Avestan alphabet

The Avestan alphabet (Template:Langx transliteration: , Middle Persian: transliteration: , transcription: , Template:Langx) is a writing system developed during Iran's Sasanian era (226–651 CE) to render the Avestan language.

As a side effect of its development, the script was also used for Pazend, a method of writing Middle Persian that was used primarily for Zend commentaries on the texts of the Avesta. In the texts of Zoroastrian tradition, the alphabet is referred to as "the religion's script" ( in Middle Persian and in New Persian).

History

The development of the Avestan alphabet was initiated by the need to represent recited Avestan language texts correctly. The various text collections that today constitute the canon of Zoroastrian scripture are the result of a collation that occurred in the 4th century, probably during the reign of Shapur II (309–379). It is likely that the Avestan alphabet was an ad hoc innovation related to this—"Sassanid archetype"—collation.

The enterprise, "which is indicative of a Mazdean revival and of the establishment of a strict orthodoxy closely connected with the political power, was probably caused by the desire to compete more effectively with Buddhists, Christians, and Manicheans, whose faith was based on a revealed book". In contrast, the Zoroastrian priesthood had for centuries been accustomed to memorizing scripture—following by rote the words of a teacher-priest until they had memorized the words, cadence, inflection and intonation of the prayers. This they passed on to their pupils in turn, so preserving for many generations the correct way to recite scripture. This was necessary because the priesthood considered (and continue to consider) precise and correct enunciation and cadence a prerequisite of effective prayer. Further, the recitation of the liturgy was (and is) accompanied by ritual activity that leaves no room to attend to a written text.

The ability to correctly render Avestan did, however, have a direct benefit: By the common era, the Avestan language words had almost ceased to be understood, which led to the preparation of the Zend texts (from Avestan zainti "understanding"), commentaries on and translations of the canon. The development of the Avestan alphabet allowed these commentaries to interleave quotation of scripture with explanation thereof. The direct effect of these texts was a "standardized" interpretation of scripture that survives to the present day. For scholarship these texts are enormously interesting, since they occasionally preserve passages that have otherwise been lost.

The 9th–12th century texts of Zoroastrian tradition suggest that there was once a much larger collection of written Zoroastrian literature, but these texts—if they ever existed—have since been lost, and it is hence not known what script was used to render them. The question of the existence of a pre-Sassanid "Arsacid archetype" occupied Avestan scholars for much of the 19th century, and, "[w]hatever may be the truth about the Arsacid Avesta, the linguistic evidence shows that even if it did exist, it can not have had any practical influence, since no linguistic form in the Vulgate can be explained with certainty as resulting from wrong transcription and the number of doubtful cases is minimal; in fact it is being steadily reduced. Though the existence of an Arsacid archetype is not impossible, it has proved to contribute nothing to Avestan philology."

Genealogy and script

The Pahlavi script, upon which the Avestan alphabet is based, was in common use for representing various Middle Iranian languages, but was not adequate for representing a religious language that demanded precision since Pahlavi was a simplified abjad syllabary with at most 22 symbols, most of which were ambiguous (i.e. could represent more than one sound).

In contrast, Avestan was a full alphabet, with explicit characters for vowels, and allowed for phonetic disambiguation of allophones. The alphabet included many characters (a, i, k, t, p, b, m, n, r, s, z, š, x^v) closely resembling Book Pahlavi of the early Islamic Persia, while some (ā, γ) are characters that only exist in the older (6th–7th c. AD) Psalter Pahlavi script (in later cursive Pahlavi γ and k have the same symbol). Some of the vowels, such as ə appear to derive from Greek cursives. Avestan o is a special form of Pahlavi l that exists only in Aramaic signs. Some letters (e.g. ŋ́, ṇ, ẏ, v), are free inventions.

Avestan script, like Pahlavi script and Aramaic script also, is written from right to left. In Avestan script, letters are not connected, and ligatures are "rare and clearly of secondary origin".

Letters

File:Das Buch der Schrift (Faulmann) 106.jpg

Avestan chart by Carl Faulmann

File:Encyclopedie volume 2-183.png

Avestan chart on p. 183 of vol. 2 of Diderot's Encyclopédie

File:Encyclopedie volume 2-184.png

Avestan chart on p. 184 of l'Encyclopédie

In total, the Avestan alphabet has 37 consonants and 16 vowels. There are two main transcription schemes for Avestan, the newer orthography used by Karl Hoffmann and the older one used by Christian Bartholomae.

Avestan alphabet

Letter	Transcription		IPA	Unicode
	Hoff.	Bar.
Template:Huge	a	a		U+10B00: AVESTAN LETTER A
Template:Huge	ā	ā		U+10B01: AVESTAN LETTER AA
Template:Huge	å	—		U+10B02: AVESTAN LETTER AO
Template:Huge	ā̊	å		U+10B03: AVESTAN LETTER AAO
Template:Huge	ą	ą		U+10B04: AVESTAN LETTER AN
Template:Huge	ą̇	—		U+10B05: AVESTAN LETTER AAN
Template:Huge	ə	ə		U+10B06: AVESTAN LETTER AE
Template:Huge	ə̄	ə̄		U+10B07: AVESTAN LETTER AEE
Template:Huge	e	e		U+10B08: AVESTAN LETTER E
Template:Huge	ē	ē		U+10B09: AVESTAN LETTER EE
Template:Huge	o	o		U+10B0A: AVESTAN LETTER O
Template:Huge	ō	ō		U+10B0B: AVESTAN LETTER OO
Template:Huge	i	i		U+10B0C: AVESTAN LETTER I
Template:Huge	ī	ī		U+10B0D: AVESTAN LETTER II
Template:Huge	u	u		U+10B0E: AVESTAN LETTER U
Template:Huge	ū	ū		U+10B0F: AVESTAN LETTER UU
Template:Huge	k	k		U+10B10: AVESTAN LETTER KE
Template:Huge	x	x		U+10B11: AVESTAN LETTER XE
Template:Huge	x́	ḣ	,	U+10B12: AVESTAN LETTER XYE
Template:Huge				U+10B13: AVESTAN LETTER XVE
Template:Huge	g	g		U+10B14: AVESTAN LETTER GE
Template:Huge	ġ	—	,	U+10B15: AVESTAN LETTER GGE
Template:Huge	γ	γ		U+10B16: AVESTAN LETTER GHE
Template:Huge	c	č		U+10B17: AVESTAN LETTER CE
Template:Huge	j	ǰ		U+10B18: AVESTAN LETTER JE
Template:Huge	t	t		U+10B19: AVESTAN LETTER TE
Template:Huge	θ	θ		U+10B1A: AVESTAN LETTER THE
Template:Huge	d	d		U+10B1B: AVESTAN LETTER DE
Template:Huge	δ	δ		U+10B1C: AVESTAN LETTER DHE
Template:Huge	t̰	t̰		U+10B1D: AVESTAN LETTER TTE
Template:Huge	p	p		U+10B1E: AVESTAN LETTER PE
Template:Huge	f	f		U+10B1F: AVESTAN LETTER FE
Template:Huge	b	b		U+10B20: AVESTAN LETTER BE
Template:Huge	β	w		U+10B21: AVESTAN LETTER BHE
Template:Huge	ŋ	ŋ		U+10B22: AVESTAN LETTER NGE
Template:Huge	ŋ́	ŋ́		U+10B23: AVESTAN LETTER NGYE
Template:Huge		—		U+10B24: AVESTAN LETTER NGVE
Template:Huge	n	n		U+10B25: AVESTAN LETTER NE
Template:Huge	ń	—		U+10B26: AVESTAN LETTER NYE
Template:Huge	ṇ	n, m		U+10B27: AVESTAN LETTER NNE
Template:Huge	m	m		U+10B28: AVESTAN LETTER ME
Template:Huge	m̨	—		U+10B29: AVESTAN LETTER HME
Template:Huge	ẏ	y		U+10B2A: AVESTAN LETTER YYE
Template:Huge	y			U+10B2B: AVESTAN LETTER YE
Template:Huge	ii			U+10B0C: AVESTAN LETTER I (doubled)
Template:Huge	v	v		U+10B2C: AVESTAN LETTER VE
Template:Huge	uu			U+10B0E: AVESTAN LETTER U (doubled)
Template:Huge	r	r		U+10B2D: AVESTAN LETTER RE
Template:Huge	l	l		U+10B2E: AVESTAN LETTER LE
Template:Huge	s	s		U+10B2F: AVESTAN LETTER SE
Template:Huge	z	z		U+10B30: AVESTAN LETTER ZE
Template:Huge	š	š		U+10B31: AVESTAN LETTER SHE
Template:Huge	ž	ž		U+10B32: AVESTAN LETTER ZHE
Template:Huge	š́	š		U+10B33: AVESTAN LETTER SHYE
Template:Huge	ṣ̌			U+10B34: AVESTAN LETTER SSHE
Template:Huge	h	h		U+10B35: AVESTAN LETTER HE
Letter	Hoff.	Bar.	IPA	Unicode
	Transcription

Later, when writing Middle Persian in the script (i.e. Pazend), another consonant Template:Script/Avestan was added to represent the phoneme that didn't exist in the Avestan language (PIE *l in Avestan merged with /r/ in all positions).

Ligatures

File:Avesta-ligatury.svg

List of Avestan ligatures according to Skjærvø (2003)

Four ligatures are commonly used in Avestan manuscripts:

• Template:Script/Avestan (š) + Template:Script/Avestan (a) = Template:Script/Avestan (ša)
• Template:Script/Avestan (š) + Template:Script/Avestan (c) = Template:Script/Avestan (šc)
• Template:Script/Avestan (š) + Template:Script/Avestan (t) = Template:Script/Avestan (št)
• Template:Script/Avestan (a) + Template:Script/Avestan (h) = Template:Script/Avestan (ah)

U+200C ZERO WIDTH NON-JOINER can be used to prevent ligatures if desired. For example, compare Template:Script/Avestan (U+10B31 10B00) with Template:Script/Avestan (U+10B31 200C 10B00).

Fossey lists 16 ligatures, but most are formed by the interaction of swash tails.

Numerals

Numerals are in the Faulmann chart below near the bottom.

File:Encyclopedie volume 2-184.png

Punctuation

Words and the end of the first part of a compound are separated by a dot (in a variety of vertical positions). Beyond that, punctuation is weak or non-existent in the manuscripts, and in the 1880s Karl Friedrich Geldner had to devise one for standardized transcription. In his system, which he developed based on what he could find, a triangle of three dots serves as a colon, a semicolon, an end of sentence or end of section; which is determined by the size of the dots and whether there is one dot above and two below, or two above and one below. Two above and one below signify—in ascending order of "dot" size—colon, semicolon, end of sentence or end of section.

Avestan punctuation

Mark	Function	Unicode
⸱	word separator	U+2E31: WORD SEPARATOR MIDDLE DOT
·		U+00B7: MIDDLE DOT
.		U+002E: FULL STOP
Template:Script/Avestan	abbreviation or repetition	U+10B39: AVESTAN ABBREVIATION MARK
Template:Script/Avestan	colon	U+10B3A: TINY TWO DOTS OVER ONE DOT PUNCTUATION
Template:Script/Avestan	semicolon	U+10B3B: SMALL TWO DOTS OVER ONE DOT PUNCTUATION
Template:Script/Avestan	end of sentence	U+10B3C: LARGE TWO DOTS OVER ONE DOT PUNCTUATION
Template:Script/Avestan	alternative mark for end of sentence (found in Avestan texts but not used by Geldner)	U+10B3D: LARGE ONE DOT OVER TWO DOTS PUNCTUATION
Template:Script/Avestan	end of section (may be doubled for extra finality)	U+10B3E: LARGE TWO RINGS OVER ONE RING PUNCTUATION
Template:Script/Avestan	alternative mark for end of section (found in Avestan texts but not used by Geldner)	U+10B3F: LARGE ONE RING OVER TWO RINGS PUNCTUATION

Unicode

The Avestan alphabet was added to the Unicode Standard in October, 2009 with the release of version 5.2.

The characters are encoded at U+10B00—10B35 for letters (ii and uu are not represented as single characters, but as sequences of characters) and U+10B38—10B3F for punctuation.

External links

• On Wikipedia, the above Avestan alphabet samples are more likely than not displayed in most Web browsers using Google's Noto Sans Avestan font, which has four automated ligatures. A more complete, serif-style font, with full ligatures and more sophisticated kerning hints, is available below:
• Ernst Tremel's Open Font Licensed Ahura Mazda Unicode font, based on the type used in Geldner 1896, with the addition of ligatures in the PUA.

Bibliography

• .
• .
• .
• .
• .
• .