaust denial has played an important role in the revitalization of the Neo-Nazi movement. There was a smaller but nonetheless vocal number of supporters in other Western European countries and the United States. These neo-Nazis realized that a Hitlerite regime was impossible, but a reasonable facsimile was possible in the future. These neo-Nazis and their allies realized that any rehabilitation of Nazism could be accomplished only by discrediting the Holocaust.}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Bland |first=Benjamin |date=2019 |title=Holocaust inversion, anti-Zionism and British neo-fascism: the Israel–Palestine conflict and the extreme right in post-war Britain |url=https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/0031322X.2018.1536347 |journal=[[Patterns of Prejudice]] |volume=53 |issue=1 |pages=86–97 |doi=10.1080/0031322X.2018.1536347 |issn=0031-322X |access-date=11 May 2024 |archive-date=11 May 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240511134816/https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/0031322X.2018.1536347 |url-status=live |url-access=subscription}}</ref> Rehabilitation of Nazism can also be accomplished on an individual scale. For example, in October 2015, Israeli Prime Minister [[Benjamin Netanyahu]] caused commotion for saying the Palestinian Grand Mufti of Jerusalem, [[Haj Amin al-Husseini]] gave [[Adolf Hitler]], the [[dictator]] of [[Nazi Germany|Germany during the Nazi era]], the idea of exterminating Jews rather than expelling them during the [[World War II|Second World War]].<ref>{{cite web |title=PM Netanyahu at the 37th Zionist World Congress |url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?t=293&v=mZbMf7vDU6g&feature=youtu.be |website=YouTube | date=20 October 2015 |publisher=IsraeliPM |access-date=21 March 2022 |archive-date=21 March 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220321024611/https://www.youtube.com/watch?t=293&v=mZbMf7vDU6g&feature=youtu.be |url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |title=Netanyahu, Saying Palestinian Mufti Inspired Holocaust, Draws Broad Criticism |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2015/10/22/world/middleeast/netanyahu-saying-palestinian-mufti-inspired-holocaust-draws-broad-criticism.html |newspaper=[[The New York Times]] |date=21 October 2015 |access-date=21 October 2015 |issn=0362-4331 |first=Jodi |last=Rudoren |archive-date=21 October 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151021211809/http://www.nytimes.com/2015/10/22/world/middleeast/netanyahu-saying-palestinian-mufti-inspired-holocaust-draws-broad-criticism.html |url-status=live}}</ref> Academic [[Moshe Zimmermann]] stated that "any attempt to deflect the burden from Hitler to others is a form of Holocaust denial."<ref>{{cite news |last=Tate |first=Emily |date=22 October 2015 |title=Under-fire Netanyahu criticised over 'a form of Holocaust denial' |url=http://www.independent.ie/world-news/middle-east/underfire-netanyahu-criticised-over-a-form-of-holocaust-denial-34130477.html |newspaper=[[Irish Independent]] |access-date=23 October 2015 |archive-date=2 January 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160102062916/http://www.independent.ie/world-news/middle-east/underfire-netanyahu-criticised-over-a-form-of-holocaust-denial-34130477.html |url-status=live}}</ref>

There is significant debate about whether [[Comparisons between Israel and Nazi Germany|analogies between Israel's treatment of Palestinians and the Nazis' treatment of Jews]] or comparisons to [[Anti-Palestinianism]] are antisemitic.<ref>{{bulleted list|
| {{cite web |url=https://www.americanbar.org/groups/crsj/resources/human-rights/2024-november/recognizing-islamophobia-anti-palestinian-racism-and-antisemitsm/ |title=Recognizing Islamophobia, Anti-Palestinian Racism, and Antisemitism |publisher=[[American Bar Association]] |last1=Hurwitz |first1=Deena R |last2=White Jr |first2=Walter H |date=25 November 2024 |access-date=16 June 2025 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20251201091005/https://www.americanbar.org/groups/crsj/resources/human-rights/2024-november/recognizing-islamophobia-anti-palestinian-racism-and-antisemitsm/ |archive-date=1 December 2025}}
| {{cite web |url=https://jewishcurrents.org/its-time-to-name-anti-palestinian-bigotry |title=It's Time to Name Anti-Palestinian Bigotry |work=[[Jewish Currents]] |last=Beinart |first=Peter |date=16 July 2021 |access-date=16 June 2025 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20260208184718/https://jewishcurrents.org/its-time-to-name-anti-palestinian-bigotry |archive-date=8 February 2026}}
| {{cite web |url=https://www.nbcnews.com/think/opinion/how-jews-can-support-palestinian-rights-condemn-antisemitism-ncna1268680 |title=Supporting Palestinian rights is antisemitic because Israel wants it to be |work=[[NBC News]] |last=Gutman |first=Abraham |date=27 May 2021 |access-date=16 June 2025 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20260101202101/https://www.nbcnews.com/think/opinion/how-jews-can-support-palestinian-rights-condemn-antisemitism-ncna1268680 |archive-date=1 January 2026}}
}}</ref>{{sfnp|Rosenfeld|2019|pp=175–178, 186}} Those who say they are antisemitic have termed such analogies "Holocaust inversion"—a form of [[Holocaust trivialisation]], in which the Holocaust is compared with other events in a way that downplays its severity.<ref name="marcus">{{cite book 
|last=Marcus |first=Kenneth L. |title=Jewish Identity and Civil Rights in America |publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]] |year=2010 |page=56 |isbn=978-1-139-49119-8 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=U3z7Fh7xOmcC&dq=brought+welcome+relief+to+many+who+had+long+borne+a+burden+of+guilt+for+the+role+which+they%2C+their+families%2C+their+nations%2C+or+their+churches+had+played+in+Hitler%27s+crimes+against+the+Jews%2C+whether+by+participation+or+complicity%2C+acquiescence+or+indifference&pg=PA56}}</ref> [[Deborah Lipstadt]] describes Holocaust inversion as a type of Holocaust denial.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Klein |first=Amy |date=19 April 2009 |title=Denying the deniers: Q & A with Deborah Lipstadt |url=https://www.jta.org/2009/04/19/lifestyle/denying-the-deniers-q-a-with-deborah-lipstadt |access-date=20 January 2024 |website=[[Jewish Telegraphic Agency]] |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20241203191549/https://www.jta.org/2009/04/19/lifestyle/denying-the-deniers-q-a-with-deborah-lipstadt |archive-date=3 December 2024}}</ref>

===21st-century European antisemitism===
{{Further|Antisemitism in Europe#21st century}}

Physical assaults against Jews in Europe have included beatings, stabbings, and other violence, which increased markedly, sometimes resulting in serious injury and death.<ref name="mgjmsp">{{cite journal |url=http://www.jcpa.org/phas/phas-urban-f04.htm |title=Anti-Semitism in Germany Today: Its Roots and Tendencies |first=Susanne |last=Urban |journal=[[Jerusalem Center for Public Affairs|Jewish Political Studies Review]] |volume=16 |issue=3–4 |year=2004 |page=119 |access-date=1 December 2008 |archive-date=20 February 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210220161926/https://www.jcpa.org/phas/phas-urban-f04.htm |url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.ynetnews.com/articles/0,7340,L-4349519,00.html |title=Anti-Semitism up 30% in Belgium |newspaper=[[Ynetnews]] |access-date=17 June 2015 |date=27 February 2013 |archive-date=27 March 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150327144035/http://www.ynetnews.com/articles/0,7340,L-4349519,00.html |url-status=live}}</ref> A 2015 report by the US State Department on religious freedom declared that "European anti-Israel sentiment crossed the line into anti-Semitism."<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.jpost.com/Diaspora/Washington-European-anti-Israel-sentiment-crossed-the-line-into-anti-Semitism-426080 |work=[[The Jerusalem Post]] |title=Washington: European anti-Israel sentiment crossed the line into anti-Semitism |date=15 October 2015 |access-date=16 April 2017 |archive-date=28 July 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200728080500/https://www.jpost.com/Diaspora/Washington-European-anti-Israel-sentiment-crossed-the-line-into-anti-Semitism-426080 |url-status=live}}</ref>

This rise in antisemitic attacks is associated with both [[Antisemitism in Islam|Muslim antisemitism]] and the rise of far-right political parties as a result of the economic crisis of 2008.<ref>{{cite news |work=[[SBS News]] |date=24 February 2015 |url=https://www.sbs.com.au/news/special-report-the-rise-of-the-right-in-europe |title=Special report: The rise of the right in Europe |access-date=17 June 2015 |archive-date=20 February 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210220160403/https://www.sbs.com.au/news/special-report-the-rise-of-the-right-in-europe |url-status=live}}</ref> This rise in the support for far-right ideas in [[western Europe|western]] and [[eastern Europe]] has resulted in the increase of antisemitic acts, mostly attacks on Jewish memorials, synagogues and cemeteries but also a number of physical attacks against Jews.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://archive.adl.org/Anti_semitism/adl_anti-semitism_presentation_february_2012.pdf |title=Attitudes Toward Jews in Ten European Countries |date=March 2012 |author=First International Resources |publisher=[[Anti-Defamation League]] |access-date=20 April 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130512182655/http://archive.adl.org/Anti_semitism/adl_anti-semitism_presentation_february_2012.pdf |archive-date=12 May 2013}}</ref>

In Eastern Europe the dissolution of the Soviet Union and the instability of the new states brought the rise of nationalist movements and the accusation against Jews for the economic crisis, taking over the local economy and bribing the government, along with traditional and religious motives for antisemitism such as [[blood libel]]s.<ref>{{cite web |date=2020 |title=Anti-Semitism, Tolerance and Historical Memory in the Post-Soviet Space |url=https://institute.eajc.org/en/published/anti-semitism-tolerance-and-historical-memory-in-the-post-soviet-space/ |access-date=April 10, 2026 |publisher=Institute for Euro-Asian Jewish Studies}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Anti-Semitism in the Post-Soviet States |url=https://jcfa.org/article/anti-semitism-in-the-post-soviet-states/ |access-date=2026-04-10 |website=Jerusalem Center for Security and Foreign Affairs |language=en-US}}</ref> Writing on the [[rhetoric]] surrounding the [[2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine]], [[Jason Stanley]] relates these perceptions to broader historical narratives: "the dominant version of antisemitism alive in parts of eastern Europe today is that Jews employ the Holocaust to seize the victimhood narrative from the 'real' victims of the Nazis, who are Russian Christians (or other non-Jewish eastern Europeans)".<ref name="Stanley 2022">{{Cite news |last=Stanley |first=Jason |date=26 February 2022 |title=The antisemitism animating Putin's claim to 'denazify' Ukraine |author-link=Jason Stanley |work=[[The Guardian]] |url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2022/feb/25/vladimir-putin-ukraine-attack-antisemitism-denazify |access-date=6 March 2022 |archive-date=17 April 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220417105216/https://www.theguardian.com/world/2022/feb/25/vladimir-putin-ukraine-attack-antisemitism-denazify |url-status=live}}</ref> He calls out the "myths of contemporary eastern European antisemitism—that a global cabal of Jews were (and are) the real agents of violence against Russian Christians and the real victims of the Nazis were not the Jews, but rather this group."<ref name="Stanley 2022" />

Most of the antisemitic incidents in Eastern Europe are against Jewish cemeteries and buildings (community centers and synagogues). Nevertheless, there were several violent attacks against Jews in Moscow in 2006 when a neo-Nazi stabbed 9 people at the Bolshaya Bronnaya Synagogue,<ref>{{cite news |title=Rabbi's son foils bombing attempt at Moscow shul—j. the Jewish news weekly of Northern California |newspaper=J |date=30 July 1999 |url=http://www.jweekly.com/article/full/11250/rabbi-s-son-foils-bombing-attempt-at-moscow-shul/ |access-date=17 June 2015 |archive-date=6 July 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150706124450/http://www.jweekly.com/article/full/11250/rabbi-s-son-foils-bombing-attempt-at-moscow-shul/ |url-status=live}}</ref> the failed bomb attack on the same synagogue in 1999,<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2006/01/12/international/12briefs.html |work=[[The New York Times]] |title=World Briefing: Asia, Europe, Americas and Africa |date=12 January 2006 |archive-url= |archive-date=}}</ref> the threats against Jewish pilgrims in Uman, Ukraine<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.fighthatred.com/recent-events/national-political-hate/884-rise-of-anti-semitism-in-the-ukraine-threatens-jewish-pilgrimages-to-uman |title=Rise of Anti-Semitism in the Ukraine threatens Jewish pilgrimages to Uman |date=2 October 2011 |access-date=26 May 2013 |archive-url=https://archive.today/20130615170744/http://www.fighthatred.com/recent-events/national-political-hate/884-rise-of-anti-semitism-in-the-ukraine-threatens-jewish-pilgrimages-to-uman |archive-date=15 June 2013}}</ref> and the attack against a [[Menorah (Temple)|menorah]] by extremist Christian organization in Moldova in 2009.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.israelnationalnews.com/News/News.aspx/134994 |title=Video: Priest Attacks Menorah—Jewish World |publisher=[[Arutz Sheva]] |date=14 December 2009 |access-date=17 June 2015|archive-date=17 June 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150617125403/http://www.israelnationalnews.com/News/News.aspx/134994 |url-status=live}}</ref>

According to Paul Johnson, antisemitic policies are a sign of a state which is poorly governed.<ref>{{cite magazine |author-link=Paul Johnson (writer) |last=Johnson |first=Paul |url=https://www.commentarymagazine.com/article/the-anti-semitic-disease/ |title=The Anti-Semitic Disease |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150817030629/https://www.commentarymagazine.com/article/the-anti-semitic-disease/ |archive-date=17 August 2015 |magazine=[[Commentary Magazine]] |date=1 June 2005 |access-date=26 January 2015}}</ref> While no European state currently has such policies, the [[Economist Intelligence Unit]] notes the rise in political uncertainty, notably populism and nationalism, as something that is particularly alarming for Jews.<ref name="Cohen">{{cite news |first=Cohen |last=Ben |url=http://www.algemeiner.com/2015/01/26/europe%E2%80%99s-jews-tied-to-a-declining-political-class/ |title=Europe's Jews Tied to a Declining Political Class |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200817195418/https://www.algemeiner.com/2015/01/26/europe%e2%80%99s-jews-tied-to-a-declining-political-class/ |archive-date=17 August 2020 |work=[[Algemeiner]] |date=26 January 2015}}</ref>

===21st-century Arab antisemitism===
{{Main|Antisemitism in the Arab world}}

[[File:Graffiti of a swastika on a building in the Palestinian city Nablus.jpg|thumb|upright=1.25|[[Graffiti]] of a [[swastika]] on a building in the [[Palestinians|Palestinian]] city of [[Nablus]], 2022]]
[[File:A boy holding a paper stating "we are the killers of the Jews".jpg|thumb|A boy holding a paper stating "we are the killers of the Jews" in the mourning ceremony for [[Qasem Soleimani]] at Mosalla of [[Tehran]], 6 January 2020]]
[[Robert L. Bernstein|Robert Bernstein]], founder of [[Human Rights Watch]], says that antisemitism is "deeply ingrained and institutionalized" in "Arab nations in modern times".<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/opinions/why-do-human-rights-groups-ignore-palestinians-war-of-words/2011/09/26/gIQAWU5y2K_story.html |title=Why do human rights groups ignore Palestinians' war of words? |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210211002401/https://www.washingtonpost.com/opinions/why-do-human-rights-groups-ignore-palestinians-war-of-words/2011/09/26/gIQAWU5y2K_story.html |archive-date=11 February 2021 |newspaper=[[The Washington Post]] |date=26 September 2011 |access-date=2 June 2012}}</ref>

In a 2011 survey by the [[Pew Research Center]], all of the Muslim-majority Middle Eastern countries polled held significantly negative opinions of Jews. In the questionnaire, only 2% of [[Egypt]]ians, 3% of [[Lebanon|Lebanese]] Muslims, and 2% of [[Jordan]]ians reported having a positive view of Jews. Muslim-majority countries outside the Middle East similarly held markedly negative views of Jews, with 4% of [[Turkey|Turks]] and 9% of [[Indonesia]]ns viewing Jews favorably.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://pewglobal.org/2011/07/21/muslim-western-tensions-persist/3/ |website=PEW Global Attitudes Report |date=21 July 2011 |title=Muslim-Western Tensions Persist |access-date=19 September 2013 |archive-date=21 September 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130921060113/http://www.pewglobal.org/2011/07/21/muslim-western-tensions-persist/3/ |url-status=live}}</ref>

According to a 2011 exhibition at the United States Holocaust Memorial Museum in Washington, United States, some of the dialogue from Middle East media and commentators about Jews bear a striking resemblance to [[Nazi propaganda]].<ref>{{cite news |author=[[United States Holocaust Memorial Museum]] |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2009/02/24/arts/design/24muse.html |title=Nazis' 'Terrible Weapon,' Aimed at Minds and Hearts |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210125152303/https://www.nytimes.com/2009/02/24/arts/design/24muse.html |archive-date=25 January 2021 |work=[[The New York Times]] |date=23 February 2009 |access-date=24 November 2010}}</ref> According to Josef Joffe of ''[[Newsweek]]'', "anti-Semitism—the real stuff, not just bad-mouthing particular Israeli policies—is as much part of Arab life today as the hijab or the hookah. Whereas this darkest of creeds is no longer tolerated in polite society in the West, in the Arab world, Jew hatred remains culturally endemic."<ref>{{cite news |last=Joffe |first=Josef |url=http://www.newsweek.com/id/186974 |title=Anti-Semitism In Araby |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100328001627/http://www.newsweek.com/id/186974 |archive-date=28 March 2010 |work=[[Newsweek]] |date=28 February 2009 |access-date=24 November 2010}}</ref>

Muslim clerics in the Middle East have frequently referred to Jews as descendants of apes and pigs, which are conventional epithets for Jews and Christians.<ref>{{cite book |author-link=Bernard Lewis |last=Lewis |first=Bernard |date=1984 |title=The Jews of Islam |location=Princeton |publisher=[[Princeton University Press]] |isbn=0-691-00807-8 |page=33}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |first=Aluma |last=Solnick |url=http://memri.org/bin/articles.cgi?Area=sr&ID=SR01102 |title=Based on Koranic Verses, Interpretations, and Traditions, Muslim Clerics State: The Jews Are the Descendants of Apes, Pigs, And Other Animals |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090905201355/http://www.memri.org/bin/articles.cgi?Area=sr&ID=SR01102 |archive-date=5 September 2009 |website=[[MEMRI]] Special Report—No. 11 |date=1 November 2002}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |first=Neil J. |last=Kressel |url=http://chronicle.com/free/v50/i27/27b01401.htm |title=The Urgent Need to Study Islamic Anti-Semitism |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090710020511/http://chronicle.com/free/v50/i27/27b01401.htm |archive-date=10 July 2009 |website=The Chronicle of Higher Education, The Chronicle Review |date=12 March 2004}}</ref>

According to professor [[Robert Wistrich]], director of the [[Vidal Sassoon International Center for the Study of Antisemitism]] (SICSA), the calls for the destruction of Israel by [[Iran]] or by [[Hamas]], [[Hezbollah]], [[Islamic Jihad Movement in Palestine|Islamic Jihad]], or the [[Muslim Brotherhood]], represent a contemporary mode of genocidal antisemitism.<ref>{{Cite news |url=http://blogs.timesofisrael.com/holocaust-remembrance-day-a-somber-anniversary/ |title=Holocaust Remembrance Day—a somber anniversary |work=[[The Times of Israel]] |access-date=27 January 2013 |archive-date=30 January 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130130105240/http://blogs.timesofisrael.com/holocaust-remembrance-day-a-somber-anniversary/ |url-status=live}}</ref>

===21st-century antisemitism at universities===
{{Main|Universities and antisemitism}}

After the [[2023 Hamas-led attack on Israel]] on 7 October and Israel's subsequent invasion of the Gaza strip, antisemitism and anti-Jewish hate crimes around the world increased significantly.<ref>{{Cite news |last1=Abboud |first1=Leila |last2=Klasa |first2=Adrienne |last3=Chazan |first3=Guy |date=15 October 2023 |title=Israel-Hamas war unleashes wave of antisemitism in Europe |work=[[Financial Times]] |url=https://www.ft.com/content/ed744535-d04f-4519-ac27-2be077cac912 |access-date=19 October 2023 |archive-date=18 October 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231018225127/https://www.ft.com/content/ed744535-d04f-4519-ac27-2be077cac912 |url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |last1=Chrisafis |first1=Angelique |last2=Kassam |first2=Ashifa |last3=Connolly |first3=Kate |last4=Giuffrida |first4=Angela |date=20 October 2023 |title='A lot of pain': Europe's Jews fear rising antisemitism after Hamas attack |work=[[The Guardian]] |url=https://www.theguardian.com/news/2023/oct/20/a-lot-of-pain-europes-jews-fear-rising-antisemitism-after-hamas-attack |access-date=21 October 2023 |issn=0261-3077 |archive-date=21 October 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231021041322/https://www.theguardian.com/news/2023/oct/20/a-lot-of-pain-europes-jews-fear-rising-antisemitism-after-hamas-attack |url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |last=Sforza |first=Lauren |date=6 May 2024 |title=Antisemitism surging worldwide since Oct. 7 attack: Report |url=https://thehill.com/blogs/blog-briefing-room/4646435-antisemitism-surging-worldwide-since-october-7-attack-report/ |access-date=17 July 2024 |work=[[The Hill (newspaper)|The Hill]] |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240717164428/https://thehill.com/blogs/blog-briefing-room/4646435-antisemitism-surging-worldwide-since-october-7-attack-report/ |archive-date=17 July 2024}}</ref> Multiple universities and university officials have been accused of systemic antisemitism.<ref>{{cite news |last=Saul |first=Stephanie |date=11 January 2024 |title=Students sue Harvard, calling it a bastion of antisemitism |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2024/01/11/us/harvard-antisemitism-lawsuit.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240404085011/https://www.nytimes.com/2024/01/11/us/harvard-antisemitism-lawsuit.html |archive-date=4 April 2024 |access-date=23 January 2024 |work=[[The New York Times]]}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |title=Harvard president keeps her job after antisemitism backlash |url=https://www.cbc.ca/news/world/harvard-president-claudine-gay-antisemitism-1.7056381 |work=[[Canadian Broadcasting Corporation|CBC]] |date=12 December 2023 |access-date=23 January 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250124102806/https://www.cbc.ca/news/world/harvard-president-claudine-gay-antisemitism-1.7056381 |archive-date=24 January 2025}}</ref><ref>{{Cite magazine |first1=Daniel |last1=Cancel |first2=Janet |last2=Lorin |first3=Biz |last3=Carson |author4=Bloomberg |title=Stanford is the latest elite university to be slammed for its lack of 'moral resolve' in its response to Hamas' attack on Israel |url=https://fortune.com/2023/10/27/stanford-alumni-students-hamas-israel-response/ |access-date=31 October 2023 |magazine=[[Fortune (magazine)|Fortune]] |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20241224184116/https://fortune.com/2023/10/27/stanford-alumni-students-hamas-israel-response/ |archive-date=24 December 2024}}</ref> On 1 May 2024, the [[United States House of Representatives]] voted 320–91 in favour of adopting a bill enshrining the [[International Holocaust Remembrance Alliance]] definition of antisemitism into law.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Amiri |first=Farnoush |date=1 May 2024 |title=House passes bill to expand definition of antisemitism amid growing campus protests over Gaza war |url=https://apnews.com/article/israel-palestinian-campus-protests-columbia-congress-df4ba95dae844b3a8559b4b3ad7e058a |access-date=17 July 2024 |work=[[AP News]] |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250127204728/https://apnews.com/article/israel-palestinian-campus-protests-columbia-congress-df4ba95dae844b3a8559b4b3ad7e058a |archive-date=27 January 2025}}</ref> The bill was opposed by some who claimed it conflated criticism of Israel with antisemitism, while Jewish advocacy groups like the [[American Jewish Committee]] and [[World Jewish Congress]] generally supported it in response to the increase in antisemitic incidents on university campuses.<ref>{{Cite web |date=15 October 2023 |title=Confronting Campus Antisemitism: An Action Plan for University Students |url=https://www.ajc.org/UniversityStudentsActionPlan |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240501032235/https://www.ajc.org/UniversityStudentsActionPlan |archive-date=1 May 2024 |access-date=17 July 2024 |website=[[American Jewish Committee]]}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=23 December 2023 |title=Year in Review 2023: Jewish Unity Amid Challenges |url=https://www.worldjewishcongress.org/en/news/year-in-review-2023-jewish-unity-amid-challenges |access-date=17 July 2024 |website=[[World Jewish Congress]]}}</ref> An open letter by 1,200 Jewish professors opposed the proposal.<ref>{{cite web |first=Yonat |last=Shimron |url=https://religionnews.com/2024/05/14/1200-jewish-professors-call-on-senate-to-reject-controversial-antisemitism-definition/ |title=1,200 Jewish professors call on Senate to reject controversial antisemitism definition |website=[[Religion News Service]] |date=14 May 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20241223132825/https://religionnews.com/2024/05/14/1200-jewish-professors-call-on-senate-to-reject-controversial-antisemitism-definition/ |archive-date=23 December 2024}}</ref>

===Black Hebrew Israelite antisemitism===
{{Further|Black Hebrew Israelites}}

[[File:ISUPK Passover 2012.jpg|thumb|upright=1.25|4% of African-Americans self-identified as [[Black Hebrew Israelites]] in 2019.<ref name="JB"/> Between 2019 and 2022, individuals motivated by Black Hebrew Israelitism committed five religiously motivated murders.<ref name="HI">{{cite web |title=Simon Wiesenthal Center Special Report: Extreme Black Hebrew Israelites |url=https://www.wiesenthal.com/assets/pdf/black_hebrew_israelite_movement-12-2022.pdf |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230104050826/https://www.wiesenthal.com/assets/pdf/black_hebrew_israelite_movement-12-2022.pdf |archive-date=4 January 2023 |access-date=4 January 2023 |website=[[The Simon Wiesenthal Center]]}}</ref>{{pn|date=May 2026}}]]

Extremist groups of Black Hebrew Israelites believe that Jewish people are "imposters", who have "stolen" Black Americans' true racial and religious identity.<ref name="HI"/><ref name="George Washington 2022"/> Some of these groups also promote the unsupported [[Khazar hypothesis of Ashkenazi ancestry]].<ref name="HI"/> In 2022, the American Jewish Committee stated that the Black Hebrew Israelite claim that "we are the real Jews" is a "troubling antisemitic trope with dangerous potential," arguing that such rhetoric perpetuates antisemitism by denying Jewish people's legitimacy as Jews.<ref>{{cite news |first1=Amanda |last1=Woods |first2=Mark |last2=Lungariello |title=Black Hebrew Israelites chant 'we are the real Jews' at pro-Kyrie Irving NYC march |url=https://nypost.com/2022/11/25/black-hebrew-israelites-descend-on-barclays-we-are-the-real-jews/ |access-date=26 November 2022 |work=[[The New York Post]] |date=25 November 2022 |archive-date=26 November 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221126000155/https://nypost.com/2022/11/25/black-hebrew-israelites-descend-on-barclays-we-are-the-real-jews/ |url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |date=2022-11-24 |title='We are the real Jews:' 100s of Black Hebrews march in New York City |url=https://www.jpost.com/diaspora/antisemitism/article-723255 |access-date=2026-04-10 |work=[[The Jerusalem Post]] |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |last=Esensten |first=Andrew |date=2022-11-26 |title=How many Hebrew Israelites are there, and how worried should Jews be? |url=https://www.timesofisrael.com/how-many-hebrew-israelites-are-there-and-how-worried-should-jews-be/ |access-date=2026-04-10 |work=[[The Times of Israel]] |language=en-US |issn=0040-7909}}</ref>

The perpetrators of several antisemitic attacks in the United States have expressed interest in the Black Hebrew Israelites.<ref name="WaPoJersey">{{cite news |url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/nation/2019/12/15/probe-jersey-city-shooting-leads-fbi-arrest-pawn-shop-owner-weapons-charges/ |title=Probe of Jersey City shooting leads FBI to arrest pawn shop owner on weapons charge |first=Derek |last=Hawkins |newspaper=[[The Washington Post]] |date=15 December 2019 |access-date=26 November 2022 |archive-date=27 September 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220927061617/https://www.washingtonpost.com/nation/2019/12/15/probe-jersey-city-shooting-leads-fbi-arrest-pawn-shop-owner-weapons-charges/ |url-status=live}}</ref><ref name="WaPoNY">{{cite news |url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/nation/2019/12/30/monsey-stabbing-grafton-thomas-suspect/ |title=Hanukkah stabbing suspect searched 'why did Hitler hate the Jews,' prosecutors say |date=30 December 2019 |first1=Shayna |last1=Jacobs |first2=Deanna |last2=Paul |first3=Maria |last3=Sacchetti |first4=Hannah |last4=Knowles |newspaper=[[The Washington Post]] |access-date=26 November 2022 |archive-date=30 March 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230330123630/https://www.washingtonpost.com/nation/2019/12/30/monsey-stabbing-grafton-thomas-suspect/ |url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Brown |first=Julie S. |date=30 December 2019 |title=Grafton Thomas Complaint |url=https://www.justice.gov/archives/opa/press-release/file/1230906/dl |access-date=3 March 2025 |website=[[U.S. Department of Justice]] |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250303142933/https://www.justice.gov/archives/opa/press-release/file/1230906/dl |archive-date=3 March 2025}}</ref> Between 2019 and 2022, individuals motivated by Black Hebrew Israelites committed five religiously motivated murders.<ref name="HI"/> In September 2022, the Program on Extremism at George Washington University published a report which said the largest threat came from "individuals loosely affiliated with or inspired by the movement", rather than from formal members of Black Hebrew Israelite organizations.<ref name="JB">{{cite news |last1=Esensten |first1=Andrew |date=26 November 2022 |title=How many Hebrew Israelites are there, and how worried should Jews be? |work=[[The Times of Israel]] |url=https://www.timesofisrael.com/how-many-hebrew-israelites-are-there-and-how-worried-should-jews-be/ |access-date=3 January 2023 |archive-date=3 January 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230103115838/https://www.timesofisrael.com/how-many-hebrew-israelites-are-there-and-how-worried-should-jews-be/ |url-status=live}}</ref><ref name="George Washington 2022">{{cite report |title=Contemporary Violent Extremism and the Black Hebrew Israelite Movement |publisher=Program on Extremism. [[George Washington University]] |location=Washington D. C. |date=September 2022 |url=https://extremism.gwu.edu/sites/g/files/zaxdzs5746/files/ContemporaryViolentExtremism-BlackHebrewIsraeliteMovement090722.pdf |access-date=16 June 2025 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20260309133508/https://extremism.gwu.edu/sites/g/files/zaxdzs5746/files/ContemporaryViolentExtremism-BlackHebrewIsraeliteMovement090722.pdf |archive-date=9 March 2026}}</ref>

==Causes==
{{Original research section|date=February 2025}}
Antisemitism has been explained in terms of [[racism]], [[xenophobia]], [[Psychological projection|projected guilt]], [[displaced aggression]], [[conspiracy theory]], and the search for a [[Scapegoating|scapegoat]].<ref>{{cite book |title=Jews in the early modern world |first=Dean Phillip |last=Bell |publisher=[[Rowman & Littlefield]] |year=2008 |page=212 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=5rJ85OyVWV0C&pg=PA212 |isbn=978-0-7425-4518-2 |access-date=23 August 2020 |archive-date=30 December 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231230001601/https://books.google.com/books?id=5rJ85OyVWV0C&pg=PA212#v=onepage&q&f=false |url-status=live}}</ref>

Antisemitism scholar Lars Fischer writes that "scholars distinguish between theories that assume an actual causal (rather than merely coincidental) correlation between what (some) Jews do and antisemitic perceptions (correspondence theories), on the one hand, and those predicated on the notion that no such causal correlation exists and that 'the Jews' serve as a foil for the projection of antisemitic assumptions, on the other."<ref name="u458">{{cite journal |last=Fischer |first=Lars |title="The word 'Jew' has several meanings in relation to commerce, but almost all negative": on the evolution of a projection |journal=[[Jewish Historical Studies]] |volume=51 |issue=1 |date=27 April 2020 |issn=2397-1290 |doi=10.14324/111.444.jhs.2020v51.032 |doi-access=free}}</ref>{{pn|date=March 2026}} The latter position is exemplified by [[Theodor W. Adorno]], who wrote that "Anti-Semitism is the rumour about the Jews"; in other words, "a conspiratorial mentality that sees Jewish people as invisible and yet ubiquitous, as capable of pulling the strings of power from behind the scenes."<ref>{{cite web |author=schalomlibertad |title=Antisemitism and the (modern) critique of capitalism |date=23 July 2009 |website=libcom.org |quote=Adorno, T. (1951), Minima Moralia. Reflexionen aus dem beschädigten Leben, Suhrkamp, Frankfurt, p. 141. |url=https://libcom.org/library/antisemitism-modern-critique-capitalism |access-date=5 December 2023 |archive-date=7 December 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231207180431/https://libcom.org/library/antisemitism-modern-critique-capitalism |url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite magazine |author-link=Francesca Trivellato |last=Trivellato |first=Francesca |title=The rumour about the Jews |date=28 January 2020 |magazine=[[Aeon (magazine)|Aeon]] |quote=Theodor Adorno in 1951 called 'the rumour about Jews'... |url=https://aeon.co/essays/what-is-the-link-between-medieval-and-modern-antisemitism |access-date=5 December 2023 |archive-date=7 December 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231207180457/https://aeon.co/essays/what-is-the-link-between-medieval-and-modern-antisemitism |url-status=live}}</ref>

As an example of the correspondence theory, an 1894 book by [[Bernard Lazare]] questions whether Jews themselves were to blame for some antisemitic stereotypes, for instance arguing that Jews traditionally keeping strictly to their own communities, with their own practices and laws, led to a perception of Jews as anti-social; he later abandoned this belief and the book is considered antisemitic today.<ref>{{cite book |title=Anti-Semitism: Its History and Causes |first=Bernard |last=Lazare |publisher=Cosimo, Inc. |year=2006 |isbn=978-1-59605-601-5 |page=[https://books.google.com/books?id=VP81v2Y24HUC&pg=PA9 9]}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Brustein |first1=William L. |last2=Roberts |first2=Louisa |title=The Socialism of Fools: Leftist Origins of Modern Anti-Semitism |date=2015 |publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]] |page=55 |quote=Lazare argued in his book that Jews, because of their exclusiveness, arrogance, and unsociability, were themselves responsible for anti-Semitism. Lazare blames the Jewish religion and laws for these negative traits. His book was widely reviewed and is by many accounts a seminal anti-Semitic text. Lazare's authorship of such an anti-Semitic work is ironic, given the role he would soon play in the Dreyfus Affair.}}</ref><ref name="q406">{{cite journal |last=Swanson |first=Joel |title=We Spring from that History: Bernard Lazare, between Universalism and Particularism |journal=Religions |volume=9 |issue=10 |date=21 October 2018 |issn=2077-1444 |doi=10.3390/rel9100322 |doi-access=free |page=322}}</ref> As another example, [[Walter Laqueur]] suggested that the antisemitic perception of Jewish people as greedy (as often used in [[Stereotypes of Jews#Greed|stereotypes of Jews]]) probably evolved in Europe during medieval times where a large portion of [[creditor|money lending]] was operated by Jews.{{sfnp|Laqueur|2006|p=154}} Among factors thought to contribute to this situation include that Jews were restricted from other professions,{{sfnp|Laqueur|2006|p=154}} while the [[Christian Church]] declared for their followers that money lending constituted immoral "[[usury]]",<ref>{{cite journal |title=Hawthorne's secret: an un-told tale |jstor=41398742 |journal=[[The Georgia Review]] |volume=38 |issue=3 |pages=664–666 |first=Philip |last=Young |year=1984}}</ref> although recent scholarship, such as that of historian Julie Mell shows that Jews were not overrepresented in the sector and that the stereotype was founded in Christian [[Psychological projection|projection]] of taboo behaviour on to the minority.<ref name="u458"/><ref name="s525">{{cite journal |last=Cassen |first=Flora |title=Jews and Money: Time for a New Story? |journal=[[The Jewish Quarterly Review]] |volume=110 |issue=2 |year=2020 |issn=1553-0604 |doi=10.1353/jqr.2020.0007 |pages=373–382}}</ref><ref name="a817">{{cite journal |last=Mell |first=Julie L. |title=Cultural Meanings of Money in Medieval Ashkenaz: On Gift, Profit, and Value in Medieval Judaism and Christianity |journal=Jewish History |publisher=Springer |volume=28 |issue=2 |year=2014 |issn=0334-701X |jstor=24709715 |pages=125–158 |doi=10.1007/s10835-014-9212-3}}</ref>{{pn|date=March 2026}}

In ''Anti-Judaism: The Western Tradition'' (2013), historian [[David Nirenberg]] traces the history of antisemitism, arguing that antisemitism should be understood not as a product of isolated historical events or cultural biases but is instead embedded within the very fabric of Western thought and society.<ref name="AJ">{{Cite book |last=Nirenberg |first=David |author-link=David Nirenberg |title=Anti-Judaism: The Western Tradition |publisher=Norton |year=2014 |isbn=978-0-393-34791-3 |location=New York}}</ref>{{pn|date=January 2024}} Its foundation lies in the early claim of [[Jewish deicide]] and depictions of Jews as 'Christ-killers'. Throughout Western history, Jews have since been used as a symbolic '[[Other (philosophy)|other]]' to define and articulate the values and boundaries of various cultures and intellectual traditions. In philosophy, literature, and politics, Jewishness has often been constructed as a counterpoint to what is considered normative or ideal. One of the key insights from Nirenberg's work is that antisemitism has proven to be remarkably adaptable.{{cn|date=February 2025}} It changes form and adapts to different contexts and times, whether in medieval religious disputes, Enlightenment critiques, or modern racial theories. Philosophers and intellectuals have often used 'Jewishness' as a foil to explore and define their ideas. For instance, in the [[Age of Enlightenment|Enlightenment]], figures like [[Voltaire]] critiqued Judaism as backward and superstitious to promote their visions of reason and progress. Similarly, the [[Soviet Union]] frequently [[Soviet anti-Semitism|portrayed]] Judaism as linked with capitalism and mercantilism, standing in opposition to the ideals of proletarian solidarity and [[communism]]. In each case, Judaism or the Jews are portrayed as standing in tension with prevailing moral norms.<ref name="AJ"/>

Author and scholar [[Dara Horn]] published an article in ''[[The Atlantic]]'' reflecting on the rising antisemitism in the wake of the Hamas-led [[October 7 attacks]] in Israel and her previous published doubts about the effectiveness of [[Holocaust education]] [[pedagogy]], specifically citing a personal interaction with a Holocaust educator in which an "anti-Semitic myth comparable to Holocaust denial" was communicated to her, due to what she felt was insufficient contextualization of the Holocaust in the [[history of antisemitism]].<ref name="PS"/> In it, Horn argues that antisemitism functions by appropriating what has happened to Jews and recasting their experience as part of a broader, universal struggle, which always ends in ultimately redefining Jewish identity as incompatible with these ideals. She concludes that the attacks on Jews, often under the guise of anti-Zionism, follow the same ancient pattern of marginalization and vilification.<blockquote>This is the permission structure for anti-Semitism: claim whatever has happened to the Jews as one's own experience, announce a "universal" ideal that all good people must accept, and then redefine Jewish collective identity as lying beyond it. Hating Jews thus becomes a demonstration of righteousness. The key is to define, and redefine, and redefine again, the shiny new moral reasoning for why the Jews have failed the universal test of humanity.<ref name="PS">{{Cite magazine |last=Horn |first=Dara |author-link=Dara Horn |date=7 October 2024 |title=October 7 Created a Permission Structure for Anti-Semitism |url=https://www.theatlantic.com/ideas/archive/2024/10/october-7-anti-semitism-united-states/680176/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20241010011236/https://www.theatlantic.com/ideas/archive/2024/10/october-7-anti-semitism-united-states/680176/ |archive-date=10 October 2024 |access-date=15 October 2024 |magazine=[[The Atlantic]] |issn=2151-9463}}</ref></blockquote>

==Prevention through education==
Education plays an important role in addressing and overcoming [[prejudice]] and countering social [[discrimination]].<ref name="GP">{{Cite book |url=https://unesdoc.unesco.org/ark:/48223/pf0000263702 |title=Addressing anti-semitism through education: guidelines for policymakers |publisher=[[UNESCO]] |year=2018 |isbn=978-92-3-100274-8 |access-date=9 March 2020 |archive-date=17 January 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210117130019/https://unesdoc.unesco.org/ark:/48223/pf0000263702 |url-status=live}}</ref> However, education is not only about challenging the conditions of intolerance and ignorance in which antisemitism manifests itself; it is also about building a sense of [[Global citizenship education|global citizenship]] and solidarity, respect for, and enjoyment of diversity and the ability to live peacefully together as active, democratic citizens. Education equips learners with the knowledge to identify antisemitism and biased or prejudiced messages and raises awareness about the forms, manifestations, and impact of antisemitism faced by [[Jews]] and Jewish communities.<ref name="GP"/>

Some Jewish writers have argued that public education about antisemitism through the prism of the [[The Holocaust|Holocaust]] is unhelpful at best or actively deepening antisemitism at worst. [[Dara Horn]] wrote in ''[[The Atlantic]]'' that "Auschwitz is not a metaphor", arguing "That the Holocaust drives home the importance of love is an idea, like the idea that Holocaust education prevents anti-Semitism, that seems entirely unobjectionable. It is entirely objectionable. The Holocaust didn't happen because of a lack of love. It happened because entire societies abdicated responsibility for their own problems, and instead blamed them on the people who represented—have always represented, since they first introduced the idea of commandedness to the world—the thing they were most afraid of: responsibility."<ref>{{Cite magazine |last=Horn |first=Dara |author-link=Dara Horn |date=6 June 2019 |title=Auschwitz Is Not a Metaphor |url=https://www.theatlantic.com/ideas/archive/2019/06/auschwitz-not-long-ago-not-far-away/591082/ |url-access=subscription |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190608100816/https://www.theatlantic.com/ideas/archive/2019/06/auschwitz-not-long-ago-not-far-away/591082/ |archive-date=8 June 2019 |access-date=29 July 2024 |magazine=[[The Atlantic]] |issn=2151-9463}}{{void|Fabrickator|comment|the 8 June 2019 archive from the "ideas/archive" path is evidently a complete story, archive copies from other paths may not be complete}}{{cbignore}}</ref>

Instead, she argues that perhaps "a more effective way to address anti-Semitism might lie in cultivating a completely different quality, one that happens to be the key to education itself: curiosity. Why use Jews as a means to teach people that we're all the same, when the demand that Jews be just like their neighbors is exactly what embedded the mental virus of anti-Semitism in the Western mind in the first place? Why not instead encourage inquiry about the diversity, to borrow a de rigueur word, of the human experience?"<ref>{{Cite magazine |last=Horn |first=Dara |author-link=Dara Horn |date=3 April 2023 |title=Is Holocaust Education Making Anti-Semitism Worse?|url=https://www.theatlantic.com/magazine/archive/2023/05/holocaust-student-education-jewish-anti-semitism/673488/ |access-date=29 July 2024 |magazine=[[The Atlantic]] |issn=2151-9463 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240510075025/https://www.theatlantic.com/magazine/archive/2023/05/holocaust-student-education-jewish-anti-semitism/673488/ |archive-date=10 May 2024}}</ref>

==Geographical variation==
{{Main|Geography of antisemitism}}

A March 2008 report by the [[United States Department of State|U.S. State Department]] found that there was an increase in antisemitism across the world, and that both old and new expressions of antisemitism persist.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://edition.cnn.com/2008/US/03/14/anti-semitism/index.html |title=Report: Anti-Semitism on the rise globally |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080315181305/http://edition.cnn.com/2008/US/03/14/anti-semitism/index.html |archive-date=15 March 2008 |work=[[CNN]] |date=14 March 2008 |access-date=24 November 2010}}</ref> A 2012 report by the U.S. [[Bureau of Democracy, Human Rights and Labor]] also noted a continued global increase in antisemitism, and found that Holocaust denial and opposition to Israeli policy at times was used to promote or justify blatant antisemitism.<ref>{{cite web |title=International Religious Freedom Report for 2012 |url=https://2009-2017.state.gov/j/drl/rls/irf/religiousfreedom/index.htm#wrapper |access-date=21 December 2013 |archive-date=7 February 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170207121457/https://2009-2017.state.gov/j/drl/rls/irf/religiousfreedom/index.htm#wrapper |url-status=live}}</ref> In 2014, the Anti-Defamation League conducted a study titled ''ADL Global 100: An Index of Anti-Semitism'',<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://global100.adl.org/ |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160601015413/http://global100.adl.org/public/ADL-Global-100-Executive-Summary.pdf |archive-date=1 June 2016 |title=ADL Global 100: A Survey of Attitudes Toward Jews in Over 100 Countries Around the World |website=[[Anti-Defamation League]]/Global 100 |access-date=14 January 2024 }}</ref> which also reported high antisemitism figures around the world and, among other findings, that as many as "27% of people who have never met a Jew nevertheless harbor strong prejudices against him".<ref name="TOI-ADL">{{cite news |last=Gur |first=Haviv Rettig |author-link=Haviv Rettig Gur |title=Hating the Jew you've never met |work=[[The Times of Israel]] |date=18 May 2014 |url=http://www.timesofisrael.com/hating-the-jew-youve-never-met/ |access-date=26 August 2018 |archive-date=1 June 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190601140048/https://www.timesofisrael.com/hating-the-jew-youve-never-met/ |url-status=live}}</ref>

In August 2024, the Israeli [[Ministry of Diaspora Affairs]] announced a new antisemitism monitoring project.<ref name=Diaspora1>{{cite news |last=Starr |first=Michael |date=19 August 2024 |title=Can Diaspora Ministry's new monitoring system help better understand antisemitism? |url=https://www.jpost.com/diaspora/antisemitism/article-815377 |work=[[The Jerusalem Post]] |access-date=20 August 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20241225084509/https://www.jpost.com/diaspora/antisemitism/article-815377 |archive-date=25 December 2024}}</ref><ref name=Diaspora2>{{cite news |date=18 August 2024 |title=Diaspora Ministry unveils system for monitoring antisemitic discourse online |url=https://www.jpost.com/diaspora/antisemitism/article-815209 |work=[[The Jerusalem Post]] |access-date=20 August 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20241227112402/https://www.jpost.com/diaspora/antisemitism/article-815209 |archive-date=27 December 2024}}</ref> The goal of the project is to measure levels of antisemitism in various countries, as well as identify instigators and trends.<ref name=Diaspora1 /> In the event that antisemitism in a given country becomes severe, the Diaspora Minister may contact that country's government in an official capacity.<ref name=Diaspora1 />

==See also==
{{Portal|Judaism}}
{{Div col}}
* [[Anti-antisemitism]]
* [[Anti-Jewish violence in Central and Eastern Europe, 1944–1946]]
* ''[[Anti-Semite and Jew]]'', an essay by [[Jean-Paul Sartre]]
* [[Antisemitica]]
* ''[[Anti-Semitism in the 21st Century: The Resurgence]]''
* [[Antisemitism and the New Testament]]
* [[Babylonian captivity]]
* [[Legitimacy of the State of Israel#Calls for the destruction of Israel|Calls for the destruction of Israel]]
* [[Centre for Research on Antisemitism]]
* [[Farhud]], the 1941 Baghdad pogrom
* [[Jacob Barnet affair]]
* [[Jewish exodus from the Muslim World]]
* [[Khaybar Khaybar ya yahud]]
* [[Martyrdom in Judaism]]
* [[Normalization of antisemitism]]
* [[Secondary antisemitism]]
* [[Tisha B'Av]]
{{div col end}}

== Notes ==
{{Notelist}}

== References ==
=== Citations ===
{{Reflist}}

=== Sources ===
{{refbegin|32em}}
<!-- BBB -->
* {{Cite book |last=Baasten |first=Martin F. J. |title=Hamlet on a Hill: Semitic and Greek Studies Presented to Professor T. Muraoka on the Occasion of His Sixty-fifth Birthday |date=2003 |publisher=Peeters |isbn=90-429-1215-4 |editor1-last=Baasten |editor1-first=M. F. J. |pages=57–73 |chapter=A Note on the History of 'Semitic' |editor2-last=Van Peursen |editor2-first=W. Th. |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=oIIvqaVaLacC&pg=PA58}}
* {{cite journal |last1=Barna |first1=Ildikó |last2=Knap |first2=Árpád |date=2018 |title=Antisemitism in Contemporary Hungary: Exploring Topics of Antisemitism in the Far-Right Media Using Natural Language Processing |journal=Theo-Web: Zeitschrift fuer Religionspaedagogik |volume=18 |number=1 |pages=75–92 |doi=10.23770/tw0087}}
* {{cite news |last1=Baroud |first1=Ramzy |last2=Rubeo |first2=Romana |date=17 July 2018 |title=An unlikely union: Israel and the European far right |url=https://www.aljazeera.com/opinions/2018/7/17/an-unlikely-union-israel-and-the-european-far-right |work=[[Al Jazeera English|Al Jazeera]] |access-date=19 February 2026 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20260227062847/https://www.aljazeera.com/opinions/2018/7/17/an-unlikely-union-israel-and-the-european-far-right |archive-date=27 February 2026}}
* {{cite book |last=Bein |first=Alex |author-link=Alex Bein |year=1990 |title=The Jewish Question: Biography of a World Problem |translator-first=Harry |translator-last=Zohn |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=cQOn0y8ENg4C |location=Rutherford, NJ |publisher=[[Fairleigh Dickinson University Press]] |isbn=978-0-8386-3252-9 |access-date=13 August 2015 |archive-date=30 December 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231230001603/https://books.google.com/books?id=cQOn0y8ENg4C |url-status=live}}
* {{cite report |last=Beirich |first=Heidi |date=21 January 2021 |title=Antisemitism Rising Among American Right-Wing Extremists |publisher=[[Institute for National Security Studies (Israel)|Institute for National Security Studies]] |url=https://www.inss.org.il/wp-content/uploads/2021/01/special-publication-21012101.pdf}} 
* {{cite book |last=Beller |first=Steven |date=2007 |title=Antisemitism: A Very Short Introduction |publisher=[[Oxford University Press]] |isbn=978-0-19-289277-5}}
* {{cite journal |last=Butler |first=Judith |author-link=Judith Butler |title=Why Is Bannon's Antisemitism Considered Alright? |journal=[[Jewish Social Studies]] |date=2017 |volume=22 |issue=3 |pages=182–185 |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/10.2979/jewisocistud.22.3.10 |doi=10.2979/jewisocistud.22.3.10 |issn=0021-6704 |jstor=10.2979/jewisocistud.22.3.10 |s2cid=165074332 |url-access=subscription}}
* {{cite journal |last=Byington |first=Bradley |date=2019 |title=Antisemitic Conspiracy Theories and Violent Extremism on the Far Right: a Public Health Approach to Counter-Radicalization |journal=[[Journal of Contemporary Antisemitism]] |volume=2 |number=1 |pages=1–18 |doi=10.26613/jca/2.1.19}}
<!-- CCC -->
* {{cite journal |last1=Consonni |first1=Manuela |title='Upping the Antis': Addressing the Conceptual Ambiguities Surrounding 'Antisemitism' |journal=[[Society (journal)|Society]] |year=2022 |volume=59|issue=1 |pages=25–33|doi=10.1007/s12115-022-00665-4 |s2cid=247172627}}
* {{cite book |last=Chanes |first=Jerome A. |year=2004 |title=Antisemitism: a Reference Handbook |publisher=[[ABC-CLIO]] |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ju7U83nRDt8C |isbn=978-1-57607-209-7 |access-date=13 August 2015 |archive-date=30 December 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231230001716/https://books.google.com/books?id=ju7U83nRDt8C |url-status=live}}
<!-- FFF -->
* {{cite book |last=Falk |first=Avner |author-link=Avner Falk |year=2008 |title=Anti-Semitism: a History and Psychoanalysis of Contemporary Hatred |publisher=Praeger |location=Westport, CT |isbn=978-0-313-35384-0}}
* {{cite journal |last1=Feinberg |first1=Ayal |last2=Stewart |first2=Brandon |date=June 2019 |title=Holocaust History, Far-Right Parties, and Antisemitic Incidents |journal=[[Contemporary Jewry]] |volume=39 |number=2 |pages=191–209 |jstor=45217158}}
* {{cite book |last=Flannery |first=Edward H. |author-link=Edward Flannery |year=1985 |title=The Anguish of the Jews: Twenty-three Centuries of Antisemitism |publisher=Paulist Press |isbn=978-0-8091-4324-5}}
* {{cite book |last=Flannery |first=Edward H. |author-link=Edward Flannery |year=2004 |title=The Anguish of the Jews: Twenty-Three Centuries of Antisemitism |publisher=Paulist Press |edition=2nd |location=Mahwah, NY |isbn=978-0-8091-4324-5}}
* {{cite book |last=Foxman |first=Abraham |author-link=Abraham Foxman |year=2010 |title=Jews and Money: The Story of a Stereotype |publisher=[[St. Martin's Press]] |location=New York |isbn=978-0-230-11225-4}}
* {{cite book |last1=Frank |first1=Daniel H. |last2=Leaman |first2=Oliver |author2-link=Oliver Leaman |title=The Cambridge companion to medieval Jewish philosophy |date=2003 |publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]] |location=Cambridge |isbn=0-521-65574-9}}
<!-- GGG -->
* {{cite magazine |last=Gessen |first=Masha |author-link=Masha Gessen |date=12 December 2019 |title=The Real Purpose of Trump's Executive Order on Anti-Semitism |magazine=[[The New Yorker]] |url=https://www.newyorker.com/news/our-columnists/the-real-purpose-of-trumps-executive-order-on-anti-semitism |access-date=19 February 2026 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20251201202623/https://www.newyorker.com/news/our-columnists/the-real-purpose-of-trumps-executive-order-on-anti-semitism |archive-date=1 December 2025}}
* {{cite book |last=Glanville |first=Jo |date=2021 |editor-last=Glanville |editor-first=Jo |title=Looking for an Enemy: 8 Essays on Antisemitism |publisher=Short Books |chapter=Bloody Jews |isbn=978-1-78-072466-9}} 
<!-- HHH -->
* {{cite book |last1=Harzig |first1=Christiane |last2=Hoerder |first2=Dirk |last3=Shubert |first3=Adrian |title=The historical practice of diversity: transcultural interactions from the early modern Mediterranean to the postcolonial world |date=2003 |publisher=[[Berghahn Books]] |location=New York |isbn=1-57181-377-2}}
* {{cite news |last=Henley |first=Jon |date=30 September 2024 |title=Victory in Austria is another step in far right's march across Europe |url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2024/sep/30/victory-austria-another-step-far-right-march-europe-eu |work=[[The Guardian]] |access-date=19 February 2026 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250808024633/https://www.theguardian.com/world/2024/sep/30/victory-austria-another-step-far-right-march-europe-eu |archive-date=8 August 2025}}
<!-- JJJ -->
* {{cite book |last=Johnson |first=Paul |author-link=Paul Johnson (writer) |year=1987 |title=A History of the Jews |location=New York, NY |publisher=[[HarperCollins Publishers]] |isbn=978-0-06-091533-9 |url=https://archive.org/details/historyofjews00john}}
* {{cite book |last=Johnston |first=William |author-link=Will Johnston |title=The Austrian Mind: An Intellectual and Social History, 1848–1938|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=-dmH7FjxassC&pg=PA27 |year=1983 |publisher=[[University of California Press]] |isbn=978-0-520-04955-0 |access-date=13 August 2015 |archive-date=30 December 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231230001702/https://books.google.com/books?id=-dmH7FjxassC&pg=PA27#v=onepage&q&f=false |url-status=live}}
* {{cite journal |last1=Judaken |first1=Jonathan |author-link=Jonathan Judaken |title=Introduction |journal=[[The American Historical Review]] |year=2018 |volume=123 |issue=4 |pages=1122–1138 |doi=10.1093/ahr/rhy024}}
<!-- KKK -->
* {{cite journal |last=Kahn |first=Michelle Lynn |date=2022 |title=Antisemitism, Holocaust Denial, and Germany's Far Right: How the AfD Tiptoes around Nazism |journal=[[Journal of Holocaust Research]] |volume=36 |number=2–3 |pages=164–185 |doi=10.1080/25785648.2022.2069337}}
* {{cite book |last=Kiraz |first=George Anton |author-link=George Kiraz |title=Computational Nonlinear Morphology: With Emphasis on Semitic Languages |year=2001 |publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]] |isbn=978-0-521-63196-9 |page=25 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Dpl3dHMjVZcC |quote=The term "Semitic" is borrowed from the Bible (Gene. x.21 and xi.10–26). It was first used by the Orientalist A. L. Schlözer in 1781 to designate the languages spoken by the Aramæans, Hebrews, Arabs, and other peoples of the Near East (Moscati et al., 1969, Sect. 1.2). Before Schlözer, these languages and dialects were known as ''Oriental languages''.}}
* {{cite book |last1=Krefetz |first1=Gerald |title=Jews and Money: The Myths and the Reality |date=1982 |publisher=Ticknor & Fields |isbn=978-0-89919-129-4 |url=https://archive.org/details/jewsmoneymythsre0000kref }}
<!-- LLL -->
* {{cite book |last=Laqueur |first=Walter |author-link=Walter Laqueur |year=2006 |title=The Changing Face of Antisemitism: From Ancient Times to the Present Day |publisher=[[Oxford University Press]] |isbn=978-0-19-530429-9 |edition=1st |url=https://archive.org/details/changingfaceofan00laqu}}
* {{cite book |editor-last=Levy |editor-first=Richard S. |editor-link=Richard S. Levy |year=2005 |title=Antisemitism: a Historical Encyclopedia of Prejudice and Persecution |location=Santa Barbara, CA |publisher=[[ABC-CLIO]] |isbn=978-1-85109-439-4}}
* {{cite book |last=Levy |first=Richard S. |author-link=Richard S. Levy |chapter=Political Antisemitism in Germany and Austria, 1848–1914 |title=Antisemitism: A History |editor1-first=Albert S. |editor1-last=Lindemann |editor1-link=Albert Lindemann |editor2-first=Richard S. |editor2-last=Levy |editor2-link=Richard S. Levy |date=2010 |publisher=[[Oxford University Press]] |isbn=978-0-19-923502-5 |pages=121–135}}
* {{cite book |last=Lewis |first=Bernard |year=1999 |author-link=Bernard Lewis |title=Semites and Anti-Semites: an Inquiry into Conflict and Prejudice |publisher=[[W. W. Norton & Company]] |isbn=978-0-393-31839-5 |url=https://archive.org/details/semitesantisemit0000lewi_n3m3/mode/2up}}
* {{cite book |last1=Lindemann |first1=Albert S. |author1-link=Albert Lindemann |last2=Levy |first2=Richard S. |author2-link=Richard S. Levy |chapter=Introduction |title=Antisemitism: A History |editor1-first=Albert S. |editor1-last=Lindemann |editor1-link=Albert Lindemann |editor2-first=Richard S. |editor2-last=Levy |editor2-link=Richard S. Levy |date=2010 |publisher=[[Oxford University Press]] |isbn=978-0-19-923502-5 |pages=1–16}}
* {{cite book |last=Lipstadt |first=Deborah |author-link=Deborah Lipstadt |year=2019 |title=Antisemitism: Here and Now |publisher=[[Schocken Books]] |isbn=978-0-80524337-6}}
* {{cite book |last=Lipstadt |first=Deborah |author-link=Deborah Lipstadt |year=1994 |title=Denying the Holocaust: the Growing Assault on Truth and Memory |publisher=[[Penguin Books]] |isbn=978-0-452-27274-3 |url=https://archive.org/details/denyingholocaust00lips}}
<!-- MMM -->
* {{cite book |last=Maizels |first=Linda |date=2023 |title=What is Antisemitism?: A Contemporary Introduction |publisher=[[Routledge]] |isbn=978-1-003-02182-7}}
* {{cite book |last=Majer |first=Diemut |year=2014 |title="Non-Germans" Under The Third Reich: The Nazi Judicial and Administrative System in Germany and Occupied Eastern Europe, with Special Regard to Occupied Poland, 1939–1945 |publisher=[[Texas Tech University Press]] |isbn=978-0-89672-837-0}}
* {{cite book |last1=McLellan |first1=David |author1-link=David McLellan (political scientist) |title=Marx before Marxism |date=1980 |publisher=Macmillan |location=London |isbn=978-0-333-27883-3 |edition=2d |url=https://thecharnelhouse.org/wp-content/uploads/2018/05/David-McClellan-Marx-before-Marxism.pdf |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/https://thecharnelhouse.org/wp-content/uploads/2018/05/David-McClellan-Marx-before-Marxism.pdf |archive-date=9 October 2022 |url-status=live}}
* {{cite book |last=Michael |first=Robert |title=A History of Catholic Antisemitism: The Dark Side of the Church |year=2008 |publisher=Springer |isbn=978-0-230-61117-7 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=8ZnFAAAAQBAJ |access-date=15 March 2021 |archive-date=30 December 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231230001702/https://books.google.com/books?id=8ZnFAAAAQBAJ |url-status=live}}
<!-- OOO -->
* {{cite journal |last=O'Brien |first=Charles H. |date=1969 |title=Ideas of Religious Toleration at the time of Joseph II |journal=Transactions of the American Philosophical Society |volume=59 |number=7 |doi=10.2307/1006062 |jstor=1006062}}
<!-- PPP -->
* {{Cite news |last1=Paul |first1=Deanna |last2=Mettler |first2=Katie |date=27 April 2019 |title=Authorities identify suspect in 'hate crime' synagogue shooting that left 1 dead, 3 injured |url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/nation/2019/04/27/california-synagogue-shooting-multiple-injuries/ |url-access=subscription |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230213090150/https://www.washingtonpost.com/nation/2019/04/27/california-synagogue-shooting-multiple-injuries/ |archive-date=13 February 2023 |access-date=27 April 2019 |newspaper=[[The Washington Post]] |language=en-US}}
* {{cite book |last1=Penslar |first1=Derek Jonathan |title=Shylock's Children: Economics and Jewish Identity in Modern Europe |date=July 2001 |publisher=University of California Press |isbn=978-0-520-92584-7 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=yOVV_VfxUyoC }}
* {{cite book |last1=Perlinger |first1=Arie |date=July 2024 |chapter=Far Right Domestic Terrorism in the US and Europe: A Comparative Perspective |title=EICTP Vienna Research Papers on Transnational Terrorism and Counter-Terrorism: Recent Manifestations of Anti-Government Extremism and Transnational Terrorism in Europe, Africa and Beyond |volume=VI |chapter-url=https://eictp.eu/wp-content/uploads/2024/07/EICTP_Research_Vienna-Papers_VI.pdf#page=91 |editor-first=Nicolas |editor-last=Stockhammer |publisher=European Institute for Counter Terrorism and Conflict Prevention |pages=89–98}}
* {{cite book |last1=Perry |first1=Marvin |last2=Schweitzer |first2=Frederick M. |year=2002 |title=Antisemitism: Myth and Hate from Antiquity to the Present |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=9yQmyXeNEMQC&pg=PA53 |publisher=[[Palgrave Macmillan]] |isbn=978-0-312-16561-1 |access-date=13 August 2015 |archive-date=30 December 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231230001722/https://books.google.com/books?id=9yQmyXeNEMQC&pg=PA53#v=onepage&q&f=false |url-status=live}}
* {{cite book |last1=Perry |first1=Marvin |last2=Schweitzer |first2=Frederick M. |year=2005 |title=Antisemitism: Myth and Hate from Antiquity to the Present |publisher=[[Palgrave Macmillan|Palgrave]] |location=New York, NY |isbn=978-0-312-16561-1}}
* {{cite book |last1=Prager |first1=Dennis |author1-link=Dennis Prager |last2=Telushkin |first2=Joseph |author2-link=Joseph Telushkin |year=2003 |orig-date=1985 |title=Why the Jews? The Reason for Antisemitism |publisher=Touchstone |edition=reprint |isbn=978-0-7432-4620-0}}
<!-- RRR -->
* {{cite book |last=Rattansi |first=Ali |title=Racism: A Very Short Introduction |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=YVOb3MDBmBEC&pg=PA4 |year=2007 |publisher=[[Oxford University Press]] |location=Oxford, England |isbn=978-0-19-280590-4 |access-date=13 August 2015 |archive-date=30 December 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231230001645/https://books.google.com/books?id=YVOb3MDBmBEC&pg=PA4 |url-status=live}}
* {{cite book |last=Rosenfeld |first=Alvin H. |author-link=Alvin Hirsch Rosenfeld |date=9 January 2019 |title=Anti-Zionism and Antisemitism: The Dynamics of Delegitimization |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=EYuFDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA195 |publisher=[[Indiana University Press]] |isbn=978-0-253-03872-2}}
* {{cite book |last1=Rubenstein |first1=Richard L. |author1-link=Richard L. Rubenstein |last2=Roth |first2=John K. |author2-link=John K. Roth |title=Approaches to Auschwitz: The Holocaust and Its Legacy |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=IfoBx6skMCkC&pg=PA30 |year=2003 |publisher=[[Westminster John Knox Press]] |isbn=978-0-664-22353-3 |access-date=13 August 2015 |archive-date=30 December 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231230001710/https://books.google.com/books?id=IfoBx6skMCkC&pg=PA30#v=onepage&q&f=false |url-status=live}}
<!-- SSS -->
* {{cite book |last=Sachar |first=Howard Morley |author-link=Howard Sachar |year=1961 |title=Aliyah: The People of Israel |publisher=World Publishing Company}}
* {{cite news |last=Schut |first=Bart |date=23 February 2025 |title=Germany's rising far-right AfD is split over Israel. Jews call party 'a danger' either way |url=https://www.timesofisrael.com/germanys-rising-far-right-afd-is-split-over-israel-jews-call-party-a-danger-either-way/ |work=[[Times of Israel]] |access-date=19 February 2026 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250321181628/https://www.timesofisrael.com/germanys-rising-far-right-afd-is-split-over-israel-jews-call-party-a-danger-either-way/ |archive-date=21 March 2025}}
* {{cite journal |last=Simonsen |first=Kjetil Braut |date=2020 |title=Antisemitism on the Norwegian Far-Right, 1967–2018 |journal=[[Scandinavian Journal of History]] |volume=45 |number=5 |pages=640–662 |doi=10.1080/03468755.2020.1726809}}
* {{cite news |last=Stephens |first=Bret |date=16 November 2017 |title=Opinion: Steve Bannon Is Bad for the Jews |newspaper=[[The New York Times]] |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2017/11/16/opinion/steve-bannon-israel-anti-semitism.html |access-date=19 February 2026 |archive-url= |archive-date=}}
* {{cite journal |last=Subotic |first=Jelena |date=2022 |title=Antisemitism in the global populist international |journal=[[British Journal of Politics and International Relations]] |volume=24 |number=3 |pages=458–474 |doi=10.1177/13691481211066970}}
<!-- TTT -->
* {{cite book |last=Troy |first=Gil |date=2024 |chapter=Zionism: A Response to Antisemitism? |title=The Routledge History of Antisemitism |editor1-first=Mark |editor1-last=Weitzman |editor2-first=Robert J. |editor2-last=Williams |editor3-first=James |editor3-last=Wald |publisher=[[Routledge]] |isbn=978-1-138-36944-3 |pages=390–398}}
<!-- UUU -->
* {{cite journal |last1=Ury |first1=Scott |title=Strange Bedfellows? Anti-Semitism, Zionism, and the Fate of "the Jews" |journal=[[The American Historical Review]] |year=2018 |volume=123 |issue=4 |pages=1151–1171 |doi=10.1093/ahr/rhy030}}
<!-- WWW -->
* {{cite book |last=Weinberg |first=Sonja |year=2010 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=0HDeEPouQm0C |title=Pogroms and Riots: German Press Responses to Anti-Jewish Violence in Germany and Russia (1881–1882) |publisher=Peter Lang |access-date=27 October 2018 |isbn=978-3-631-60214-0 |archive-date=29 December 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231229235557/https://books.google.com/books?id=0HDeEPouQm0C&pg=PA18#v=onepage&q&f=false |url-status=live}}
* {{cite book |last=Williams |first=Robert J. |date=2024 |chapter=Antisemitism and Diseases, Pandemics, and Public Health Crises |title=The Routledge History of Antisemitism |editor1-first=Mark |editor1-last=Weitzman |editor2-first=Robert J. |editor2-last=Williams |editor3-first=James |editor3-last=Wald |publisher=[[Routledge]] |isbn=978-1-138-36944-3 |pages=284–297}}
<!-- ZZZ -->
* {{cite book |last=Zimmermann |first=Moshe |author-link=Moshe Zimmermann |year=1987 |title=Wilhelm Marr: The Patriarch of Antisemitism |location=New York and Oxford |publisher=[[Oxford University]] |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=tYW013SjKM4C |isbn=978-0-19-536495-8 |archive-date=29 December 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231229235552/https://books.google.com/books?id=tYW013SjKM4C&pg=PA112#v=onepage&q&f=false |url-status=live}}
{{refend}}

'''Attribution'''
{{refbegin}}
* {{Free-content attribution
| title = Addressing anti-semitism through education: guidelines for policymakers
| publisher = UNESCO
| page numbers = 
| source = UNESCO
| documentURL = https://unesdoc.unesco.org/ark:/48223/pf0000263702
| license statement URL = 
| license = CC BY-SA 3.0 IGO
}}
{{refend}}

== Further reading ==
{{refbegin|32em}}
* {{Cite web |year=2022 |title=Adoption of the Working Definition |url=https://www.ajc.org/adoption-of-the-working-definition |access-date=17 July 2022 |website=American Jewish Committee |archive-date=23 June 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220623215205/https://www.ajc.org/adoption-of-the-working-definition |url-status=live}}
* {{cite journal |last1=Brustein |first1=William I. |last2=King |first2=Ryan D. |title=Anti-semitism in Europe before the Holocaust |journal=[[International Political Science Review]] |volume=25 |number=1 |date=2004 |pages=35–53 |doi=10.1177/0192512104038166 |url=https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/pdf/10.1177/0192512104038166 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220407035009/https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/pdf/10.1177/0192512104038166 |archive-date=7 April 2022 |url-access=subscription}}
* {{cite book |last=Bitton |first=Israel B. |title=A Brief and Visual History of Antisemitism |location=Jerusalem |publisher=Gefen Publishing |date=2022}}
* Blutman, László: The mysterious Tiszaeszlár trial, Budapest, 2017
* {{cite book |last=Carr |first=Steven Alan |title=Hollywood and anti-Semitism: A cultural history up to World War II |publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]] |date=2001}}
* {{cite book |last=Cohn |first=Norman |title=Warrant for Genocide |publisher=Eyre & Spottiswoode; Serif |orig-date=1967 |date=1996}}
* {{cite encyclopedia |last=Deutsch |first=Gotthard |author-link=Gotthard Deutsch |url=https://archive.org/details/b29000488_0001/page/640/mode/2up |title=Anti-Semitism |encyclopedia=[[Jewish Encyclopedia]] |volume=1 |pages=641–649 |location=New York |publisher=[[Funk & Wagnalls]] |date=1901 |via=[[Internet Archive]]}}
* {{cite book |last=Fischer |first=Klaus P. |title=The History of an Obsession: German Judeophobia and the Holocaust |publisher=[[Continuum Publishing Company]] |date=1998}}
* {{cite book |last=Freudmann |first=Lillian C. |title=Antisemitism in the New Testament |publisher=[[University Press of America]] |date=1994}}
* {{cite book |last=Gerber |first=Jane S. |author-link=Jane Gerber |date=1986 |chapter=Anti-Semitism and the Muslim World |title=History and Hate: The Dimensions of Anti-Semitism |editor-first=David |editor-last=Berger |publisher=Jewish Publications Society |isbn=0-8276-0267-7}}
* {{cite book |editor1-last=Goldberg |editor1-first=Sol |editor2-last=Ury |editor2-first=Scott |editor3-last=Weiser |editor3-first=Kalman |title=Key Concepts in the Study of Antisemitism |publisher=[[Palgrave Macmillan]] |date=2021}} [http://www.h-net.org/reviews/showrev.php?id=56840 online review] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211005142905/https://www.h-net.org/reviews/showrev.php?id=56840 |date=5 October 2021}}
* Gyurgyák, János: The Jewish Question in Hungary. A History of Political Ideas, Budapest, 2001
* {{cite book |last=Hanebrink |first=Paul |title=A Specter Haunting Europe: The Myth of Judeo-Bolshevism |publisher=[[Harvard University Press]] |date=2018 |isbn=978-0-674-04768-6}}
* {{cite book |last=Hilberg |first=Raul |author-link=Raul Hilberg |title=[[The Destruction of the European Jews]] |publisher=Holmes & Meier |date=1985}}. 3 volumes.
* Huber, Lipót: Judaism and Christianity in the Past and Present I–II., Kalocsa, 1933–1936
* {{cite book |last=Isser |first=Natalie |title=Antisemitism during the French Second Empire |date=1991}}
* {{cite book |last=Kertzer |first=David I. |author-link=David Kertzer |title=The Pope and Mussolini: The Secret History of Pius XI and the Rise of Fascism in Europe |year=2014 |publisher=[[Oxford University Press]] |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Xc3QAgAAQBAJ |isbn=978-0-19-871616-7 |access-date=21 August 2017 |archive-date=12 January 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230112150430/https://books.google.com/books?id=Xc3QAgAAQBAJ |url-status=live}}
* {{cite book |last=Laurens |first=Henry |author-link=Henry Laurens (scholar) |title=La Question de Palestine |language=fr |trans-title=The Question of Palestine |volume=II |year=2002 |publisher=Fayard}}
* {{cite magazine |url=https://newint.org/issues/2004/10/01 |title=Judeophobia: The scourge of antisemitism |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231102213414/https://newint.org/issues/2004/10/01 |archive-date=2 November 2023 |magazine=[[New Internationalist]] |issue=372 |date=October 2004}}
* MacDonald, Kevin: Cultural insurrections : essays on Western civilization, Jewish influence, and anti-semitism, 2007 [https://archive.org/details/culturalinsurrec0000macd Cultural insurrections : essays on Western civilization, Jewish influence, and anti-semitism]
* {{cite book |last=McKain |first=Mark |title=Anti-Semitism: At Issue |publisher=[[Greenhaven Press]] |date=8 April 2005 |isbn=978-0-7377-2357-1}}
* {{cite book |last=Marcus |first=Ivan G. |title=How the West Became Antisemitic: Jews and the Formation of Europe, 800–1500 |publisher=[[Princeton University Press]] |date=2024}} [https://www.h-net.org/reviews/showpdf.php?id=60963 online review of this book]
* {{cite book |last=Marcus |first=Kenneth L. |title=The Definition of Anti-Semitism |publisher=[[Oxford University Press]] |date=2015}}
* {{cite book |last1=Michael |first1=Robert |last2=Rosen |first2=Philip |url=http://www.scarecrowpress.com/ISBN/0810858622 |title=Dictionary of Antisemitism |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210220162613/https://rowman.com/ISBN/0810858622 |archive-date=20 February 2021 |publisher=[[Scarecrow Press]] |date=2007}}
* {{cite book |last=Michael |first=Robert |date=2006 |title=Holy Hatred: Christianity, Antisemitism, and the Holocaust |publisher=[[Palgrave Macmillan]] |isbn=978-1-4039-7472-3}}
* [[David Nirenberg|Nirenberg, David]]. ''Anti-Judaism: The Western Tradition'' (New York: [[W. W. Norton & Company]], 2013) 610 pp. {{ISBN|978-0-393-05824-6}}
*[[Léon Poliakov|Poliakov, Léon]]. ''The History of Anti-Semitism, Volume 1: From the Time of Christ to the Court Jews'', [[University of Pennsylvania Press]]: 2003
*[[Léon Poliakov|Poliakov, Léon]]. ''The History of Anti-Semitism, Volume 2: From Mohammad to the Marranos'', [[University of Pennsylvania Press]]: 2003
*[[Léon Poliakov|Poliakov, Léon]]. ''The History of Anti-Semitism, Volume 4: Suicidal Europe 1870–1933'', [[University of Pennsylvania Press]]: 2003
*[[Léon Poliakov|Poliakov, Léon]] (1997). "Anti-Semitism". ''[[Encyclopaedia Judaica]]'' (CD-ROM Edition Version 1.0). Ed. [[Cecil Roth]]. Keter Publishing House. {{ISBN|965-07-0665-8}}
* Poncins, Leon: Les Forces secrètes de la Révolution (The Secret Powers Behind Revolution: Freemasonry and Judaism), 1928
* Porat, Dina. [https://web.archive.org/web/20081228192541/http://www.haaretz.com/hasen/spages/818365.html "What makes an anti-Semite?"], ''[[Haaretz]]'', 27 January 2007. Retrieved 24 November 2010.
* {{cite book |last=Richardson |first=Peter |year=1986 |title=Anti-Judaism in Early Christianity |publisher=[[Wilfrid Laurier University Press]] |isbn=978-0-88920-167-5}}
* Sacks, John: [[An Eye for an Eye (Sack book)|An Eye for an Eye]], 1993
* {{cite book |editor-last=Selzer |editor-first=Michael |title="Kike!": A Documentary History of Anti-Semitism in America |location=New York |publisher=[[World Publishing Company]] |date=1972 |isbn=978-0-529-04471-6}}
* Small, Charles Asher ed. ''The Yale Papers: Antisemitism In Comparative Perspective'' (Institute For the Study of Global Antisemitism and Policy, 2015). [https://isgap.org/wp-content/uploads/2016/07/Yale-Papers-Complete-071315-Reprinted.pdf#page=417 online] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211003014435/https://isgap.org/wp-content/uploads/2016/07/Yale-Papers-Complete-071315-Reprinted.pdf#page=417 |date=3 October 2021 }}, scholarly studies.
* Solzhenitsyn, Aleksandr: [[Two Hundred Years Together]], 2002
* Stav, Arieh (1999). ''Peace: The Arabian Caricature—A Study of Anti-semitic Imagery''. Gefen Publishing House. {{ISBN|965-229-215-X}}.
* Steinweis, Alan E. ''Studying the Jew: Scholarly Antisemitism in Nazi Germany''. [[Harvard University Press]], 2006. {{ISBN|0-674-02205-X}}.
* [[Norman Stillman|Stillman, Norman]]. ''The Jews of Arab Lands: A History and Source Book''. (Philadelphia: Jewish Publication Society of America. 1979). {{ISBN|0-8276-0198-0}}
* Stillman, N.A. (2006). "Yahud". ''[[Encyclopaedia of Islam]]''. Eds.: P.J. Bearman, Th. Bianquis, C.E. Bosworth, E. van Donzel and W.P. Heinrichs. Brill. Brill Online
* Toaff, Ariel: [[Passovers of Blood: The Jews of Europe and Ritual Murders]], 2007
* {{cite web |url=https://2009-2017.state.gov/documents/organization/102301.pdf |title=Contemporary Global Anti-Semitism: A Report Provided to the United States Congress |access-date=21 May 2019 |archive-date=21 January 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170121171610/https://2009-2017.state.gov/documents/organization/102301.pdf |url-status=live}}&nbsp;{{small|(7.4&nbsp;MB)}}, [[United States Department of State]], 2008. Retrieved 25 November 2010. See [https://2001-2009.state.gov/g/drl/rls/102406.htm HTML version] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190804184602/https://2001-2009.state.gov/g/drl/rls/102406.htm |date=4 August 2019 }}.
* Vital, David. ''People Apart: The Jews in Europe, 1789–1939'' (1999); 930pp highly detailed
*[[A. B. Yehoshua|Yehoshua, A.B.]], [http://www.azure.org.il/article.php?id=18&page=all An Attempt to Identify the Root Cause of Antisemitism] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110721141312/http://www.azure.org.il/article.php?id=18&page=all |date=21 July 2011 }}, [http://www.azure.org.il Azure] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090107014155/http://azure.org.il/ |date=7 January 2009 }}, Spring 2008.
* Antisemitism on Social Media.&nbsp;United Kingdom,&nbsp;Taylor & Francis,&nbsp;2022. (Editors: Monika Hübscher, Sabine von Mering {{ISBN|9781000554298}})
{{refend}}

'''Bibliographies, calendars, etc.'''
{{refbegin|32em}}
*[[Anti-Defamation League]] [http://www.adl.org/main_Arab_World/default.htm Arab Antisemitism] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130120080724/http://www.adl.org/main_Arab_World/default.htm |date=20 January 2013 }}
*[https://web.archive.org/web/20041012090431/https://har2.huji.ac.il:83/ALEPH/ENG/SAS/BAS/BAS/START Annotated bibliography of anti-Semitism] hosted by the Hebrew University of Jerusalem's Center for the Study of Antisemitism (SICSA)
*[https://web.archive.org/web/20050904114449/http://www.coe.int/T/E/human_rights/Ecri/1-ECRI/2-Country-by-country_approach/ Council of Europe, ECRI Country-by-Country Reports]
{{refend}}

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