Atheris

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Atheris is a genus of vipers known as bush vipers.[1] They are found only in tropical subsaharan Africa (excluding southern Africa)[2] and many species have isolated and fragmented distributions due to their confinement to rain forests.[3] Like all other vipers, they are venomous. In an example of convergent evolution, they show many similarities to the arboreal pit vipers of Asia and South America.[1] Seventeen species are currently recognized.[4]

Description

They are relatively small in size, with adults ranging in total length (body + tail) from Script error: No such module "convert". for A. katangensis to a maximum of Script error: No such module "convert". for A. squamigera.[1]

All species have a broad, triangular head that is distinct from the neck. The canthus is also distinct and the snout is broad. The crown is covered with small imbricate or smooth scales, none of which is enlarged. The eyes are relatively large with elliptical pupils. The eyes are separated from the supralabials by 1–3 scale rows and from the nasal by 2–3 scales.[3]

The body is slender, tapering, and slightly compressed. The dorsal scales are overlapping, strongly keeled and have apical pits. Laterally these are smaller than the middorsals. Midbody there are 14–36 rows of dorsal scales. There are 133–175 rounded ventral scales. The subcaudal scales are single and number 38–67.[1][3] The tail is strongly prehensile and can support the body while suspended from a branch or a twig.[5]

Members of this genus come in a wide variety of colors and patterns, often within a single species. A. ceratophora and A. squamigera are particularly variable.[6]

Location

They inhabit rainforest regions and forests, mostly in remote areas far from human activity.[1]

They are found in tropical subsaharan Africa, excluding southern Africa.[2] Some species have only isolated populations, surviving in small sections of ancient rainforest. They once had a much wider distribution but are now declining.[1]

Conservation status

Some species are threatened by habitat destruction.[1] A major cause of illness and mortality in both caged and wild bush viper snakes is snake fungal disease.[7]

Behavior

All species have extreme aggressive tendencies. All species are arboreal, although they can sometimes be found on or near the ground.[6]

Atheris species have been known to prey upon a variety of small amphibians, lizards, rodents, birds, and even other snakes. Some species or populations may specialize in eating frogs, but most have been described as opportunistic feeders.[3][6] Prey is typically ambushed from a hanging position, held until it has succumbed to the venom, and then swallowed.[6]

All Atheris species are ovoviviparous.[5] Mating takes place in October and November, and the females give birth to live young in March and April.[8]

Captivity

A. squamigera is reported to do very well in captivity, needing only arboreal access and having no particular temperature requirements. Captive specimens take mice and small birds.[3] However, there have been reports of cannibalism.[6] Food may be refused during the African winter months of July and August.

Venom

Limited understanding exists about their venom, except that it is strongly hemotoxic, causing pain, swelling, and blood clotting problems.[1] Until recently, their venom has often been regarded as less toxic than that of many other species, perhaps because bites are uncommon,[3] but this turned out not to be the case. There are now a number of reports of bites that have led to severe hemorrhaging.[9][10][11] A case of a bite from A. nitschei caused local tissue injury, hemolysis, thrombocytopenia, hypofibrinoginemia, coagulopathy, and increased elevation in D-dimer. [12] Envenomation cases from A. chlorechis and A. squamigera have shown similar symptoms.[13][14] One case was fatal.[3] Atheris-specific antivenom does not exist[1] and antivenom meant for bites from other species seems to have little effect, although Echis antivenom has been reported to have been of some help in a case of A. squamigera envenomation.[3] Symptomatic treatment is all that can be administered due to the absence of an Atheris-specific antivenom.[15]

Species

Image Species[2] Taxon author[2] Subsp.*[4] Common name Geographic range[2]
A. acuminata Broadley, 1998 0 Acuminate bush viper Western Uganda
A. anisolepis Mocquard, 1887 0 Mayombe bush viper West central Africa: Gabon, Congo, west DR Congo, north Angola
A. barbouri (Loveridge, 1930) 0 Barbour's short-headed viper, Uzungwe Mountain bush viper The Udzungwa and Ukinga mountains in southern Tanzania
A. broadleyi D. Lawson, 1999 0 Broadley's bush viper[16] Cameroon, Central African Republic, Nigeria, Congo
File:Atheris ceratophora - Usumbara Bush Viper.jpg A. ceratophora F. Werner, 1895 0 Usambara eyelash viper The Usambara and Uzungwe Mountains in Tanzania
File:Atheris chloroechis vipere des buissons 31.jpg A. chlorechisT (Pel, 1851) 0 West African bush viper West Africa including Guinea-Bissau, Guinea, Sierra Leone, Liberia, Ivory Coast, Ghana, Togo, Benin, isolated locations in Nigeria, Cameroon, Equatorial Guinea, and Gabon
A. desaixi Ashe, 1968 0 Mount Kenya bush viper, Ashe's bush viper Two isolated populations in Kenya: in the forests at Chuka, south-eastern Mount Kenya, and Igembe in the northern Nyambeni range
A. hirsuta R. Ernst & Rödel, 2002 0 Tai hairy bush viper Ivory Coast
A. hetfieldi[17][18] Ceríaco, Marques, & Bauer, 2020 0 Hetfield’s bush viper Bioko island, Equatorial Guinea
File:Atheris hispida.jpg A. hispida Laurent, 1955 0 African hairy bush viper Central Africa: DR Congo, south-west Uganda, west Kenya
A. katangensis de Witte, 1953 0 Katanga mountain bush viper Restricted to Upemba National Park, Shaba Province in eastern DR Congo
A. mabuensis Branch & Bayliss, 2009[19] 0 Mount Mabu forest viper Mount Mabu and Mount Namuli, northern Mozambique
A. matildae Menegon, Davenport & Howell, 2011 0 Matilda's horned viper south west Tanzania
A. mongoensis Collet & Trape, 2020 0 Mongo hairy bush viper Democratic Republic of Congo
File:Atheris nitschei.jpg A. nitschei Tornier, 1902 0 Great Lakes bush viper Central Africa from east DR Congo, Uganda and west Tanzania southward to north Malawi and north Zambia.
A. rungweensis Bogert, 1940 0 Mt. Rungwe bush viper southwestern Tanzania, northeastern Zambia, northern Malawi
File:Atheris squamigera.jpg A. squamigera (Hallowell, 1856) 0 Variable bush viper West and central Africa: Ivory Coast and Ghana, eastward through southern Nigeria to Cameroon, southern Central African Republic, Gabon, Congo, DR Congo, northern Angola, Uganda, Tanzania (Rumanika Game Reserve), western Kenya, and Bioko Island
A. subocularis Fischer, 1888 0 Cameroon

*) Not including the nominate subspecies
T) Type species

Taxonomy

Other species may be encountered in literature, such as:[20][21]

Until relatively recently, the following species, all of which are terrestrial, were also included in the genus Atheris:[3]

Together with Atheris, these three genera are sometimes referred to as the tribe Atherini.[21]

References

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  1. ↑ a b c d e f g h i Spawls S, Branch B (1995). The Dangerous Snakes of Africa. Ralph Curtis Books. Dubai: Oriental Press. 192 pp. Template:ISBN.
  2. ↑ a b c d e Cite error: Script error: No such module "Namespace detect".Script error: No such module "Namespace detect".
  3. ↑ a b c d e f g h i Mallow D, Ludwig D, Nilson G (2003). True Vipers: Natural History and Toxinology of Old World Vipers. Malabar, Florida: Krieger Publishing Company. 359 pp. Template:ISBN.
  4. ↑ a b Script error: No such module "template wrapper".
  5. ↑ a b Mehrtens JM (1987). Living Snakes of the World in Color. New York: Sterling Publishers. 480 pp. Template:ISBN.
  6. ↑ a b c d e Template:WOA
  7. ↑ Script error: No such module "Citation/CS1".
  8. ↑ Template:WOA
  9. ↑ Script error: No such module "Citation/CS1".
  10. ↑ Script error: No such module "Citation/CS1".Script error: No such module "Unsubst".
  11. ↑ Bitten by a Sedge Viper! Template:Webarchive at VenomousReptiles.org Template:Webarchive. Accessed 2 August 2007.
  12. ↑ Script error: No such module "Citation/CS1".
  13. ↑ Script error: No such module "Citation/CS1".
  14. ↑ Script error: No such module "Citation/CS1".
  15. ↑ Wang, He, et al. (2018). "Comparative Profiling of Three Atheris Snake Venoms: A. squamigera, A. nitschei and A. chlorechis ". The Protein Journal 37 (4): 353–360. doi:10.1007/s10930-018-9781-y.
  16. ↑ Beolens, Bo; Watkins, Michael; Grayson, Michael (2011). The Eponym Dictionary of Reptiles. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press. xiii + 296 pp. Template:ISBN. (Atheris broadleyi, p. 39).
  17. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  18. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  19. ↑ Script error: No such module "Citation/CS1".
  20. ↑ Atheris at the Reptarium.cz Reptile Database. Accessed 2 August 2007.
  21. ↑ a b Template:WOA

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Further reading

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  • Script error: No such module "Citation/CS1".
  • Boulenger GA (1896). Catalogue of the Snakes in the British Museum (Natural History). Volume III., Containing the ...Viperidæ. London: Trustees of the British Museum (Natural History). (Taylor and Francis, printers.) xiv + 727 pp. + Plates I.- XXV. (Genus Atheris, p. 508.)
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