Rajaraja I

Template:Sidebar with collapsible lists Rajaraja I (Middle Tamil: Rājarāja Cōḻaṉ; Classical Sanskrit: Rājarāja Śōḷa; 3 November 947 – January/February 1014),Template:SfnTemplate:Sfn also known as Rajaraja the Great, was a Chola emperor who reigned from 985 to 1014. He was known for his conquests of southern India and Anuradhapura Kingdom of Sri Lanka, as well as increasing Chola influence across the Indian Ocean. Rajaraja's birth name is variously given as Arul Mozhi Varman and Arul Moli Varman.

Rajaraja's empire encompassed vast territories, including regions of the Pandya country, the Chera country, and northern Sri Lanka. He also extended his influence over strategic islands such as Lakshadweep, Thiladhunmadulu atoll, and parts of the Maldives in the Indian Ocean. His conquests weren't limited to the south; he also launched successful campaigns against the Western Gangas and the Western Chalukyas, extending Chola authority as far as the Tungabhadra River. In the east, Rajaraja faced fierce opposition from the Telugu Chola king Jata Choda Bhima over control of Vengi. This region held significant strategic importance due to its access to resources and trade routes. The conflict between the two rulers intensified as they vied for dominance in the region, resulting in significant battles and shifting allegiances.Template:Sfn

Rajaraja I commissioned the construction of the Rajarajeshwaram Temple in the Chola capital of Thanjavur, revered as one of the most prominent examples of the medieval South Indian architectural style. Additionally, during his reign, important Tamil literary works by poets such as Appar, Sambandar, and Sundarar were gathered and compiled into a single collection known as the Thirumurai. This earned him the title of 'Thirumurai Kanda Cholar,' meaning The One Who Found Thirumurai. He initiated a project of land survey and assessment in 1000 which led to the reorganisation of Tamil country into individual units known as valanadus. Rajaraja died in 1014, and was succeeded by his son Rajendra Chola I.

Early life

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Mural of Rajaraja

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Rajaraja and his brother Aditha Karikalan meeting their guru.

Rajaraja was the son of the Chola king Parantaka II, also known as Sundara Chola, and his wife Vanavan.Template:Sfn As recorded in the Thiruvalangadu copper-plate inscription, his birth name was Arun Mozhi Varman, meaning “The Word of Sun Clan.”Template:SfnTemplate:Sfn He was born around 947 during the Tamil month of Aipassi, under the Sadhayam star. The Government of Tamil Nadu recognises his birthdate as 3 November 947. Rajaraja had an elder brother, Aditha II,Template:Sfn and an elder sister, Kundavai.Template:Sfn

Rajaraja's accession marked the end of a period of competing claims to the Chola throne, following his great-grandfather Parantaka I's reign. After Parantaka I, his elder son Gandaraditya became king. However, upon Gandaraditya's death, his son Madhurantakan was still a minor, so the throne passed to Parantaka I's younger son, Arinjaya. Arinjaya soon died, and his son Parantaka II (Sundara Chola) succeeded him. It was decided that Sundara Chola would be succeeded by Madhurantakan, likely due to Sundara's preference. However, according to the Thiruvalangadu inscription of Rajaraja's son, Rajendra I, the succession plan may have been made by Rajaraja himself.Template:Sfn

Aditha II died under mysterious circumstances, with inscriptions suggesting he may have been assassinated. Shortly afterwards, Sundara Chola also died, enabling Madhurantakan to assume the throne with the title Uttama Chola. Following Uttama Chola's death, Arul Moli Varman ascended the throne in mid-985Template:Sfn and adopted the regnal name Rajaraja, meaning “King among Kings.”Template:Sfn

Military conquests

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Chola empire during the reign of Rajaraja I

When Rajaraja came into power, he inherited a small kingdom centered around the Thanjavur-Tiruchirappalli region, which was the heart of traditional Chola territory.Template:Sfn He transformed this kingdom from one that was recovering from attacks by the Rashtrakuta Empire into one that was a well-organised empire with a powerful army and navy. Under his rule, the northern kingdom of Vengi became closely allied with the Cholas, and their influence expanded along the eastern coast all the way up to Kalinga in the north.Template:Sfn

Against Kandalur Salai

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Inscription of Rajaraja in Suchindram, near Kanyakumari

Rajaraja's earliest inscriptions commemorate a significant triumph at Kandalur Salai, located in present-day Kerala, around 988. He is acclaimed as "Kāndalūr śālai Kalam-arutta," which translates to 'the one who destroyed Kandalur Salai.'.Template:Sfn

Originally, this area was under the control of the Ay chief, who served as a vassal to the Pandya king of Madurai. However, it remains uncertain whether warriors from the Chera or Pandya dynasties were involved in this conflict. The Thiruvalangadu inscription suggests that Rajaraja's general captured Vizhinjam (Viḷinam), which could have been part of the Kandalur Salai campaign. It appears that this engagement involved the Chola navy, or possibly a joint operation involving both the navy and the army.Template:Sfn

Conquest of Kerala and the Pandyas

Rajaraja's inscriptions begin to appear in Kanyakumari district in the 990s and in Thiruvananthapuram district in the early 1000s. The Chola subjugation of Kerala can be dated to the early years of the 11th century.Template:Sfn The Senur inscription dated to 1005, attributed to Rajaraja, records his military achievements. It mentions the destruction of the Pandya capital, Madurai, as well as the conquest of several regions. These include defeating the formidable rulers of Kollam (Venad), Kolla-desham (Mushika), and Kodungallur (the Chera Perumals of Makotai).Template:SfnTemplate:SfnTemplate:Link needed Some triumphs in the region of Malainadu were possibly achieved by Rajaraja's son, Rajendra Chola.Template:Sfn

Following his victory over the Pandyas, Rajaraja assumed the title of Pandya Kulashani, which translates to 'Thunderbolt to the Race of the Pandyas.' As a result of his conquest, the territory of the Pandyas became recognised as "Rajaraja Mandalam" or "Rajaraja Pandinadu."Template:Sfn When recounting Rajaraja's military expedition in Trisanku Kastha (the southern region), the Thiruvalangadu Grant of Rajendra I mentions the capture of a certain royal figure named Amarabhujanga.Template:Sfn However, the specific identity of this individual—whether he was a prince of the Pandya dynasty, a general serving the Pandya king, or a prince of the Kongu Chera dynasty—remains a matter of debate.Template:SfnTemplate:Sfn According to the Kongu Desa Rajakkal, a historical record of the Kongu Nadu region, it is suggested that this general eventually changed his loyalty to Rajaraja. He is said to have participated in the ritual of kanakabhisheka, where gold is poured over the Chola king, symbolising an act of royal anointment or coronation.Template:Sfn

Once Rajaraja had consolidated his authority in the southern regions, he took on the title of Mummudi Chola. This title, which means "three Crowned," symbolised his power over three important Tamil kingdoms: the Cholas, the Pandyas, and the Cheras.Template:Sfn

Conquest of northern Sri Lanka

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The remains of a Shiva temple, erected subsequent to Rajaraja's capture of Polonnaruwa and its renaming to Jananathamangalam, indicate the Chola emperor's conquest in the region.

During the reign of King Mahinda V, the Sinhalese kingdom of Anuradhapura experienced a significant military revolt around 982 CE, primarily as a consequence of the monarch's economic policies. The armed forces of the Anuradhapura capital predominantly consisted of Tamil mercenaries recruited from coastal regions. By 982, tensions escalated into a full-fledged uprising led by these mercenaries, resulting in a protracted civil conflict. The ensuing turmoil compelled the vulnerable Sinhala ruler to seek refuge in the Rohana principality, thereby plunging the capital city of Anuradhapura into an extended period of civil unrest lasting approximately eleven years, marked by widespread disorder and lawlessness. Template:Sfn

The disruption of central governance exacerbated the financial strain on the kingdom, particularly in meeting the obligations to the Tamil mercenaries. Consequently, the mercenaries, feeling aggrieved and disillusioned, turned their allegiance towards the Chola empire. This strategic shift left Anuradhapura vulnerable to the incursions of the Chola forces, who exploited the internal strife to mount invasions in 993. These events, documented in historical sources, underscore the intricate interplay of economic policies, military dynamics, and regional power struggles during this period in the history of Anuradhapura. Template:SfnTemplate:Sfn

In 993, Rajaraja achieved the conquest of Anuradhapura, known as Pihiti rata in local context, situated in Sri Lanka. This territory was subsequently designated as Ila-mandalam in Chola historical records.Template:Sfn The military campaign led to the sacking of Anuradhapura by the Chola army, resulting in the acquisition of the northern portion of Sri Lanka by the Chola empire. As part of their administrative efforts, the Cholas established a provincial capital at the strategic military outpost of Polonnaruwa, renaming it Jananathamangalam in honour of Rajaraja's title.Template:Sfn

Under Chola administration, the official Tali KumaranTemplate:Clarify oversaw the construction of a significant Shiva temple known as Rajarajeshwara, meaning "Lord of Rajaraja," within the town of Mahatirtha, now recognised as modern-day Mantota. Consequently, Mahatirtha was renamed Rajarajapura in commemoration of the Chola monarch's conquest and establishment of authority in the region.Template:Sfn

The Thiruvalangadu Plates directly compare Raja Raja's campaign to the invasion of Lanka by the legendary hero Rama: Template:Main other

Chalukyan conflict

In 998, Rajaraja annexed Gangapadi, Nolambapadi, and Tadigaipadi (present-day Karnataka). During this campaign, he subdued the Nolamba dynasty, who were previously vassals of the Ganga dynasty.Template:FcnThese territories were initially under the suzerainty of the Rashtrakutas, who had been defeated by the Western Chalukyas in 973. Consequently, the Cholas found themselves in direct conflict with the Chalukyas.

An inscription attributed to Irivabedanga Satyashraya from Dharwar acknowledges his allegiance to the Western Chalukyas and highlights the Chola incursion. He accuses Rajendra Chola of leading a massive force of 955,000 soldiers and causing havoc in Donuwara, blurring the ethical boundaries of warfare prescribed by the Dharmasastras. Historians such as James Heitzman and Wolfgang Schenkluhn interpret this confrontation as indicative of personal animosity between the rulers of the Chola and Chalukya kingdoms, akin to historical conflicts between the Chalukyas of Badami and the Pallavas of Kanchi.

By 1004, Rajaraja had conquered the Gangavadi province. He established control over the western part of Gangavadi, ruled by the Changalvas, and over Kodagu, governed by the Kongalvas, who were then made vassals of the Chola Empire.

Meanwhile, the Vengi kingdom was under the rule of Jata Choda Bhima, a member of the Eastern Chalukyas Dynasty. However, Rajaraja emerged victorious in battle against Bhima, and Saktivarman was appointed as a viceroy under the Chola Dynasty. Despite a brief period of Bhima's recapture of Kanchi in 1001, Rajaraja swiftly restored Saktivarman to power. Notably, Rajaraja cemented an alliance between the Chola Dynasty and the Eastern Chalukya kingdom by arranging the marriage of his daughter, Kundavai, to the next viceroy of Vengi, Vimaladitya. This strategic union ensured the future succession of Rajaraja's descendants to the throne of the eastern Chalukya kingdom.

Narasipur, dated to 1006, records that Rajaraja's general Aprameya killed Hoysala generals and a minister identified as Naganna. Additionally, a similar inscription in Channapatna describes Rajaraja defeating the Hoysalas.

Kalinga conquest

The invasion of the kingdom of Kalinga occurred after the conquest of Vengi. This conquest marked the northern boundary of the Chola Empire at that time and established their control over the entirety of South and South-East India.

Conquest of Kuda-malai-nadu

In multiple historical accounts, there are mentions of Rajaraja's conquest of a place called "Kuda-malai-nadu" around the year 1000.Template:Sfn In certain inscriptions found in Karnataka, the term "Kudagu-malai-nadu" is used instead of "Kuda-malai-nadu." Scholars generally believe that this region corresponds to Coorg (Kudagu).Template:Sfn

The king's conquest of Malainadu is described in the Vikrama Chola Ula, where it is said that he achieved it in just one day, crossing 18 mountain passes. According to the Kulottunga Chola Ula, Rajaraja was depicted as beheading 18 people and burning down Udagai. Additionally, the Kalingathupparani references the establishment of Chadaya Nalvizha in Udiyar Mandalam, the seizure of Udagai, and the plundering of several elephants from the area. The Tiruppalanam inscription from 999 records the king's offering of an idol obtained as spoils from Malainadu.Template:Sfn

Naval expedition

The naval campaigns of Rajaraja formed a reassertion of Chola power in the Indian Ocean.Template:Sfn Template:Quote

The Cholas controlled the area around Bay of Bengal with Nagapattinam as the main port. The Chola Navy also played a major role in the invasion of Sri Lanka.Template:Sfn The success of Rajaraja allowed his son Rajendra Chola to lead the Chola invasion of Srivijaya, carrying out naval raids in South-East Asia and briefly occupying Kadaram.

Rajaraja I and Rajendra I are described as the greatest Chola rulers because of these conquests.Template:Pn

Personal life

Rajaraja married several women, including the following: Vanathi aka Thiripuvāna Mādēviyār, Dantisakti Vitanki aka Lokamadevi, Panchavan Madeviyar, Chola Mahadevi, Trailokya Mahadevi, Lata Mahadevi, Prithvi Mahadevi, Meenavan Mahadevi, Viranarayani and Villavan Mahadevi.Template:Sfn He had at least three daughters and two sons. The older son, Rajendra, was born to Thiripuvāna Mādēviyār.Template:FcnTemplate:Fcn The younger son was named Araiyan Rajarajan, and the identity of his mother is unknown. He had his first daughter Kundavai with Lokamadev who eventually married Chalukya prince Vimaladithan. Rajaraja had two other daughters. Rajaraja died in 1014 in the Tamil month of Maka and was succeeded by Rajendra Chola I.

Administration

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Imperial Coin of Chola King Rajaraja I (985–1014). Uncertain Tamilnadu mint. Legend "Chola, conqueror of the Gangas" in Tamil, seated tiger with two fish.

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Imperial Seal of Rajaraja I

Before the reign of Rajaraja I, portions of the Chola territory were ruled by hereditary lords and princes who were in a loose alliance with the Chola rulers. Rajaraja initiated a project of land survey and assessment in 1000 which led to the reorganisation of the empire into units known as valanadus. From the reign of Rajaraja I until the reign of Vikrama Chola in 1133, the hereditary lords and local princes were either replaced or turned into dependent officials. This led to the king exercising closer control over the different parts of the empire. Rajaraja strengthened the local self-governments and installed a system of audit and control by which the village assemblies and other public bodies were held to account while retaining their autonomy.Template:Sfn To promote trade, he sent the first Chola mission to China. Furthermore, his elder sister Kundavai assisted him in the administration and management of temples.

Officials

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Mural depicting Rajaraja and his guru Karuvuruvar found in the Brihadisvara temple, Tamil Nadu, 11th century.

Rajendra Chola I was appointed as co-regent towards the end of Rajaraja's reign. He served as the supreme commander of the northern and northwestern territories. Under his rule, there was a notable expansion of the administrative system, resulting in a greater number of offices and officials documented in Chola records compared to previous eras. Villavan Muvendavelan, one of the top officials of Rajaraja figures in many of his inscriptions. The names of other officials found in the inscriptions are the Bana prince Narasimhavarman, a general Senapathi Krishnan Raman, the Samanta chief Vallavaraiyan Vandiyadevan, the revenue official Irayiravan Pallavarayan and Kuruvan Ulagalandan, who organised the country-wide land surveys.

Religious policy

Rajaraja was a follower of the Shaivite denomination of Hinduism but he also dedicated several temples to Vishnu.

The Chudamani Vihara, a Buddhist monastery, was constructed in the 11th century in Nagapattinam. It was named Chudamani or Chulamani Vihara after King Sri Mara's father. The monastery was built by the Sailendra king of Srivijaya, Sri Mara Vijayattungavarman, with the support of Rajaraja I.Template:Sfn According to the small Leyden grantTemplate:Clarify, this Vihara was known as Rajaraja-perumpalli during the reign of Kulottunga I.

Rajaraja called himself Shivapada Shekhara (IAST: Śivapāda Śekhara), literally, "the one who places his crown at the feet of Shiva".Template:Sfn

Arts and architecture

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Bronze sculpture purporting to be Rajaraja but created in relatively modern times

Rajaraja embarked on a mission to recover the hymns after hearing short excerpts of Tevaram in his court. He sought the help of Nambiyandar Nambi.Template:Sfn It is believed that by divine intervention Nambi found the presence of scripts, in the form of cadijam leaves half-eaten by white ants in a chamber inside the second precinct in Thillai Nataraja Temple, Chidambaram.Template:SfnTemplate:Sfn The brahmanas (Dikshitars) in the temple opposed the mission, but Rajaraja intervened by consecrating the images of the saint-poets through the streets of Chidambaram.Template:SfnTemplate:Sfn Rajaraja thus became known as Tirumurai Kanda Cholan meaning one who saved the Tirumurai. In his work Nambiyandar Nambi Puranam alias Tirumurai Kanda Puranam, Nambi identifies his patron as Rasarasamannan-Abhayakula-sekharan, that is king Rajaraja, the best of the race of Abhaya. At that time, Shiva temples only had images of god forms, but after the advent of Rajaraja, the images of the Nayanar saints were also placed inside the temple.Template:Sfn Nambi organised the hymns of three saint poets—Sambandar, Appar, and Sundarar—as the first seven books. He included Manickavasagar's "Tirukovayar" and "Tiruvacakam" as the 8th book, and the hymns of nine other saints as the 9th book. The "Tirumandiram" of Tirumular was designated as the 10th book, while 40 hymns by 12 other poets constituted the 11th book. Additionally, Nambi added Tirutotanar Tiruvanthathi, the sacred anthathi of the labours of the 63 Nayanar saints, along with his own hymns as the 12th book.Template:Sfn The initial seven books were later recognised as Tevaram.Template:Sfn With the addition of Sekkizhar's Periya Puranam (1135) as the twelfth book, the entire Saiva canon became known as Tirumurai, the holy scripture. Consequently, Saiva literature now encompasses approximately 600 years of religious, philosophical, and literary development.Template:Sfn

There are no existing contemporary portraits or statues of Rajaraja. The bronze figure purportedly depicting him at the Thanjavur temple is spurious and of recent origin.Template:Sfn

Brihadisvara Temple

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Brihadisvara Temple built by Rajaraja I, a UNESCO World Heritage Site

During 1010, Rajaraja built the Peruvudaiyar Temple in Thanjavur and dedicated it to Shiva. The temple, also known as Periya Kovil, RajaRajeswara Temple and Rajarajeswaram, and the capital were centres of both religious and economic activity.Template:Sfn The temple is one of the largest temples in India and is an example of Dravidian architecture of the Chola period.Template:Sfn Along with Gangaikonda Cholapuram temple and Airavatesvara temple, Peruvudaiyar temple is part of the UNESCO World Heritage Site known as the "Great Living Chola Temples".

Coins

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Copper coin of Rajaraja I

Prior to Rajaraja's reign, Chola coins featured the tiger emblem on the obverse, along with the fish and bow emblems representing the Pandya and Chera Dynasties, while the reverse side displayed the name of the King. However, a new type of coin emerged during Rajaraja's rule. These new coins showcased the figure of the standing king on the obverse side, while the reverse side depicted a seated goddess. The coins spread across much of southern India and were copied by Sri Lankan kings.

Inscriptions

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A typical lithic inscription of the Chola period

Due to Rajaraja's desire to record his military achievements, he recorded the important events of his life in stone. An inscription in Tamil from Mulbagal in Karnataka shows his accomplishments as early as the 19th year. An excerpt from such a Meikeerthi, an inscription recording great accomplishments, follows

Rajaraja recorded all the grants made to the Thanjavur temple and his achievements. He also preserved the records of his predecessors. An inscription of his reign found at Tirumalavadi records an order of the king to the effect that the central shrine of the Vaidyanatha temple at the place should be rebuilt and that, before pulling down the walls, the inscriptions engraved on them should be copied in a book. The records were subsequently re-engraved on the walls from the book after the rebuilding was finished.Template:SfnTemplate:Bsn

In popular culture

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20th-century sculpture of Rajaraja in Thanjavur.

• Ponniyin Selvan: I, a 2022 film based on Kalki Krishnamurthy's 1955 novel Ponniyin Selvan, deals with the succession troubles during the reign of Sundara Chola and the death of the elder prince, Aditha Karikalan, portrayed by Tamil actor Vikram. The role of the younger prince, Arulmozhi Varman, also known as Ponniyin Selvan and the future Rajaraja I, was played by Tamil actor Ravi Mohan. The sequel, Ponniyin Selvan: II, was released in 2023.
• Rajaraja Cholan, is a 1973 Tamil film starring Sivaji Ganesan.
• Ponniyin Selvan, a novel by Kalki, revolves around the early life of Rajaraja, the mysteries surrounding the death of Aditha Karikalan and the subsequent accession of Uththama Chola to the Chola throne.
• Nandipurathu Nayagi Template:Clarify by Vembu Vikiraman revolves around the ascension of Uttama Chola to the throne and Rajaraja's naval expedition.
• Rajaraja Cholan Template:Clarify by Kathal Ramanathan.
• Kandalur Vasantha Kumaran KathaiTemplate:Clarify by Sujatha which deals with the situations leading Rajaraja to invade Kandalur.
• Rajakesari and Cherar Kottai Template:Clarify by Gokul Seshadri deal with the Kandalur invasion and its after-effects.
• Bharat Ek Khoj, a 1988 historical drama in its episodes 22 and 23 depicts Rajaraja Chola. The role was played by Om Puri.
• Kaviri Mainthan, is a 2007 novel by Anusha Venkatesh.
• Udayaar is a book by Tamil author Balakumaran which deals with Rajaraja's later years and Rajendra Chola I's ascension.

See also

• List of Tamil monarchs

External links

• Template:Commons category-inline

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