Andrew Báthory

Andrew Báthory (Template:Langx; Template:Langx; 1562 or 1563 – 3 November 1599) was the Cardinal-deacon of Sant'Adriano al Foro from 1584 to 1599, Prince-Bishop of Warmia from 1589 to 1599, and Prince of Transylvania in 1599. His father was a brother of Stephen Báthory, who ruled the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth from 1575. He was the childless Stephen Báthory's favorite nephew. He went to Poland at his uncle's invitation in 1578 and studied at the Jesuit college in Pułtusk. He became canon in the Chapter of the Roman Catholic Diocese of Warmia in 1581, and provost of the Monastery of Miechów in 1583.

Pope Gregory XIII appointed Báthory cardinal during his visit to Rome in 1584. A year later, he was installed as coadjutor bishop of Warmia. He was in Rome again when Stephen Báthory died in 1586. Andrew was one of the candidates to succeed him in Poland and Lithuania, but Jan Zamoyski, the Chancellor of Poland, convinced him to support another candidate, Sigismund Vasa, and to demonstrate the Báthorys' claim to the crown only through nominating his minor cousin, Sigismund Báthory, Prince of Transylvania. After Sigismund Vasa was elected king in 1587, Báthory convinced his cousin's advisors to send reinforcements to Poland to fight against Maximilian of Habsburg, who also claimed the throne. Báthory became Prince-Bishop of Warmia after the death of Bishop Marcin Kromer in 1589.

In the early 1590s, Andrew and his brother, Balthasar Báthory, came into conflict with Sigismund Báthory over the presence of Jesuits in the predominantly Protestant Transylvania. Before long, Sigismund's plan to join the Holy League of Pope Clement VIII against the Ottoman Empire gave rise to new tensions, because the brothers sharply opposed the plan. Sigismund executed Balthasar and confiscated Andrew's estates in 1594. After the Ottomans defeated the army of the Holy League in a series of battles, Sigismund decided to abdicate. He transferred Transylvania to the Holy Roman Emperor, Rudolph II, in 1598, but he returned a few months later.

Sigismund and Andrew were reconciled, and Sigismund renounced Transylvania in favor of Andrew in March 1599. Andrew was supported by Poland and the Ottoman Empire. Rudolph II persuaded Michael the Brave, Voivode of Wallachia, to invade Transylvania. Michael defeated Andrew's troops at the Battle of Sellenberk with the assistance of Székely commoners, to whom he had promised to restore their freedom. Andrew wanted to flee to Poland, but Székely serfs captured and killed him.

Early life

Andrew was the youngest of the four sons of András Báthory and Margit Majláth.Template:SfnTemplate:Sfn His father was the marshal of the court of Isabella Jagiellon and her son, John Sigismund Zápolya.Template:Sfn Isabella and John Sigismund ruled the eastern territories of the medieval Kingdom of Hungary as vassals of the Ottoman Sultan Suleiman the Magnificent.Template:Sfn The date of Andrew's birth is uncertain, because his actual age was kept secret in the early 1580s to promote his career in the Roman Catholic Church.Template:Sfn He was most probably born in late 1562 or early 1563, according to historian Ildikó Horn.Template:Sfn His father died around that time, implying that Andrew was a posthumous son.Template:Sfn

Andrew's mother married János Iffjú before the end 1563.Template:Sfn Andrew and his youngest brother, Balthasar, and their sisters, Anne and Catherine, lived for years at their stepfather's estate, Érmihályfalva (now Valea lui Mihai in Romania).Template:Sfn Both his mother and her second husband were Lutherans, but Andrew remained Roman Catholic, like his father and uncles, Christopher and Stephen Báthory.Template:Sfn Christopher was Andrew's legal guardian, but his actual role in his education is uncertain.Template:Sfn

After John Sigismund died in 1571, the Diet of Transylvania elected Stephen Báthory voivode (or ruler) in 1571.Template:Sfn Stephen adopted the title of prince of Transylvania after he was elected king of Poland and grand duke of Lithuania in 1575.Template:Sfn The childless king decided to take charge of his nephew's education and ordered him to come to Poland in late 1578.Template:Sfn Andrew studied at the Jesuit college in Pułtusk.Template:SfnTemplate:Sfn His fellow-students were mainly young Protestant noblemen from Transylvania or Royal Hungary, but Polish, Lithuanian, German and Italian noblemen and commoners were also chosen to study together with him.Template:Sfn He could speak Latin, Italian, Polish and German by the end of his studies.Template:Sfn

Church career

Beginnings

A bearded middle-aged man wearing a crown and armour

Andrew's uncle and King of Poland, Stephen Báthory

Andrew was the favorite nephew of Stephen Báthory who officially adopted him.Template:Sfn Giovanni Andrea Caligari, the papal nuncio (or ambassador) in the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth, urged the king to persuade Andrew to start a church career.Template:Sfn According to the Transylvanian historian, István Szamosközy, Andrew had already been fascinated by altars, churches and tombs as a child.Template:Sfn However, his Protestant mother and relatives wanted to dissuade Andrew.Template:Sfn After recovering from an almost lethal pneumonia in spring 1581, Andrew accepted their advice.Template:Sfn He was especially worried about clerical celibacy, because it prevented him from fathering legitimate children.Template:Sfn He also hoped that his uncle would promote his secular career.Template:Sfn His Jesuit tutors finally persuaded him to accept his uncle's decision.Template:Sfn

Andrew was made canon in the Chapter of the Roman Catholic Diocese of Warmia on 16 September 1581.Template:Sfn The canons and the elderly bishop, Marcin Kromer, had been opposed to Andrew's appointment, but the new papal nuncio, Alberto Bolognetti, the chancellor of Poland, Jan Zamoyski, and Stephen Báthory persuaded one of the canons to abdicate in favor of Andrew.Template:Sfn However, the canons, along with the Estates of Royal Prussia, prevented Andrew's promotion to coadjutor bishop saying that he was too young.Template:Sfn At the nuncio's initiative, Andrew was elected provost of the Monastery of Miechów in spring 1583.Template:SfnTemplate:Sfn

Cardinal

Stephen Báthory sent Andrew to Rome to start negotiations about an alliance against the Ottoman Empire, and to secure Andrew's creation as cardinal.Template:Sfn Andrew and his retinue left Kraków for Italy on 10 September 1583.Template:Sfn He visited Charles Borromeo, archbishop of Milan, who was a highly respected prelate and regarded as a living saint for his piety in his diocese.Template:Sfn After their meeting, Borromeo wrote a spiritual instruction to him.Template:Sfn In Milan, Andrew also met Giovanni Botero who described him as an actual representative of anti-Machiavellianism.Template:Sfn A Protestant retainer of Andrew, Ferenc Forgách, converted to Catholicism in the Basilica della Santa Casa in Loreto on 21 November.Template:Sfn

Andrew (whom the ambassador of Venice mentioned as the "Polish prince") entered Rome on the feast of Andrew the Apostle (30 November).Template:Sfn Five days later, Pope Gregory XIII received him and made him papal protonotary.Template:Sfn The pope, who could not persuade Stephen Báthory to join an anti-Ottoman coalition, failed to make Andrew cardinal.Template:Sfn Following his uncle's advice, Andrew announced that he was to leave Rome.Template:Sfn The pope appointed him cardinal-deacon of Sant'Adriano al Foro on 23 July 1584.Template:Sfn On this occasion, Giovanni Pierluigi da Palestrina dedicated a motet to the Báthorys.Template:Sfn Three days later Andrew left Rome.Template:Sfn

Coadjutor bishop

Andrew returned to Poland on 20 October 1584 and settled in Miechów.Template:Sfn He rebuilt the altar in the monastery and introduced new ceremonies (including a 40-hour prayer for the king and the kingdom).Template:Sfn He was installed as coadjutor bishop at the see of the Bishopric of Warmia, Lidzbark Warmiński, in early July 1585.Template:Sfn He visited the nearby major towns, including Gdańsk and Malbork.Template:Sfn

Meanwhile, Stephen Báthory had decided to secure the Bishopric of Kraków for his nephew, but the Holy See did not appoint Andrew coadjutor bishop of the Kraków See, because he was still too young.Template:Sfn The king wanted to invade Russia and sent Andrew to Rome to convince Pope Sixtus V to support his plan.Template:Sfn Andrew left Poland on 22 March 1586.Template:Sfn Samuel Zborowski's brothers (he had been executed on Stephen Báthory's orders), wanted to capture and murder Andrew, but their plan failed because of a flood.Template:Sfn Andrew came to Rome on 24 July.Template:Sfn He informed the pope about Stephen Báthory's plan, asking financial support from the Holy See against Russia.Template:Sfn

Administrative division of Poland and Lithuania

Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth in 1582

Stephen Báthory died on 13 December 1586.Template:Sfn Andrew left Rome and hurried back to Poland.Template:Sfn He inherited the domains of Gyalu, Nagyenyed and Örményes in Transylvania (now Gilău, Aiud and Armeniș in Romania) from his uncle.Template:Sfn Stephen Báthory stipulated that Gyalu should serve the reestablishment of the Roman Catholic bishopric in Transylvania.Template:Sfn

Andrew, his brother Balthasar, and their cousin Sigismund Báthory, prince of Transylvania, were among the sixteen candidates to the throne of Poland and Lithuania.Template:Sfn Before long, Bartosz Paprocki published a pamphlet against "the kings from Hungary", accusing Stephen Báthory of suppressing the Polish nobles.Template:Sfn Jan Zamoyski initially stood by Andrew, who was also supported by the pope and the sultan.Template:Sfn Andrew's opponents pillaged the monastery of Miechów.Template:Sfn A group of noblemen warned Andrew to leave Poland in February 1587.Template:Sfn

After realising that the Báthorys had little chance to seize the throne, Zamoyski decided to support another candidate, Sigismund Vasa.Template:Sfn On Zamoyski's advice, the fourteen-year-old Sigismund Báthory was officially presented as the sole candidate from the family (which demonstrated the existence of the Báthorys' claim to the throne), but Andrew cooperated with Zamoyski on behalf of Sigismund Vasa.Template:Sfn Sigismund Vasa was elected king of Poland and grand duke of Lithuania on 19 August 1587.Template:Sfn However, his opponents proclaimed Maximilian of Habsburg the ruler of the Commonwealth.Template:Sfn Maximilian laid siege to Kraków and pillaged Miechów.Template:Sfn Andrew persuaded Sigismund Báthory's advisors to send Transylvanian reinforcements to fight the invaders.Template:Sfn Andrew was chosen to receive Sigismund Vasa in Kraków.Template:Sfn He also attended the new king's coronation on 27 December 1587.Template:Sfn The Sejm (or general assembly) granted citizenship to both Andrew and Balthasar Báthory.Template:Sfn

István Jósika, István Bodoni, and other fellow-students of Andrew became important advisors of the young Sigismund Báthory in Transylvania.Template:Sfn After the Diet of Transylvania expelled the Jesuits in December 1588,Template:Sfn Pope Sixtus V excommunicated Sigismund.Template:Sfn Andrew went to Transylvania and sent letters to Rome to achieve a reconciliation, emphasizing that the Jesuits' aggressive proselytizing policy had contributed to their unpopularity in the predominantly Protestant principality.Template:Sfn

Bishop of Warmia

After Marcin Kromer died in early March 1589, Andrew became the Prince-Bishop of Warmia and a member of the Senate of Poland.Template:Sfn He supported the introduction of the teaching of philosophy and theology in the Collegium Hosianum in Braniewo, because he wanted to develop it into a university.Template:Sfn At the request of Sigismund III Vasa, Pope Sixtus made Andrew coadjutor bishop of Piotr Myszkowski, the elderly bishop of Kraków.Template:Sfn However, the Habsburgs wanted to prevent Andrew from seizing the bishopric which was situated near Royal Hungary.Template:Sfn The new papal nuncio, Annibale di Capua (who was their supporter) convinced the king to nominate Jerzy Radziwiłł to the see after Myszkowski died on 5 April 1591.Template:Sfn Capua emphasized that Andrew had not been an ordained priest.Template:Sfn Most Polish noblemen regarded the Lithuanian Radziwiłł's appointment to a Polish see unlawful, but Pope Gregory XIV confirmed the king's decision.Template:Sfn

A gilded altar with six marvel columns and several sculptures in the background

Altar in the Church of the Holy Sepulchre in Miechów

Sigismund III's confessor and court priest, who were Jesuits, supported Radziwiłł against Andrew.Template:Sfn Thereafter, Andrew urged the Holy See to send Franciscan friars to Transylvania instead of the Jesuits (who were supported by Sigismund Báthory).Template:Sfn He also suggested that the pope should make a Franciscan friar bishop of Transylvania, with a see in Csíksomlyó (now Șumuleu Ciuc in Romania).Template:Sfn He settled Catholic priests in four villages on his estates.Template:Sfn The Holy See authorized him to set up deaneries in Transylvania, making him the actual head of the Catholic Church in the principality.Template:Sfn

In August 1591, Maximilian of Habsburg, who still claimed Poland and Lithuania, sent his envoy to Andrew seeking Transylvanian support against Sigismund III.Template:Sfn Andrew emphasized that being under Ottoman suzerainty, Transylvania could not openly support Maximilian, but he also promised that Sigismund Báthory would not prevent the mustering of Transylvanian soldiers to fight in Poland.Template:Sfn In the same month, Sigismund Báthory's plan to enable the Jesuits to return to Transylvania gave rise to a serious family conflict, because both Andrew and Balthasar refused to support the prince at the Diet.Template:Sfn According to contemporaneous gossips, Andrew and his two brothers decided to dethrone Sigismund, replacing him with Balthasar.Template:Sfn Pope Clement VIII sent a papal nuncio, Attilio Amalteo, to Transylvania to mediate a reconciliation.Template:SfnTemplate:Sfn

The Holy See also tried to reach a compromise on the Kraków bishopric, but Jan Zamoyski, who was in conflict with the king, persuaded Andrew to give up his claim in favor of Radziwiłł.Template:Sfn Andrew withheld 20,000 gulden from the royal tax of Warmia, saying that the king owed him 40,000 gulden.Template:Sfn He started negotiations with John George, Elector of Brandenburg, who promised him the hand of one of his daughters if he accepted the protection of Brandenburg over Warmia.Template:Sfn Zamoyski, who had been with Sigismund III, also persuaded Andrew to make peace with the king in May 1593.Template:Sfn Andrew renounced the see of Kraków in exchange for the Abbey of Czerwińsk nad Wisłą.Template:Sfn

The pope's new envoy, Alessandro Cumuleo, came to Transylvania to urge Sigismund Báthory to join the Holy League that the pope had set up against the Ottomans.Template:Sfn The prince was ready to join the alliance, but Andrew and Balthasar emphasized that Transylvania could not secede from the Ottoman Empire without the participation of Poland in the coalition.Template:Sfn Most of Sigismund's advisors supported their proposal, but his confessor, the Jesuit Alfonso Carillo, convinced him to continue the negotiations with the Holy Roman Emperor, Rudolph II.Template:Sfn Carillo prevented Andrew from taking part in the negotiations in Prague.Template:Sfn Before long, Andrew left Transylvania for Poland.Template:Sfn

A young man with a moustache

Andrew's cousin, Sigismund Báthory

Sigismund Báthory's maternal uncle, Stephen Bocskai, and other commanders of the Transylvanian army, persuaded the prince to get rid of those who did not support the Holy League.Template:SfnTemplate:Sfn Balthasar Báthory and his allies were captured and murdered in late August 1594.Template:SfnTemplate:Sfn Sigismund also confiscated Andrew's Transylvanian estates.Template:Sfn The Diet confirmed the prince's acts, convicting Andrew and his brother, Stephen, of treason.Template:Sfn

Andrew sent letters to the Holy See, describing his cousin as an immoral tyrant.Template:Sfn He wanted to replace Sigismund with Stephen with the assistance of the pope, England and Poland, but they received no support.Template:Sfn Pope Clement VIII invited him to Rome, but he refused.Template:Sfn At the pope's request, Sigismund Báthory allowed Andrew's mother and Stephen's wife, along with their children, to move to Poland.Template:Sfn Zamoyski, who strongly opposed Sigismund Báthory's anti-Ottoman policy, supported Andrew and Stephen.Template:Sfn

Andrew exchanged letters with Aaron the Tyrant, Voivode of Moldavia, who had been captured by Sigismund Báthory because of his attempts to make peace with Poland and the Ottoman Empire.Template:Sfn The pope's special envoy, Martio Malacrida, tried to convince Andrew to accept the post of the ambassador of Poland in Rome, but Andrew again refused.Template:Sfn He said, his homeland would require his presence, because Sigismund's anti-Ottoman policy could not be continued for long.Template:Sfn Letters found on one of Stephen Báthory's retainers suggested that Andrew and his brother sent letters to the leaders of the Székely commoners who had risen up against Sigismund Báthory in February 1596.Template:Sfn Sigismund III of Poland summoned Andrew and Stephen before the Senate, but Pope Clement VIII intervened on the brothers' behalf.Template:Sfn

After the Ottomans defeated the armies of the Holy League in a series of battles in 1596, Transylvanian noblemen sent letters to Andrew, offering him the principality.Template:SfnTemplate:Sfn After realizing that neither the pope nor the Polish king would support him against Sigismund Báthory, Andrew declared that he was ready to make peace with him.Template:Sfn He returned to Warmia where he was ordained subdeacon on 4 January 1597.Template:Sfn Andrew and Stephen even announced that they would not intervene in Transylvania.Template:Sfn Their envoys also started discussions with Sigismund Báthory about the compensation for their expropriated Transylvanian estates.Template:Sfn

Sigismund Báthory opened negotiations over the transfer of Transylvania to the Habsburgs, which worried both Poland and the Ottoman Empire.Template:Sfn On 20 February 1598, Andrew offered the Bishopric of Warmia and his other Church offices in Poland to Sigismund, in exchange for Transylvania. Template:Sfn However, Sigismund's envoys had already signed an agreement with Rudolph II.Template:Sfn Sigismund left Transylvania, and Rudolph's commissioners took charge of the administration of the principality on 10 April.Template:Sfn Before long, Sigismund changed his mind and returned to Transylvania with the assistance of Stephen Bocskai.Template:Sfn Sigismund sent a Jesuit as his representative to Kraków and offered Transylvania to Andrew in November.Template:Sfn Andrew accepted the offer and left Poland in disguise, without revealing the actual purpose of his travel to Transylvania.Template:Sfn He met Sigismund in Kolozsvár (now Cluj-Napoca in Romania) in the middle of February 1599.Template:Sfn Most contemporaries (including Szamosközy) believed that Andrew came to Transylvania to make peace with his cousin.Template:Sfn

Prince of Transylvania

Sigismund Báthory abdicated at the Diet in Medgyes (Mediaș, Romania) on 21 March and proposed Andrew his successor.Template:SfnTemplate:Sfn After Andrew pledged that neither he nor his brother would take vengeance on those who had voted against them in 1594, the Diet elected him prince on 28 March.Template:SfnTemplate:Sfn However, as Alfonso Carillo noted, the most influential noblemen remained opposed to Andrew, even if they did not dare to raise an objection openly.Template:Sfn

A head of a bearded man with a wound on his forehead

Andrew's head

The new prince's principal supporters were the noblemen who had been forced into exile in 1594, but they were impoverished young men, without influence.Template:Sfn Instead of them, Andrew had to choose his officials from among the Roman Catholic lords: he made István Bodoni ispán (or head) of Kolozs County and Gáspár Sibrik the commander of the cavalry.Template:Sfn Andrew was even unable to get rid of his opponents.Template:Sfn For instance, Gáspár Kornis remained a member of the royal council, although he had played a preeminent role in the execution of Andrew's brother in 1594.Template:Sfn

Andrew wanted to secure his suzerainty over the rulers of Moldavia and Wallachia.Template:Sfn He initially wanted to replace Michael the Brave, Voivode of Wallachia, with his brother, Stephen, but Michael swore fealty to him on 26 June.Template:SfnTemplate:Sfn Andrew's envoys signed an agreement with Ieremia Movilă, Voivode of Moldavia, about the marriage of the voivode's daughter and Andrew's half-brother, János Iffjú, on 3 July.Template:Sfn Andrew also started negotiations with the Ottoman Empire, demanding the confirmation of his hereditary rule and his suzerainty over Wallachia, and refusing the payment of the tribute for six years.Template:Sfn

After the marriage of Sigismund Báthory and Maria Christierna of Habsburg (who was a cousin of Rudolph II) was declared invalid in August, Andrew proposed himself to her.Template:Sfn However, Rudolph II had not acknowledged Andrew's rule in Transylvania and sent envoys to the leaders of the "Three Nations of Transylvania".Template:Sfn He also urged Stephen Bocskai and Michael the Brave to invade Transylvania.Template:Sfn Andrew summoned Stephen Bocskai to the Diet, charging him with treason.Template:Sfn However, he did not believe the reports of Michael's preparations for an invasion and he was surprised when Michael broke into Transylvania in October.Template:SfnTemplate:Sfn The Székely commoners joined the invaders, because Michael promised to restore their freedom.Template:Sfn On 28 October, Michael routed the Transylvanian army in the Battle of Sellenberk after Andrew—who had never participated in a battle—fled from the battlefield in a panic.Template:SfnTemplate:Sfn The Diet of Transylvania recognized Michael as Rudolph II's representative.Template:Sfn

Andrew wanted to flee to Poland, but Székely serfs captured him on a mountain near Csíkszentdomokos (now Sândominic in Romania) on 3 November.Template:SfnTemplate:Sfn He was struck to death with a shepherd's axe.Template:Sfn His head was cut off and taken to Michael the Brave, who sent it to the pope's envoy, Germanico Malaspina.Template:Sfn A Greek artist painted the head before it was sewn back on to the body at Michael's order.Template:Sfn Andrew was ceremoniously buried in St. Michael's Cathedral in Gyulafehérvár on 24 November.Template:Sfn