Orders of magnitude (mass)

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Template:Short description Template:Use dmy dates

File:Scales of mass.jpg
An overview of ranges of mass

To help compare different orders of magnitude, the following lists describe various mass levels between 10−67 kg and 1052 kg. The least massive thing listed here is a graviton, and the most massive thing is the observable universe. Typically, an object having greater mass will also have greater weight (see mass versus weight), especially if the objects are subject to the same gravitational field strength.

Units of mass

SI multiples of gram (g)
Submultiples Multiples
Value SI symbol Name Value SI symbol Name
10−1 g dg decigram 101 g dag decagram
10−2 g cg centigram 102 g hg hectogram
10−3 g mg milligram 103 g kg kilogram
10−6 g μg microgram (mcg) 106 g Mg megagram (tonne)
10−9 g ng nanogram 109 g Gg gigagram
10−12 g pg picogram 1012 g Tg teragram
10−15 g fg femtogram 1015 g Pg petagram
10−18 g ag attogram 1018 g Eg exagram
10−21 g zg zeptogram 1021 g Zg zettagram
10−24 g yg yoctogram 1024 g Yg yottagram
10−27 g rg rontogram 1027 g Rg ronnagram
10−30 g qg quectogram 1030 g Qg quettagram
Common prefixes are in bold face.[1]

The table at right is based on the kilogram (kg), the base unit of mass in the International System of Units (SI). The kilogram is the only standard unit to include an SI prefix (kilo-) as part of its name. The gram (10−3 kg) is an SI derived unit of mass. However, the names of all SI mass units are based on gram, rather than on kilogram; thus 103 kg is a megagram (106 g), not a *kilokilogram.

The tonne (t) is an SI-compatible unit of mass equal to a megagram (Mg), or 103 kg. The unit is in common use for masses above about 103 kg and is often used with SI prefixes. For example, a gigagram (Gg) or 109 g is 103 tonnes, commonly called a kilotonne.

Other units

Other units of mass are also in use. Historical units include the stone, the pound, the carat, and the grain.

For subatomic particles, physicists use the mass-equivalent of an electronvolt (eV). At the atomic level, chemists use the mass of one-twelfth of a carbon-12 atom (the dalton). Astronomers use the mass of the sun (Template:Solar mass).

The least massive things: below 10−24 kg

Unlike other physical quantities, mass–energy does not have an a priori expected minimal quantity, or an observed basic quantum as in the case of electric charge. Planck's law allows for the existence of photons with arbitrarily low energies. Consequently, there can only ever be an experimental upper bound on the mass of a supposedly massless particle; in the case of the photon, this confirmed upper bound is of the order of Template:Val = Template:Val.

Factor (kg) Value Item
10−67 1.07Template:E kg Graviton, upper bound (6Template:E eV/c2)[2]
10−40 4.2Template:E kg Mass equivalent of the energy of a photon at the peak of the spectrum of the cosmic microwave background radiation (0.235 meV/c2)[3]
10−36 1.8Template:E kg 1 eV/c2, the mass equivalent of one electronvolt[4]
3.6Template:E kg Electron neutrino, upper limit on mass (2 eV/c2)[5]
10−33
quectogram (qg)
10−31 9.11Template:E kg Electron (511 keV/c2), the lightest elementary particle with a measured nonzero rest mass[6]
10−30
rontogram (rg) 		3.0–5.5Template:E kg Up quark (as a current quark) (1.7–3.1 MeV/c2)[7]
10−28 1.9Template:E kg Muon (106 MeV/c2)[8]
10−27
yoctogram (yg) 		1.661Template:E kg Dalton (Da), a.k.a. unified atomic mass unit (u)
1.673Template:E kg Proton (938.3 MeV/c2)[9][10]
1.674Template:E kg Hydrogen atom, the lightest atom
1.675Template:E kg Neutron (939.6 MeV/c2)[11][12]
10−26 1.2Template:E kg Lithium atom (6.941 Da)
3.0Template:E kg Water molecule (18.015 Da)
8.0Template:E kg Titanium atom (47.867 Da)
10−25 1.1Template:E kg Copper atom (63.546 Da)
1.6Template:E kg Z boson (91.2 GeV/c2)[13]
2.2Template:E kg Higgs boson (125 GeV/c2)
3.1Template:E kg Top quark (173 GeV/c2),[14] the heaviest known elementary particle
3.2Template:E kg Caffeine molecule (194 Da)
3.5Template:E kg Lead-208 atom
4.9Template:E kg Oganesson-294 atom, the heaviest known nuclide

10−24 to 10−18 kg

Factor (kg) Value Item
10−24
zeptogram (zg) 		1.2Template:E kg Buckyball molecule (720 Da)
10−23 1.4Template:E kg Ubiquitin, a small ubiquitous protein (8.6 kDa)[15]
5.5Template:E kg A typical protein (median size of roughly 300 amino acids ≈ 33 kDa)[16]
10−22 1.1Template:E kg Haemoglobin A molecule in blood (64.5 kDa)[17]
10−21
attogram (ag) 		1.65Template:E kg Double-stranded DNA molecule consisting of 1,578 base pairs (995 kDa)[18]
4.3Template:E kg Prokaryotic ribosome (2.6 MDa)[19]
7.1Template:E kg Eukaryotic ribosome (4.3 MDa)[19]
7.6Template:E kg Brome mosaic virus, a small virus (4.6 MDa)[20]
10−20 3Template:E kg Synaptic vesicle in rats (16.1 ± 3.8 MDa)[21]
6.8Template:E kg Tobacco mosaic virus (41 MDa)[22]
10−19 1.1Template:E kg Nuclear pore complex in yeast (66 MDa)[23]
2.5Template:E kg Human adenovirus (150 MDa)[24]

10−18 to 10−12 kg

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Factor (kg) Value Item
10−18
femtogram (fg) 		1Template:E kg HIV-1 virus[25][26]
4.7Template:E kg DNA sequence of length 4.6 Mbp, the weight of the E. coli genome[27]
10−17 ~1Template:E kg Vaccinia virus, a large virus[28]
1.1Template:E kg Mass equivalent of 1 joule[29]
10−16 3Template:E kg Prochlorococcus cyanobacteria, the smallest (and possibly most plentiful)[30] photosynthetic organism on Earth[31][32]
10−15
picogram (pg) 		1Template:E kg E. coli bacterium (wet weight)[33]
6Template:E kg DNA in a typical diploid human cell (approximate)
10−14 2.2Template:E kg Human sperm cell[32][34]
6Template:E kg Yeast cell (quite variable)[35][36]
10−13 1.5Template:E kg Dunaliella salina, a green alga (dry weight)[37]

10−12 to 10−6 kg

File:Sand under electron microscope.jpg
Scanning electron micrograph showing grains of sand

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Factor (kg) Value Item
10−12
nanogram (ng) 		1Template:E kg Average human cell (1 nanogram)[38]
2–3Template:E kg HeLa human cell[39][40][41]
8Template:E kg Grain of birch pollen[42]
10−11    
10−10 2.5Template:E kg Grain of maize pollen[43]
3.5Template:E kg Very fine grain of sand (0.063 mm diameter, 350 nanograms)
10−9
microgram (μg) 		3.6Template:E kg Human ovum[32][44]
2.4Template:E kg US RDA for vitamin B12 for adults[45]
10−8 Template:Val Speculated approximate lower limit of the mass of a primordial black hole
Template:Val US RDA for vitamin D for adults[46]
~2Template:E kg Uncertainty in the mass of the International Prototype of the Kilogram (IPK) (±~20Template:Nbspμg)[47]
2.2Template:E kg Planck mass,[48] can be expressed as the mass of a 2 Planck Length radius black hole
~7Template:E kg One eyelash hair (approximate)[49]
10−7 1.5Template:E kg US RDA for iodine for adults[50]
2–3Template:E kg Fruit fly (dry weight)[51][52]

10−6 to 1 kg

Factor (kg) Value Item
10−6
milligram (mg) 		2.5Template:E kg Mosquitoes, common smaller species (about 2.5 milligrams),[53] grain of salt or sand,[54] medicines are typically expressed in milligrams[55]
10−5
centigram (cg) 		1.1Template:E kg Small granule of quartz (2 mm diameter, 11 milligrams)[56]
2Template:E kg Adult housefly (Musca domestica, 21.4 milligrams)[57]
10−4
decigram (dg) 		0.27–2.0Template:E kg Range of amounts of caffeine in one cup of coffee (27–200 milligrams)[58]
1.5Template:E kg A frame of 35mm motion picture film (157 milligrams)[59]
2Template:E kg Metric carat (200 milligrams)[59]
10−3
gram (g) 		1Template:E kg One cubic centimeter of water (1 gram)[60]
1Template:E kg US dollar bill (1 gram)[61]
~1Template:E kg Two raisins (approximately 1 gram)[62]
~8Template:E kg Coins of one euro (7.5 grams),[63] one U.S. dollar (8.1 grams)[64] and one Canadian loonie (7 grams [pre-2012], 6.27 grams [2012-])[65]
10−2
decagram (dag) 		1.2Template:E kg Mass of one mole ([[Avogadro constant|6.02214Template:E]] atoms) of carbon-12 (12 grams)
1.37Template:E kg Amount of ethanol defined as one standard drink in the U.S. (13.7 grams)[66]
2–4Template:E kg Adult mouse (Mus musculus, 20–40 grams)[67]
2.8Template:E kg Ounce (avoirdupois) (28.3495 grams)[59]
4.7Template:E kg Mass equivalent of the energy that is 1 megaton of TNT equivalent[59][68]
10−1
hectogram   (hg) 		0.1-0.2 kg An orange (100–200 grams)[69]
0.142-0.149 kg A baseball used in the major league.[70]
0.454 kg Pound (avoirdupois) (453.6 grams)[59]

1 kg to 105 kg

File:Poids fonte.jpg
Iron weights up to 50 kilograms depicted in Script error: No such module "Lang"..
Factor (kg) Value Item
1 kg
kilogram (kg) 		1 kg One litre (0.001 m3) of water[71]
1–3 kg Smallest breed of dog (Chihuahua)[72]
1–3 kg Typical laptop computer, 2010[73]
1–3 kg Adult domestic tortoise
2.5–4 kg Newborn human baby[74]
4.0 kg Women's shot[75]
4–5 kg Housecat[76]
7.26 kg Men's shot[75]
101 9–27 kg Medium-sized dog[77]
10–30 kg A CRT computer monitor or television setScript error: No such module "Unsubst".
50 kg Large dog breed (Great Dane)
70 kg Adult human[78]
102 130–180 kg Mature lion, female (130 kg) and male (180 kg)[79]
200–250 kg Giant tortoise
240–450 kg Grand piano[80][81]
400–900 kg Dairy cow[82]
500–500,000 kg A teaspoon (5 ml) of white dwarf material (0.5–500 tonnes)[83][84]
635 kg Heaviest human in recorded history (Jon Brower Minnoch)
907.2 kg 1 short ton (2000 pounds - U.S.)[59]
103
megagram (Mg) 		1000 kg 1 tonne (U.S. spelling: metric ton)[59]
1000 kg 1 cubic metre of water[71]
1016.05 kg Ton (British) / 1 long ton (2240 pounds - U.S.)[59]
1300–1600 kg Typical passenger cars[85]
2700–6000 kg Adult elephant[86]
104 1.1Template:E kg Hubble Space Telescope (11 tonnes)[87]
1.2Template:E kg Largest elephant on record (12 tonnes)[88]
1.4Template:E kg Big Ben (bell) (14 tonnes)[89]
2.7Template:E kg ENIAC computer, 1946 (30 tonnes)[90]
4Template:E kg Maximum gross mass (truck + load combined) of a semi-trailer truck in the EU (40–44 tonnes)[91]
5Template:E–6Template:E kg Tank; Bulldozer (50–60 tonnes)
6.0Template:E kg Largest single-piece meteorite, Hoba West Meteorite (60 tonnes)[92]
7.3Template:E kg Largest dinosaur, Argentinosaurus (73 tonnes)[93]
105 1.74-1.83Template:E kg Operational empty weight of a Boeing 747-300
1.8Template:E kg Largest animal ever, a blue whale (180 tonnes)[94]
4.2Template:E kg International Space Station (417 tonnes)[95]
6Template:E kg World's heaviest aircraft: Antonov An-225 (maximum take-off mass: 600 tonnes, payload: 250 tonnes)[96]

106 to 1011 kg

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Factor (kg) Value Item
106
gigagram (Gg) 		1Template:E kg Trunk of the giant sequoia tree named General Sherman, largest living tree by trunk volume (1121 tonnes)[97]
2.0Template:E kg Launch mass of the Space Shuttle (2041 tonnes)[98]
6Template:E kg Largest clonal colony, the quaking aspen named Pando (largest living organism) (6000 tonnes)[99]
7.8Template:E kg Virginia-class nuclear submarine (submerged weight)[100]
107 1Template:E kg Annual production of Darjeeling tea[101]
5.2Template:E kg RMS Titanic when fully loaded (52,000 tonnes)[102]
9.97Template:E kg Heaviest train ever: Australia's BHP Iron Ore, 2001 record (99,700 tonnes)[103]
108 6.6Template:E kg Largest ship and largest mobile man-made object, Seawise Giant, when fully loaded (660,000 tonnes)[104]
7Template:E kg Heaviest (non-pyramid) building, Palace of the Parliament in Bucharest, Romania[105]
109
teragram (Tg) 		4.3Template:E kg Amount of matter converted into energy by the Sun each second[106]
6Template:E kg Great Pyramid of Giza[107]
1010
 6Template:E kg Amount of concrete in the Three Gorges Dam, the world's largest concrete structure[108][109]
1011 ~1Template:E kg The mass of a primordial black hole with an evaporation time equal to the age of the universe[110]
2Template:E kg Amount of water stored in London storage reservoirs (0.2 km3)[111]
6Template:E kg Total mass of the world's human population[112]
5Template:E kg Total biomass of Antarctic krill, one of the most plentiful animal species on the planet in terms of biomass[113]

1012 to 1017 kg

Factor (kg) Value Item
1012
petagram (Pg) 		0.8–2.1Template:E kg Global biomass of fish[114]
4Template:E kg Global annual human food production[115]
4Template:E kg World crude oil production in 2009 (3,843 Mt)[116]
5.5Template:E kg A teaspoon (5 ml) of neutron star material (5000 million tonnes)[117]
1013 1Template:E kg Mass of comet 67P/Churyumov–Gerasimenko[118]
4Template:E kg Global annual human carbon dioxide emission[119][120]
1014 1.05Template:E kg Global net primary production – the total mass of carbon fixed in organic compounds by photosynthesis each year on Earth[121]
7.2Template:E kg Total carbon stored in Earth's atmosphere[122]
1015
exagram (Eg) 		2.0Template:E kg Total carbon stored in the terrestrial biosphere[123]
3.5Template:E kg Total carbon stored in coal deposits worldwide[124]
1016 1Template:E kg 951 Gaspra, the first asteroid ever to be closely approached by a spacecraft (rough estimate)[125]
1Template:E kg Rough estimate of the total carbon content of all organisms on Earth.[126]
3Template:E kg Rough estimate of everything produced by the human species.[127]
3.8Template:E kg Total carbon stored in the oceans.[128]
1017 1.6Template:E kg Prometheus, a shepherd satellite for the inner edge of Saturn's F Ring[129]

1018 to 1023 kg

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Factor (kg) Value Item
1018
zettagram (Zg) 		5.1Template:E kg Earth's atmosphere[130]
5.6Template:E kg Hyperion, a moon of Saturn[129]
1019 3Template:E kg 3 Juno, one of the larger asteroids in the asteroid belt[131]
3Template:E kg The rings of Saturn[132]
1020 9.4Template:E kg Ceres, dwarf planet within the asteroid belt[133]
1021
yottagram (Yg) 		1.4Template:E kg Earth's oceans[134]
1.5Template:E kg Charon, the largest moon of Pluto[135]
2.9–3.7Template:E kg The asteroid belt[136]
4Template:E kg Haumea[137]
1022 1.3Template:E kg Pluto[135]
2.1Template:E kg Triton, largest moon of Neptune[138]
7.3Template:E kg Earth's Moon[139]
1023 1.3Template:E kg Titan, largest moon of Saturn[140]
1.5Template:E kg Ganymede, largest moon of Jupiter[141]
3.3Template:E kg Mercury[142]
6.4Template:E kg Mars[143]

1024 to 1029 kg

File:Hubble Visible View of Jupiter.jpg
Jupiter is the most massive planet in the Solar System.
Factor (kg) Value Item
1024
ronnagram (Rg) 		4.9Template:E kg Venus[144]
6.0Template:E kg Earth[145]
1025 3Template:E kg Oort cloud[146]
8.7Template:E kg Uranus[147]
1026 1.0Template:E kg Neptune[148]
5.7Template:E kg Saturn[149]
1027
quettagram (Qg) 		1.9Template:E kg Jupiter[150]
1028 2–14Template:E kg Brown dwarfs (approximate)[151]
1029 3Template:E kg Barnard's Star, a nearby red dwarf[152]

1030 to 1035 kg

Factor (kg) Value Item
1030 2Template:E kg The Sun[153] (one solar mass or Template:Solar mass = 1.989Template:E kg)
2.8Template:E kg Chandrasekhar limit (Template:Solar mass)[154][155]
1031 4Template:E kg Betelgeuse, a red supergiant star (Template:Solar mass)[156]
1032 4–7Template:E kg R136a1, the most massive of known stars (230 to 345 Template:Solar mass)[157]
6–8Template:E kg Hyades star cluster (300 to 400 Template:Solar mass)[158]
1033 1.6Template:E kg Pleiades star cluster (Template:Solar mass)[159]
1034
1035 ~1035 kg Typical globular cluster in the Milky Way (overall range: 3Template:E to 4Template:E Template:Solar mass)[160]
2Template:E kg Low end of mass range for giant molecular clouds (1Template:E to 1Template:E Template:Solar mass)[161][162]
7.3Template:E kg Jeans mass of a giant molecular cloud at 100 K and density 30 atoms per cubic centimeter;[163]
possible example: Orion molecular cloud complex

1036 to 1041 kg

Factor (kg) Value Item
1036 1.79Template:E kg The entire Carina complex.
2.4Template:E kg The Gould Belt of stars, including the Sun (Template:Solar mass)[164]
7–8Template:E kg The supermassive black hole at the center of the Milky Way, associated with the radio source Sagittarius A* (Template:Solar mass)[165]
8Template:E kg Omega centauri, the largest globular cluster in the Milky Way, containing approximately 10 million stars.
1037    
1038    
1039    
1040    
1041 1.98Template:E kg Phoenix A, the largest supermassive black hole, weighing 100 billion solar masses (Template:Solar mass)
4Template:E kg Visible mass of the Milky Way galaxy[166]

The most massive things: 1042 kg and greater

Factor (kg) Value Item
1042 1.2Template:E kg Milky Way galaxy (Template:Solar mass)[167]
2–3Template:E kg Local Group of galaxies, including the Milky Way (Template:Solar mass)[167]
1043 5.37Template:E kg ESO 146-5, the heaviest known galaxy in the universe[168]
1044    
1045 1–2Template:E kg Local or Virgo Supercluster of galaxies, including the Local Group (Template:Solar mass)[169]
1046    
1047 2Template:E kg Laniakea Supercluster of galaxies, which encompasses the Virgo supercluster
1048 2Template:E kg Pisces–Cetus Supercluster Complex, a galaxy filament that includes the Laniakea Supercluster.
1049 4Template:E kg Hercules–Corona Borealis Great Wall, the largest structure in the known universe
1050    
1051    
1052 4.4506Template:E kg Mass of the observable universe as estimated by NASA
1.4Template:E kg Mass of the observable universe as estimated by the U.S. National Solar Observatory[170]

See also

Notes

Template:Reflist

External links

Template:Orders of magnitude Template:Portal bar

  1. ↑ Criterion: A combined total of at least 250,000 Google hits on both the modern spelling (Template:Nbhyphgram) and the dated British spelling (Template:Nbhyphgramme).Template:Nbsp
  2. ↑ Script error: No such module "Citation/CS1".
  3. ↑ Script error: No such module "Citation/CS1".
  4. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  5. ↑ "The most sensitive analysis on the neutrino mass [...] is compatible with a neutrino mass of zero. Considering its uncertainties this value corresponds to an upper limit on the electron neutrino mass of m<2.2 eV/c2 (95% Confidence Level)" The Mainz Neutrino Mass Experiment Template:Webarchive
  6. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  7. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  8. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  9. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  10. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  11. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  12. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  13. ↑ Script error: No such module "Citation/CS1".
  14. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  15. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  16. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  17. ↑ Script error: No such module "Citation/CS1".
  18. ↑ From attograms to Daltons: Cornell NEMS device detects the mass of a single DNA molecule [1]. Retrieved 2010-10-14
  19. ↑ a b Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  20. ↑ Script error: No such module "Citation/CS1".
  21. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  22. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  23. ↑ Script error: No such module "Citation/CS1".
  24. ↑ Script error: No such module "Citation/CS1".
  25. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  26. ↑ Calculated : volume = 4/3 × π × (126e−9 m / 2)3 = 1.05e−21 m3. Assume density = 1 g/cm3 => mass = 1.05e−21 m3 × 1e3 kg/m3 = 1.05e−18 kg
  27. ↑ Script error: No such module "Citation/CS1".
  28. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  29. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  30. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  31. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  32. ↑ a b c Mass calculated from volume assuming density of 1 g/mL
  33. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  34. ↑ M. R. Curry, J. D. Millar, S. M. Tamuli & P. F. Watson, "Surface Area & Volume Measurements for Ram & Human Spermatozoa," Biology of Reproduction, 55, 6 (1996‑12‑01): 1325–32.
  35. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  36. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  37. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  38. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  39. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  40. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  41. ↑ Script error: No such module "Citation/CS1".
  42. ↑ Script error: No such module "Citation/CS1". "the total pollen grain mass of approximately 7.85 ng"
  43. ↑ Script error: No such module "Citation/CS1". "The dry weight of individual pollen grains has been estimated at 250 ng"
  44. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  45. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  46. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  47. ↑ Report to the CGPM, 14th meeting of the Consultative Committee for Units (CCU), April 2001, 2. (ii); General Conference on Weights and Measures, 22nd Meeting, October 2003, which stated "The kilogram is in need of a new definition because the mass of the prototype is known to vary by several parts in 108 over periods of time of the order of a month ..." (3.2Template:NbspMB ZIP file, here).
  48. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  49. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  50. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  51. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  52. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  53. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  54. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  55. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  56. ↑ Quartz has a density of 2.65. Mass = Volume × Density = (4/3 × π × (1e−3 m)3) × (2.65 × 1e3 kg/m3) = 1.1e−5 kg.
  57. ↑ Script error: No such module "Citation/CS1".
  58. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  59. ↑ a b c d e f g h Script error: No such module "Citation/CS1".
  60. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  61. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  62. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  63. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  64. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  65. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  66. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  67. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  68. ↑ Calculated: 1e6 tons of TNT-equivalent × 4.184e9 J/ton of TNT-equivalent × 1.1e−17 kg of mass-equivalent/J = 4.7e−2 kg of mass-equivalent
  69. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  70. ↑ Christina Lee, "Mass of a Baseball", The Physics Factbook, 1999. Retrieved 2018-07-04
  71. ↑ a b Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  72. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  73. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  74. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  75. ↑ a b Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  76. ↑ Script error: No such module "Citation/CS1".
  77. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  78. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  79. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  80. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  81. ↑ Calculated: 540 lbs × 0.4536 kg/lb = 240 kg. 990 lb × 0.4536 kg/lb = 450 kg.
  82. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  83. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  84. ↑ Using the quoted density of 1e5 to 1e8 kg/m3 for white dwarf material, 1 teaspoon = 5mL = 5e−3 m3 has a calculated mass of: Low end: 5e−3 m3 × 1e5 kg/m3 = 5e2 kg High end: 5e−3 m3 × 1e8 kg/m3 = 5e5 kg
  85. ↑ Script error: No such module "Citation/CS1".
  86. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  87. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  88. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  89. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  90. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  91. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  92. ↑ Template:Metbull
  93. ↑ Script error: No such module "Citation/CS1".
  94. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  95. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  96. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  97. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  98. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  99. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  100. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  101. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  102. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  103. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  104. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  105. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  106. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  107. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  108. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  109. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  110. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  111. ↑ Script error: No such module "Citation/CS1".
  112. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  113. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  114. ↑ Script error: No such module "Citation/CS1".
  115. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  116. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  117. ↑ The average density of material in a neutron star of radius 10 km is Template:Val. Therefore, 5 ml of such material is Template:Val, or 5 500 000 000 t. This is about 15 times the total mass of the human world population. Alternatively, 5 ml from a neutron star of radius 20 km radius (average density Template:Val) has a mass of about 400 Mt, or about the mass of all humans.
  118. ↑ Script error: No such module "Citation/CS1".
  119. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  120. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  121. ↑ Script error: No such module "Citation/CS1".
  122. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  123. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  124. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  125. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  126. ↑ Script error: No such module "Citation/CS1".
  127. ↑ Script error: No such module "Citation/CS1".
  128. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  129. ↑ a b Script error: No such module "Citation/CS1".
  130. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  131. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  132. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  133. ↑ Script error: No such module "Citation/CS1".
  134. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  135. ↑ a b Script error: No such module "Citation/CS1".
  136. ↑ Script error: No such module "Citation/CS1".
  137. ↑ Script error: No such module "Citation/CS1".
  138. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  139. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  140. ↑ Script error: No such module "Citation/CS1".
  141. ↑ Script error: No such module "Citation/CS1".
  142. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  143. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  144. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  145. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  146. ↑ Script error: No such module "Citation/CS1".
  147. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  148. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  149. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  150. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  151. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  152. ↑ Script error: No such module "Citation/CS1".
  153. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  154. ↑ p. 55, How A Supernova Explodes, Hans A. Bethe and Gerald Brown, pp. 51–62 in Formation And Evolution of Black Holes in the Galaxy: Selected Papers with Commentary, Hans Albrecht Bethe, Gerald Edward Brown, and Chang-Hwan Lee, River Edge, NJ: World Scientific: 2003. Template:ISBN.
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  156. ↑ Kaler, Jim. "Betelgeuse" Template:Webarchive (2008). Stars. University of Illinois. Retrieved on 2009-02-08.
  157. ↑ Script error: No such module "Citation/CS1".
  158. ↑ The Astrophysics Spectator: Open Star Clusters. Retrieved 2008-09-15
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  161. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  162. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  163. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  164. ↑ Script error: No such module "Citation/CS1".
  165. ↑ Script error: No such module "Citation/CS1".
  166. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  167. ↑ a b Script error: No such module "Citation/CS1".
  168. ↑ Durrer, R., & Parnovsky, S. (2023). Catastrophic Dark Matter Particle Capture, 11. https://arxiv.org/pdf/2208.08843.pdf
  169. ↑ Script error: No such module "Citation/CS1".
  170. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
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