Hakkō ichiu

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File:HakkoIchiu10sen.jpg
10-sen Japanese banknote, illustrating the Template:Transliteration monument in Miyazaki, first issued in 1944

Template:Nihongo3 or Template:Transliteration (Template:Transliteration: Script error: No such module "Lang"., Script error: No such module "Lang".) was a Japanese political slogan meaning the divine right of the Empire of Japan to "unify the eight corners of the world." The slogan formed the basis of the empire's ideology. It was prominent from the Second Sino-Japanese War to World War II and was popularized in a speech by Prime Minister Fumimaro Konoe on January 8, 1940.[1]

Background

File:Benkan emperor komei.jpg
The Template:Transliteration of Emperor Komei

The term was coined early in the 20th century by the Nichiren Buddhist activist and nationalist Tanaka Chigaku, who cobbled it from parts of a statement attributed in the chronicle Template:Transliteration to legendary first Emperor Jimmu at the time of his ascension.Template:Efn The emperor's full statement reads: Script error: No such module "Nihongo". (in the original Template:Transliteration: Script error: No such module "Lang".), and means: "I shall cover the eight directions and make them my abode". The term Script error: No such module "Nihongo"., meaning "eight crown cords" ("crown cords" being the hanging decorations of the Script error: No such module "Nihongo"., a traditional Chinese-style crown), was a metaphor for Script error: No such module "Nihongo"., or "eight directions".[2]Template:Efn

Despite its original universalist meaning, according to the principle of "ichi soku issai, issai soku ichi (one is inseparable from the whole and vice versa)", Tanaka interpreted it as justification for imperialism. To stop this imperialist reinterpretation from spreading, Koyama Iwao (1905–1993), disciple of Nishida, and drawing off the Flower Adornment Sutra, proposed to substitute the words "to be included or to find a place" for the last two characters ("to make them my abode"). That move was rejected by the military circles of the nationalist right.[3][4]

Origins

Template:See

File:Founding Ceremony of the Hakko-Ichiu Monument.JPG
Founding ceremony of the Template:Transliteration monument on April 3, 1940. It had Prince Chichibu's calligraphy of Template:Transliteration carved on its front side.[5]
File:2600th year of Japanese Imperial Calendar stamp of 10sen.jpg
Prewar 10-sen Japanese stamp, illustrating the Template:Transliteration and the 2,600th anniversary of the Empire
File:Celebrating Gagaku Music in Imperial 2600.JPG
Emperor Shōwa and Empress Kōjun preside the celebration of the 2,600th anniversary of mythical foundation of the empire in November 1940.
File:Flag of Hakkoichiu.jpg
Japanese pilots who gathered under the flag of Template:Transliteration during the Pacific War

There were enough Japanese in Western nations that suffered from racial discrimination issues that in 1919, Japan proposed a racial equality clause at the Paris Peace Conference. The proposal, intended to only apply to League of Nations members,Template:Sfn received the support of a majority but was vetoed by US President Woodrow Wilson in violation of the rules of the Conference that allowed a majority vote. In 1924, the US Congress enacted the Asian Exclusion Act, outlawing immigration from Asia.

Worsened with the economic impact of the Shōwa financial crisis and the Great Depression in the 1930s, which led to a resurgence of nationalist, militarist and expansionist movement, Emperor Shōwa, known more commonly as Hirohito outside Japan, and his reign became associated with the rediscovery of Template:Transliteration as an expansionist element of Japanese nationalistic beliefs.[6] The naval limitations treaties of 1921 and especially 1930 were seen as a mistakeTemplate:Clarify in their unanticipated effect on internal political struggles in Japan, and the treaties provided an external motivating catalyst that provoked reactionary militarist elements to desperate actions, with their presence overtaking civilian and liberal elements in society.[7]

The evolution of Template:Transliteration serves as a changing litmus test of those factional relationships during the next decade.[8]

The term Template:Transliteration did not enter general circulation until 1940, when the second Konoe administration issued a white paper titled Script error: No such module "Nihongo"., which opened with those words and in which Prime Minister Konoe proclaimed that the basic aim of Japan's national policy was "the establishment of world peace in conformity with the very spirit in which our nation was founded."[9]Template:Efn and that the first step was the proclamation of a Script error: No such module "Nihongo"., which later took the form of the "Greater East Asia Co-Prosperity Sphere".[10] In the most magnanimous form, the term was used to indicate the making of a universal brotherhood implemented by the uniquely-virtuous Yamato.[11] Because that would bring people under the emperor's fatherly benevolence, force was justified against those who resisted.[12]

The Japanese additionally undertook many projects to prove that they supported racial equality. For example, on December 6, 1938, the Five Ministers Council (Prime Minister Fumimaro Konoe, Army Minister Seishirō Itagaki, Navy Minister Mitsumasa Yonai, Foreign Minister Hachirō Arita and Finance Minister Shigeaki Ikeda), the highest decision-making council at the time,[13][14] took the decision to prohibit the expulsion of the Jews from Japan, Manchuria, and China.[13][14] Thereafter, the Japanese received Jewish refugees despite the opposition of their ally Nazi Germany.

1940 was declared the 2,600th anniversary of the founding of Japan in part to celebrate Template:Transliteration.[15] As part of the celebrations, the government officially opened the Template:Transliteration monument (now Heiwadai Tower) at what is now Miyazaki Peace Park in the city of Miyazaki.

World War II

As the Second Sino-Japanese War dragged on without conclusion, the Japanese government turned increasingly to the nation's spiritual capital to maintain fighting spirit.

Characterization of the fighting as a Script error: No such module "Nihongo"., similarly grounding the current conflict in the nation's sacred beginnings, became increasingly evident in the Japanese press at this time. In 1940, the Imperial Rule Assistance Association was launched to provide political support to Japan's war in China.

The general spread of the term Template:Transliteration, neatly encapsulating this view of expansion as mandated in Japan's divine origin, was further propelled by preparations for celebrating the 2,600th anniversary of Jimmu's ascension, which fell in the year 1940 according to the traditional chronology. Stories recounted that Jimmu, finding five races in Japan, had made them all as "brothers of one family".[16]

Propaganda purposes

After Japan declared war on the Allies in December 1941, Allied governments produced several propaganda films citing the Template:Transliteration as evidence that the Japanese intended to conquer the entire world.

To win the support of the conquered, Japanese propaganda included phrases such as "Asia for the Asians!" and emphasized about the perceived need to liberate Asian countries from imperialist powers.[17] Japan's failure to win the war in China was blamed on European nations and the US exploiting their Asian colonies to assist Chinese forces, even though the Chinese received far more assistance from the Soviet Union.[18] In some cases local populations welcomed Japanese troops when they invaded, initially seeing them as preferable to being ruled by Western colonial powers.[17] The Japanese also indoctrinated their soldiers into believing that it was their duty to make Asians "strong again" through force, after being weakened by Western imperialism.[19]

The official translation offered by contemporary leaders was "universal brotherhood", but it was widely acknowledged that that expression meant that the Japanese were "equal to the Caucasians but, to the peoples of Asia, we act as their leader".[20] Hence Template:Transliteration could be seen as a euphemism for Japanese supremacy. In fact, the brutality and the racism of the Japanese led the conquered to view the Japanese imperialists as being equal to or sometimes worse than Western imperialists.[17] For example, the economies of most occupied territories were remanaged only to produce raw war materials for Japan.[21]

Allied judgment

Template:Transliteration meant the bringing together of the corners of the world under one ruler, or the making of the world's one family.[22] That was the alleged ideal of the foundation of the empire, and, in its traditional context, meant no more than a universal principle of humanity, which was destined ultimately to pervade the whole universe.[22] The way to the realisation of Template:Transliteration was through the benign rule of the Emperor, and therefore the "way of the Emperor," the "Imperial" or the "Kingly way," was a concept of virtue and a maxim of conduct.[22] Template:Transliteration was the moral goal, and loyalty to the Emperor was the road that led to it.[22] Throughout the years that followed measures of military aggression were advocated in the names of Template:Transliteration, which eventually became symbols for world domination through military force.[22]

Aftermath

File:Heiwadai tower.jpg
Template:Transliteration monument (renamed Tower of Peace) in 2010

Since the end of the Pacific War, some have highlighted the Template:Transliteration slogan as part of a context of historical revisionism.[23] The Template:Transliteration monument was renamed Template:Nihongo3 in 1958 and still stands today. The writing "Template:Transliteration" was removed from it after the Japanese defeat at the insistence of the U.S. military.[24] The tower was the inception point for the torch relay of the 1964 Summer Olympics.[24] After the Olympics, which coincided with worldwide interest in the Japanese Imperial family, the local tourism association successfully petitioned the Miyazaki Prefecture to reinstall the "Template:Transliteration" characters.[24]

See also

Notes

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References

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Bibliography

External links

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Template:JapanEmpireNavbox Template:Shōwa nationalism

  1. ↑ Beasley, Japanese Imperialism 1894–1945, pp. 226–7.
  2. ↑ Jitō 字統, Shirakawa Shizuka, Heibonsha, 1994, p. 302, 紘 entry.
  3. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  4. ↑ See also Kosei Ishii
  5. ↑ David C. Earhart, Certain Victory, 2008, p. 63.
  6. ↑ Bix, Herbert. (2001). Hirohito and the Making of Modern Japan, p. 201.
  7. ↑ Morison, Samuel Eliot. (1948). History of United States Naval Operations in World War II: The Battle of the Atlantic, September 1939 – May 1943, pp. 3–10.
  8. ↑ John Pike, (2011). "Kodo (Way of the Emperor)". GlobalSecurity.org
  9. ↑ Edwards, p. 309.
  10. ↑ James L. McClain, Japan: A Modern History p 470 Template:ISBN
  11. ↑ Piers Brendon, The Dark Valley: A Panorama of the 1930s, p43 Template:ISBN
  12. ↑ Herbert P. Bix, Hirohito and the Making of Modern Japan p 11 Template:ISBN
  13. ↑ a b Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  14. ↑ a b Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  15. ↑ Edwin P. Hoyt, Japan's War, p 196 Template:ISBN
  16. ↑ John W. Dower, War Without Mercy: Race & Power in the Pacific War p223 Template:ISBN
  17. ↑ a b c Anthony Rhodes, Propaganda: The Art of Persuasion: World War II, p248 1976, Chelsea House Publishers, New York
  18. ↑ James L. McClain, Japan: A Modern History p 471 Template:ISBN
  19. ↑ John W. Dower, War Without Mercy: Race & Power in the Pacific War p24-5 Template:ISBN
  20. ↑ Stephen S. Large. Shōwa Japan. New York: Taylor & Francis, 1998. p. 202.
  21. ↑ James L. McClain, Japan: A Modern History p 495 Template:ISBN
  22. ↑ a b c d e Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  23. ↑ Script error: No such module "Citation/CS1".
  24. ↑ a b c Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
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