Inverse Galois problem

Unsolved problem in mathematics

Is every finite group the Galois group of a Galois extension of the rational numbers?

More unsolved problems in mathematics

In Galois theory, the inverse Galois problem concerns whether or not every finite group appears as the Galois group of some Galois extension of the rational numbers $\mathbb{\mathbb{Q}}$. This problem, first posed in the early 19th century, is unsolved.

There are some permutation groups for which generic polynomials are known, which define all algebraic extensions of $\mathbb{\mathbb{Q}}$ having a particular group as Galois group. These groups include all of degree no greater than 5. There also are groups known not to have generic polynomials, such as the cyclic group of order 8.

More generally, let Template:Mvar be a given finite group, and Template:Mvar a field. If there is a Galois extension field L/K whose Galois group is isomorphic to Template:Mvar, one says that Template:Mvar is realizable over Template:Mvar.

Partial results

Many cases are known. It is known that every finite group is realizable over any function field in one variable over the complex numbers $\mathbb{ℂ}$, and more generally over function fields in one variable over any algebraically closed field of characteristic zero. Igor Shafarevich showed that every finite solvable group is realizable over $\mathbb{\mathbb{Q}}$. It is also known that every simple sporadic group, except possibly the Mathieu group M₂₃, is realizable over $\mathbb{\mathbb{Q}}$.

David Hilbert showed that this question is related to a rationality question for Template:Mvar:

If Template:Mvar is any extension of $\mathbb{\mathbb{Q}}$ on which Template:Mvar acts as an automorphism group, and the invariant field K^G is rational over $\mathbb{\mathbb{Q}}$, then Template:Mvar is realizable over $\mathbb{\mathbb{Q}}$.

Here rational means that it is a purely transcendental extension of $\mathbb{\mathbb{Q}}$, generated by an algebraically independent set. This criterion can for example be used to show that all the symmetric groups are realizable.

Much detailed work has been carried out on the question, which is in no sense solved in general. Some of this is based on constructing Template:Mvar geometrically as a Galois covering of the projective line: in algebraic terms, starting with an extension of the field $\mathbb{\mathbb{Q}}(t)$ of rational functions in an indeterminate Template:Mvar. After that, one applies Hilbert's irreducibility theorem to specialise Template:Mvar, in such a way as to preserve the Galois group.

All permutation groups of degree 23 or less, except the Mathieu group M₂₃, are known to be realizable over $\mathbb{\mathbb{Q}}$.

All 13 non-abelian simple groups smaller than PSL(2,25) (order 7800) are known to be realizable over $\mathbb{\mathbb{Q}}$.

A simple example: cyclic groups

It is possible, using classical results, to construct explicitly a polynomial whose Galois group over $\mathbb{\mathbb{Q}}$ is the cyclic group Z/nZ for any positive integer Template:Mvar. To do this, choose a prime Template:Mvar such that p ≡ 1 (mod n); this is possible by Dirichlet's theorem. Let Q(μ) be the cyclotomic extension of $\mathbb{\mathbb{Q}}$ generated by Template:Mvar, where Template:Mvar is a primitive p-th root of unity; the Galois group of Q(μ)/Q is cyclic of order p − 1.

Since Template:Mvar divides p − 1, the Galois group has a cyclic subgroup Template:Mvar of order (p − 1)/n. The fundamental theorem of Galois theory implies that the corresponding fixed field, F = Q(μ)^H, has Galois group Z/nZ over $\mathbb{\mathbb{Q}}$. By taking appropriate sums of conjugates of Template:Mvar, following the construction of Gaussian periods, one can find an element Template:Mvar of Template:Mvar that generates Template:Mvar over $\mathbb{\mathbb{Q}}$, and compute its minimal polynomial.

This method can be extended to cover all finite abelian groups, since every such group appears in fact as a quotient of the Galois group of some cyclotomic extension of $\mathbb{\mathbb{Q}}$. (This statement should not though be confused with the Kronecker–Weber theorem, which lies significantly deeper.)

Worked example: the cyclic group of order three

For n = 3, we may take p = 7. Then Gal(Q(μ)/Q) is cyclic of order six. Let us take the generator Template:Mvar of this group which sends Template:Mvar to μ³. We are interested in the subgroup H = {1, η³} of order two. Consider the element α = μ + η³(μ). By construction, Template:Mvar is fixed by Template:Mvar, and only has three conjugates over $\mathbb{\mathbb{Q}}$:

α = η⁰(α) = μ + μ⁶,

β = η¹(α) = μ³ + μ⁴,

γ = η²(α) = μ² + μ⁵.

Using the identity:

1 + μ + μ² + ⋯ + μ⁶ = 0,

one finds that

α + β + γ = −1,

αβ + βγ + γα = −2,

αβγ = 1.

Therefore Template:Mvar is a root of the polynomial

(x − α)(x − β)(x − γ) = x³ + x² − 2x − 1,

which consequently has Galois group Z/3Z over $\mathbb{\mathbb{Q}}$.

Symmetric and alternating groups

Hilbert showed that all symmetric and alternating groups are represented as Galois groups of polynomials with rational coefficients.

The polynomial xⁿ + ax + b has discriminant

$(-1{)}^{\frac{n(n-1)}{2}}(n^n{b}^{n-1}+(-1{)}^{1-n}(n-1{)}^{n-1}{a}^n).$

We take the special case

f(x, s) = xⁿ − sx − s.

Substituting a prime integer for Template:Mvar in f(x, s) gives a polynomial (called a specialization of f(x, s)) that by Eisenstein's criterion is irreducible. Then f(x, s) must be irreducible over $\mathbb{\mathbb{Q}}(s)$. Furthermore, f(x, s) can be written

$x^n-\frac{x}{2}-\frac{1}{2}-(s-\frac{1}{2})(x+1)$

and f(x, 1/2) can be factored to:

$\frac{1}{2}(x-1)(1+2x+2x^2+\cdots +2x^{n-1})$

whose second factor is irreducible (but not by Eisenstein's criterion). Only the reciprocal polynomial is irreducible by Eisenstein's criterion. We have now shown that the group Gal(f(x, s)/Q(s)) is doubly transitive.

We can then find that this Galois group has a transposition. Use the scaling (1 − n)x = ny to get

$y^n-\left\{s{\left(\frac{1-n}{n}\right)}^{n-1}\right\}y-\left\{s{\left(\frac{1-n}{n}\right)}^n\right\}$

and with

$t=\frac{s(1-n{)}^{n-1}}{n^n},$

we arrive at:

g(y, t) = yⁿ − nty + (n − 1)t

which can be arranged to

yⁿ − y − (n − 1)(y − 1) + (t − 1)(−ny + n − 1).

Then g(y, 1) has 1 as a double zero and its other n − 2 zeros are simple, and a transposition in Gal(f(x, s)/Q(s)) is implied. Any finite doubly transitive permutation group containing a transposition is a full symmetric group.

Hilbert's irreducibility theorem then implies that an infinite set of rational numbers give specializations of f(x, t) whose Galois groups are S_n over the rational field $\mathbb{\mathbb{Q}}$. In fact this set of rational numbers is dense in $\mathbb{\mathbb{Q}}$.

The discriminant of g(y, t) equals

$(-1{)}^{\frac{n(n-1)}{2}}{n}^n(n-1{)}^{n-1}{t}^{n-1}(1-t),$

and this is not in general a perfect square.

Alternating groups

Solutions for alternating groups must be handled differently for odd and even degrees.

Odd degree

Let

$t=1-(-1{)}^{\frac{n(n-1)}{2}}n{u}^2$

Under this substitution the discriminant of g(y, t) equals

$\begin{array}{rl}(-1{)}^{\frac{n(n-1)}{2}}{n}^n(n-1{)}^{n-1}{t}^{n-1}(1-t)& =(-1{)}^{\frac{n(n-1)}{2}}{n}^n(n-1{)}^{n-1}{t}^{n-1}(1-(1-(-1{)}^{\frac{n(n-1)}{2}}n{u}^2))\\ & =(-1{)}^{\frac{n(n-1)}{2}}{n}^n(n-1{)}^{n-1}{t}^{n-1}((-1{)}^{\frac{n(n-1)}{2}}n{u}^2)\\ & =n^{n+1}(n-1{)}^{n-1}{t}^{n-1}{u}^2\end{array}$

which is a perfect square when Template:Mvar is odd.

Even degree

Let:

$t=\frac{1}{1+(-1{)}^{\frac{n(n-1)}{2}}(n-1)u^2}$

Under this substitution the discriminant of g(y, t) equals:

$\begin{array}{rl}(-1{)}^{\frac{n(n-1)}{2}}{n}^n(n-1{)}^{n-1}{t}^{n-1}(1-t)& =(-1{)}^{\frac{n(n-1)}{2}}{n}^n(n-1{)}^{n-1}{t}^{n-1}(1-\frac{1}{1+(-1{)}^{\frac{n(n-1)}{2}}(n-1)u^2})\\ & =(-1{)}^{\frac{n(n-1)}{2}}{n}^n(n-1{)}^{n-1}{t}^{n-1}\left(\frac{(1+(-1{)}^{\frac{n(n-1)}{2}}(n-1)u^2)-1}{1+(-1{)}^{\frac{n(n-1)}{2}}(n-1)u^2}\right)\\ & =(-1{)}^{\frac{n(n-1)}{2}}{n}^n(n-1{)}^{n-1}{t}^{n-1}\left(\frac{(-1{)}^{\frac{n(n-1)}{2}}(n-1)u^2}{1+(-1{)}^{\frac{n(n-1)}{2}}(n-1)u^2}\right)\\ & =(-1{)}^{\frac{n(n-1)}{2}}{n}^n(n-1{)}^{n-1}{t}^{n-1}(t(-1{)}^{\frac{n(n-1)}{2}}(n-1)u^2)\\ & =n^n(n-1{)}^n{t}^n{u}^2\end{array}$

which is a perfect square when Template:Mvar is even.

Again, Hilbert's irreducibility theorem implies the existence of infinitely many specializations whose Galois groups are alternating groups.

Rigid groups

Suppose that C₁, …, C_n are conjugacy classes of a finite group Template:Mvar, and Template:Mvar be the set of Template:Mvar-tuples (g₁, …, g_n) of Template:Mvar such that g_i is in C_i and the product g₁…g_n is trivial. Then Template:Mvar is called rigid if it is nonempty, Template:Mvar acts transitively on it by conjugation, and each element of Template:Mvar generates Template:Mvar.

showed that if a finite group Template:Mvar has a rigid set then it can often be realized as a Galois group over a cyclotomic extension of the rationals. (More precisely, over the cyclotomic extension of the rationals generated by the values of the irreducible characters of Template:Mvar on the conjugacy classes C_i.)

This can be used to show that many finite simple groups, including the monster group, are Galois groups of extensions of the rationals. The monster group is generated by a triad of elements of orders 2, 3, and 29. All such triads are conjugate.

The prototype for rigidity is the symmetric group S_n, which is generated by an Template:Mvar-cycle and a transposition whose product is an (n − 1)-cycle. The construction in the preceding section used these generators to establish a polynomial's Galois group.

A construction with an elliptic modular function

Let n > 1 be any integer. A lattice Λ in the complex plane with period ratio Template:Mvar has a sublattice Λ′ with period ratio nτ. The latter lattice is one of a finite set of sublattices permuted by the modular group PSL(2, Z), which is based on changes of basis for Λ. Let Template:Mvar denote the elliptic modular function of Felix Klein. Define the polynomial φ_n as the product of the differences (X − j(Λ_i)) over the conjugate sublattices. As a polynomial in Template:Mvar, φ_n has coefficients that are polynomials over $\mathbb{\mathbb{Q}}$ in j(τ).

On the conjugate lattices, the modular group acts as PGL(2, Z/nZ). It follows that φ_n has Galois group isomorphic to PGL(2, Z/nZ) over $\mathbb{\mathbb{Q}}(\mathrm{J}(\tau ))$.

Use of Hilbert's irreducibility theorem gives an infinite (and dense) set of rational numbers specializing φ_n to polynomials with Galois group PGL(2, Z/nZ) over $\mathbb{\mathbb{Q}}$. The groups PGL(2, Z/nZ) include infinitely many non-solvable groups.

See also

• Semiabelian group (Galois theory)

References

• Helmut Völklein, Groups as Galois Groups, an Introduction, Cambridge University Press, 1996. ISBN 978-0521065030 .
• Gunter Malle, Heinrich Matzat, Inverse Galois Theory, Springer-Verlag, 1999, Template:ISBN.
• Gunter Malle, Heinrich Matzat, Inverse Galois Theory, 2nd edition, Springer-Verlag, 2018.
• Alexander Schmidt, Kay Wingberg, Safarevic's Theorem on Solvable Groups as Galois Groups (see also Template:Neukirch et al. CNF)
• Christian U. Jensen, Arne Ledet, and Noriko Yui, Generic Polynomials, Constructive Aspects of the Inverse Galois Problem, Cambridge University Press, 2002.