Amalthea (mythology)

Woman holding a child, with an armed man on either side

Amalthea holds the young Zeus, behind two Kouretes carrying swords and shields. Campana relief from the late 1st century BC or early 1st century AD, Ny Carlsberg Glyptotek.Template:Refn

In Greek mythology, Amalthea or Amaltheia (Template:Langx) is the figure most commonly identified as the nurse of Zeus during his infancy. She is described either as a nymph who raises the child on the milk of a goat or, in some accounts from the Hellenistic period (c. 323–30 BC) onwards, as the goat itself.

From as early as the 6th century BC, there survive references to the "horn of Amalthea" (known in Latin as the cornucopia), a magical horn said to be capable of producing endless amounts of any food or drink desired. In a narrative attributed to the mythical poet Musaeus and dating to around the 4th century BC, Amalthea, a nymph, nurses the infant Zeus and owns a goat which is terrifying in appearance. After Zeus reaches adulthood, he uses the goat's skin as a weapon in his battle against the Titans (the earlier generation of gods). The first known author to describe Amalthea as a goat is the 3rd-century BC poet Callimachus, who presents a rationalised version of the myth in which Zeus is fed on Amalthea's milk. Aratus, also writing in the 3rd century BC, identifies Amalthea with the star Capella, and describes her as "Olenian" (the meaning of which is unclear).

Scholars disagree as to when the tale of Zeus's upbringing was first merged with that of the magical horn. They are explicitly combined by the Roman poet Ovid (1st century BC/AD), whose story of Zeus's nursing weaves together elements from multiple accounts. A passage from a marginal note in a manuscript of Aratus's version has been taken as evidence that the two myths may have been connected prior to Ovid. In the Fabulae, a 2nd-century AD mythological handbook, Amalthea hides the infant in a tree and gathers the Kouretes to dance noisily, so that the child's crying cannot be heard. Other accounts of Zeus's upbringing describe Amalthea as related to Melisseus, the mythical king of Crete, including an Orphic version of the story.

Among the few surviving depictions of Amalthea in ancient art are a relief from the 1st century BC or AD, showing her nursing Zeus between two Kouretes, and coins and medallions from the Roman Empire. Between the 16th and 18th centuries, she was the subject of works by painters such as Giorgio Vasari and Jacob Jordaens, and sculptors such as Gian Lorenzo Bernini and Pierre Julien.

Etymology and origins

The etymology of Template:Translit () is unknown. Scholars from the 19th century offered various hypotheses, among them derivations from Template:Translit (, Template:Gloss) and Template:Translit (, Template:Gloss).Template:Refn In 1917, Alfred Chilton Pearson described earlier etymologies as inadequate, suggesting that the name is related to Template:Translit (, Template:Gloss) and Template:Translit (, Template:Gloss).Template:Refn The verb Template:Translit (, Template:Gloss)Template:Refn was thought by Otto Gruppe, writing in 1906, to derive from Amalthea's name. According to Pearson, the two words should instead be understood as having existed alongside each other, with this notion of "abundance" being embodied in certain mythological figures.Template:Refn In 1999, Gerard Mussies derived Amalthea's name from Template:Translit (, Template:Gloss), which he saw as referring to the goat's udder, taut with milk.

There is no mention of Amalthea in Hesiod's Theogony,Template:Sfnm an 8th-century BC poem containing the earliest known account of Zeus's birth. Hesiod writes that the newborn Zeus is taken to a cave on "Mount Aigaion" on the island of Crete;Template:Refn some scholars interpret this as "Goat's Mountain" (Template:Translit, meaning "goat's"), and thus as related to the story of Amalthea.Template:Refn Other scholars, including Martin Litchfield West, see no reason to view the name for the mountain as referring to a goat.Template:Sfnm According to Apostolos Athanassakis, elements of the story of Zeus's raising such as Amalthea and the Kouretes (male figures who dance loudly around the child in some versions) have their origins in traditions from Crete.

Mythology

Horn of Amalthea

Gold coin showing a horn, with an inscription around the edge

A cornucopia on a gold coin from Alexandria, Egypt, produced during the reign of Ptolemy IV PhilopatorTemplate:Refn

The "horn of Amalthea", later referred to in Latin literature as the cornucopia, is a magical horn generally described as being able to produce an inexhaustible supply of any food or drink desired.Template:Sfnm The tale of this horn seems to have originated as an independent tradition from that of Zeus's raising, though it is uncertain when the two merged.Template:Refn The "horn of Amalthea" is mentioned as early as the 6th century BC by poets such as Anacreon and Phocylides,Template:Refn and is commonly referenced in comedies, such as those by Cratinus, Aristophanes, and Antiphanes (who date to the 5th or 4th century BC).Template:Refn The 4th-century BC comic poet Eubulus composed a now-lost work titled Amaltheia, which Richard L. Hunter believes may have dealt with the horn-owning Amalthea and represented her as an innkeeper.

According to the Bibliotheca – a 1st- or 2nd-century AD mythological compendium by an author referred to as "Apollodorus" – the 5th-century BC mythographer Pherecydes described the horn's ability to provide endless food and drink as desired. Apollodorus also transmits that it is considered to belong to Amalthea, a nymph (a type of young, female divinity).Template:Refn In a lost poem by the 5th-century BC poet Pindar, Heracles fought against the river god Achelous (who was in the form of a bull) for the hand of Deianeira, and during the fight Heracles pulled off one of his opponent's horns. Achelous reclaimed this horn from Heracles by trading it for a magical horn obtained from Amalthea, a daughter of Oceanus.Template:Refn In the same passage in which he cites Pherecydes, Apollodorus retells this story; he describes the nymph Amalthea as the daughter of Haemonius, whose name, meaning "Thessalian", indicates that she is separate from the nurse of Zeus.Template:Refn In Apollodorus's account, Amalthea's horn is that of a bull (an element also mentioned by the 4th-to-3rd-century BC comic poet Philemon),Template:Refn seemingly a result of confusion with the bull's horn of Achelous. In the versions of the myth told by Diodorus Siculus (1st century BC) and Strabo (1st century BC/AD), the horn of Amalthea is identified with that of Achelous.Template:Refn

Nurse of Zeus

In stories of Zeus's infancy, Amalthea is the figure most commonly described as his nurse, and in this role she is often considered a nymph.Template:Refn She appeared in the account of Zeus's upbringing from the now-lost Eumolpia, probably a theogony composed in or before the second half of the 4th century BC, and attributed in antiquity to the mythical poet Musaeus.Template:Refn This account is described in a summary – written by an author referred to as "Pseudo-Eratosthenes" – of the Catasterismi, a now-lost work of astral mythology attributed to the 3rd-to-2nd-century BC scholar Eratosthenes.Template:Refn According to Pseudo-Eratosthenes, in the version by Musaeus, Zeus's mother Rhea gives him as a newborn to the goddess Themis; he is then handed over to the nymph Amalthea, who has the infant reared by a she-goat.Template:Sfnm This goat is said to be the offspring of the god Helios; she is so terrifying in appearance that, out of fear, the Titans (the gods from the generation before Zeus) had asked Gaia, their mother, to conceal her in a Cretan cave. Gaia complied, entrusting the goat to Amalthea.Template:Sfnm After Zeus reaches adulthood, he receives an oracle advising him to use the goat's skin as a weapon in his war against the Titans, because of its terrifying nature. The narrative from Musaeus is also recounted in De astronomia,Template:Refn a work of astral mythology probably composed in the 2nd century AD.Template:Refn De astronomia specifies that this goatskin used against the Titans is the aegis (a divine attribute which varies in form depending on the source).Template:Refn

Various accounts of Zeus's upbringing present Amalthea as a goat; these versions start appearing in the Hellenistic period (c. 323–30 BC). The earliest known author to describe her as a goat is the 3rd-century BC poet Callimachus, in his Hymn to Zeus.Template:Refn He relates that, after Zeus's birth, the god is taken by the Arcadian nymph Neda to a hidden location in Crete, where he is reared by the nymph Adrasteia and fed the milk of Amalthea.Template:Refn In his description of Zeus's suckling of the breast of Amalthea, Callimachus employs the word Template:Translit (), which suggests the breast of a human rather than the teat of a goat; in doing so, Susan Stephens writes that Callimachus "calls attention to his own rationalizing variant of the myth".Template:Refn According to a scholium on Callimachus's account (that is, a marginal note in a manuscript of his text), from one of Amalthea's horns flows ambrosia and from the other comes nectar (the food and drink of the gods, respectively).Template:Refn In the version of Zeus's infancy from Diodorus Siculus, the child is reared by nymphs on the milk of the goat Amalthea, as well as honey;Template:Refn Diodorus Siculus adds that Amalthea is the source of Zeus's epithet Template:Translit (, Template:Gloss).Template:Refn An account which is largely the same as that given by Pseudo-Eratosthenes is found in a scholium on the Iliad, though the scholiast (the scholium's author) describes Amalthea herself as the goat which terrifies the Titans.Template:Refn

In works of astral mythology, the tale of the goat who nurses the young Zeus is adapted to provide an aition (or origin myth) for certain stars. The 3rd-century BC poet Aratus, in his description of the constellation of the Charioteer (Auriga), explains that the star of the Goat (Capella) sits on the Charioteer's left shoulder.Template:Refn He identifies this goat with Amalthea, describing it as the goat who suckled Zeus;Template:Refn in this passage, he employs the word Template:Translit for the goat's breast, similarly to Callimachus, who may be his source for this information. He also refers to her as the "Olenian" goat, which may be an allusion to a version in which Zeus is reared (by a goat) near the Achaean city of Olenos, or to the location of the star on the arm (Template:Translit, ) of the Charioteer.Template:Refn Alternatively, it may indicate that the goat's father is Olenus (the son of Hephaestus),Template:Sfnm an interpretation given by a scholium on the passage.Template:Refn At the end of the account given by Pseudo-Eratosthenes, the text contains a lacuna (or gap), where it has been proposed that Zeus was described as placing the goat among the stars.Template:Sfnm Emma Gee believes that in the Catasterismi the god would have performed this action for the goat's role in his defeat of the Titans, and her nursing of him during his youth.

Merging of traditions

According to Robert Fowler, the nursing of Zeus by a goat and the originally independent tradition of the magical horn had become "entangled" by the time of Pherecydes. Jan N. Bremmer writes that the Roman poet Ovid (active around the beginning of the 1st century AD) was the first to bring the two tales together. In Ovid's account, presented in his Fasti,Template:Refn Amalthea is once again the goat's owner,Template:Sfnm and is a naiad (or water nymph) who lives on Mount Ida.Template:Sfnm She hides the young Zeus in Crete (away from his father, Cronus), where he is suckled by the she-goat. On one occasion, the goat snaps off one of its horns on a tree, and Amalthea, filling the broken horn with fruit, brings it back to Zeus;Template:Sfnm this tale, an aition for the cornucopia, appears to be the earliest attempt at providing an origin for the object. Zeus later places the goat (and perhaps her broken-off horn) in the heavens, the goat becoming the star Capella.Template:Refn Ovid's narrative brings together elements from multiple earlier accounts, which he intertwines in an episode characterised by John F. Miller as a "miniature masterpiece". His source for the narrative's overall outline appears to be Eratosthenes: he describes Amalthea as a nymph,Template:Sfnm and seemingly alludes to Zeus's war with the Titans. He notably departs from the Eratosthenic story by describing the goat as 'beautiful' () and as having majestic horns. Ovid harks back to Aratus in the first words of his narrative, which mirror the opening phrase of Aratus's poem,Template:Refn and by describing the goat as "Olenian".Template:Refn Barbara Boyd also sees in Ovid's narrative considerable influence from the Callimachean account of Zeus's infancy.Template:Refn

Miller points to a garbled scholium on Aratus's account as evidence that the story of Zeus's upbringing and that of Amalthea's magical horn may have already been connected by the time of Ovid.Template:Refn Two variants appear to be mixed in this scholium: Zeus's nurse is an Arcadian woman in the first, and a goat in the second. The scholiast describes the horn of this nurse as Amalthea's horn, which he associates with the constellation of the Goat; Amalthea's horn would seem here to be the magical horn of plenty, though the two are not explicitly identified.Template:Refn Miller also points, as possible further evidence of a tradition in which the two tales were connected, to the scholiast on Callimachus, whose mention of ambrosia and nectar flowing from the goat's horns may have been related to the young Zeus's nourishment.

Later versions

Two men holding shields stand in front of a baby drinking the milk of a goat

The goat Amalthea suckles the infant Zeus, behind two Kouretes who dance raucously. Marble relief from the 2nd century AD, Capitoline Museum.Template:Refn

An account of Zeus's infancy appears in the Fabulae, a mythological handbook which has been attributed to Gaius Julius Hyginus and was probably composed in the 2nd century AD.Template:Refn In this version, unlike in Hesiod's Theogony,Template:Refn Zeus's elder siblings (or some of them) are not swallowed, though Rhea still gives Cronus a stone in place of Zeus, which he consumes.Template:Refn Upon realising the deception, Cronus scours the earth for his son, while Zeus's sister Hera carries the infant to Crete, where she entrusts him to Amalthea, a nymph in this account.Template:Refn To keep Zeus from his father, Amalthea hides him in a cradle, which she places in a tree, so that he "could not be found in the sky, on earth, or on the sea".Template:Refn To prevent Cronus from hearing the child's cries, Amalthea gathers the Kouretes and supplies them with shields and spears, which she instructs them to clang noisily around the child.Template:Refn According to Martin Nilsson, this account is not fully a creation of the poet, and probably has some basis in a connection between the young Zeus and tree worship. Later in the work, Hyginus mentions ,Template:Refn who has been interpreted as Amalthea;Template:Refn he calls this figure one of the daughters of Ocean (that is, the Titan Oceanus),Template:Refn alongside Adrasteia and Ida. He adds that these three are alternatively considered daughters of Melisseus, the mythical king of Crete, and nurses of Zeus.Template:Refn

Other versions of Zeus's upbringing also describe Amalthea as related to Melisseus.Template:Refn In the account given by the late-1st-century BC writer Didymus, the infant Zeus is raised by the nymphs Amalthea and Melissa, the daughters of Melisseus, who feed him honey and the milk of a goat.Template:Refn In Apollodorus's version of Zeus's infancy, the god is born in a cave on Mount Dicte in Crete, where he is fed the milk of Amalthea. He is raised by the nymphs Adrasteia and Ida, the daughters of Melisseus, and protected by the Kouretes, who noisily clang their spears and shields.Template:Refn

Amalthea also seems to have appeared in the now-lost Orphic Rhapsodies, a 1st-century BC or 1st-century AD theogony attributed to the mythical poet Orpheus in antiquity.Template:Refn Luc Brisson and West believe that in the poem Amalthea was the wife of Melisseus (a detail transmitted by the 5th-century AD Neoplatonist philosopher Hermias)Template:Refn and that her daughters by him, the nymphs Adrasteia and Ida, raised Zeus in the cave of the goddess Night while the Kouretes guarded its entrance.Template:Sfnm According to the reconstruction of the poem by Template:Ill, Zeus was raised by the nymphs Adrasteia and Ida (still the daughters of Melisseus) and fed the milk of Amalthea, whom Bernabé describes as a "goat-nymph".Template:Refn An Orphic work may have been the source for the version of Zeus's upbringing told by Apollodorus.

Diodorus Siculus, in a euhemerist reworking of Amalthea's myth, describes her as an especially beautiful young woman and the lover of Ammon, who is the king of Libya. Ammon gives her a region of great fertility which is shaped like a bull's horn, and which, taking its name from her, comes to be known as "Amalthea's horn".Template:Refn Diodorus Siculus adds that this name is thus used by later generations to refer to any exceptionally fertile and fruitful piece of land.Template:Refn In this version, Amalthea and Ammon are also the parents of the god Dionysus.Template:Refn The location of Amalthea's rearing of Zeus was evoked in the 1st century BC by an belonging to Atticus, a friend of the Roman statesman Cicero.Template:Refn The form of this is unknown, although Template:Ill believes that it included a cave and a gallery housing portraits of distinguished Romans.Template:Refn In the version of the myth from the 2nd-century AD Greek writer Zenobius, when Zeus places the goat from his childhood among the stars, he sets aside one of her horns, which he gives to the nymphs who raised him, imbuing it with its magical abilities.Template:Refn De astronomia, which presents an account of the goat Amalthea's nursing of Jupiter (the equivalent of Zeus in Latin literature),Template:Refn later states that Amalthea also raises Aegipan, a figure who is in some sources indistinct from the rustic god Pan.Template:Refn Nonnus, a 5th-century AD Greek writer, describes Pan as the shepherd of the goat Amalthea.Template:Refn

In art

Ancient

Amalthea's extant iconography in ancient Greek and Roman art is limited.Template:Sfnm She is represented either as a nymph or a goat, the latter the more common form.Template:Refn On a Campana relief (a type of Roman terracotta relief) dating to the late 1st century BC or early 1st century AD, she is shown nursing Zeus (who sits in her lap) without the presence of a goat; two Kouretes carry swords and shields, one on each side of her.Template:Refn As a goat, Amalthea is often shown suckling Zeus, or with the child mounted upon her back. A 2nd-century AD marble relief depicts her as a goat giving the child her milk, behind two dancing Kouretes who clang their swords on their shields.Template:Refn Amalthea is also depicted on coins and medallions from the Roman Empire, including those from the reigns of Titus (79–81 AD) and Gallienus (253–268 AD).Template:Sfnm Coins from Crete and Anatolia (modern-day Turkey) portray her as a nymph holding Zeus, sometimes with a cornucopia present.

Modern

• Painting of the child Jupiter being suckled by the goat Amalthea, whose hind legs are held in the air by a woman
  Giulio Romano's The Nurture of Jupiter (created shortly after 1533)Template:Refn
• Painting of the child Jupiter drinking from the teat of the goat Amalthea, with several people attending
  Giorgio Vasari's The Infancy of Jupiter (1555–1556)
• Sculptural group on a round base depicting the goat Amalthea, the child Jupiter, and a small satyr
  Gian Lorenzo Bernini's The Goat Amalthea with the Infant Jupiter and a Faun (before 1615)Template:Refn
• Painting of a woman milking the goat Amalthea, beside the infant Jupiter and a satyr
  Jacob Jordaens's The Infant Jupiter Fed by the Goat Amalthea (c. 1630–1635)Template:Refn
• Painting of Amalthea as a woman, feeding the young Jupiter milk, with a goat nearby
  Nicolas Poussin's The Nurture of Jupiter (c. 1639)Template:Refn

Sculpture of Amalthea as a young woman, nude but for drapery, with a goat beside her

Pierre Julien's Young Woman with a Goat, or Amalthea (completed in 1787)Template:Refn

Amalthea was represented as a goat by the Italian artist Giulio Romano, in a painting executed shortly after 1533 as part of a series of twelve works illustrating scenes from Jupiter's upbringing.Template:Refn She is shown with her rear end raised in the air by a nymph, below which the child drinks from her teats.Template:Refn A painting of Amalthea as a nymph, executed by the Italian artist Giorgio Vasari in 1555 or 1556, was afforded a central position in the Sala di Giove (Template:Gloss) of the Palazzo Vecchio, located in Florence.Template:Refn In his own writings, Vasari explains the work's meaning: the child Jupiter, who represents Cosimo I de' Medici (the Duke of Florence and the building's owner), receives foresight from the goat milk fed to him by Amalthea and wisdom from the honey provided by the nymph Melissa.

Amalthea was the subject of a sculpture attributed to the Baroque sculptor Gian Lorenzo Bernini, among his first works, produced before 1615 (in which year he turned 17).Template:Refn It depicts Amalthea as a goat, with the infant Jupiter drinking her milk, accompanied by a miniature satyr; it diverges from the ancient artistic tradition by having Jupiter feed himself. The realistic carving of the statue's surface is reminiscent of that of Hellenistic sculptures, and until recent times it was thought to have been produced in antiquity.Template:Refn It was under the ownership of the cardinal Scipione Borghese by 1615, and may have been seen as containing a political meaning: Amalthea, embodying abundance, may have symbolised the "Golden Age" ushered in under the papacy of Pope Paul V (who was also part of the Borghese family).

The myth of the goat Amalthea was a favourite subject of the Flemish painter Jacob Jordaens.Template:Sfnm Around 1630 to 1635, he created a painting in which Amalthea is being milked by Adrasteia beside a young, bawling Jupiter, bottle in hand. A print after this painting by the Frisian engraver Schelte a Bolswert is accompanied by a Latin inscription which presents a moral interpretation of the myth: it explains that Jupiter's adulterous proclivities are unsurprising given he was raised amongst satyrs, on the milk of a goat.Template:Refn Jordaens's other paintings of Amalthea include elements such as a satyr playing a flute or tambourine, and a nymph holding a milk pitcher while looking at the audience.Template:Sfnm Around 1636 to 1637, the French painter Nicolas Poussin created a painting of the myth of Amalthea inspired by an engraving (after Romano's painting) by the 16th-century Italian artist Giulio Bonasone. Poussin's second painting of the scene, dating to around 1639, portrays Amalthea as a woman holding a valuable receptacle containing goat's milk, from which the child drinks.

In 1787, the French sculptor Pierre Julien completed a white marble statue depicting Amalthea as a nymph, seated on a rock, with her hand grasping the lead of her goat. Julien's Amalthea is a young, nude woman endowed with full hips, her pose echoing the Venus de' Medici.Template:Refn The sculpture was the central element of the dairy at Rambouillet, which Louis XVI had commissioned for his wife Marie Antoinette. Installed in 1787, the statue was situated in a grotto within the building, a placement Meredith Martin sees as indicating that the dairy was an allusion to the cave from the myth of Jupiter's upbringing;Template:Refn this grotto included artificial rocks, flowing water, and a skylight.Template:Refn Along the walls of the room that contained the grotto were two friezes, one of which depicted Amalthea as a goat, nursing Jupiter.

See also

• Heiðrún, cosmic goat in Norse mythology
• Human–animal breastfeeding

References

• Astour, Michael C., "Aegean Place-Names in an Egyptian Inscription", in American Journal of Archaeology, Vol. 70, No. 4, pp. 313–317, 1966. JSTOR 502320.
• Athanassakis, Apostolos N., Hesiod: Theogony, Works and Days, Shield, Baltimore, Johns Hopkins University Press, 2022. Template:ISBN.
• Auwera, Joost Vander, and Irene Schaudies, Jordaens and the Antique, Brussels, Mercatorfonds, 2012. Template:ISBN.
• Bernabé, Alberto (2004), Poetae epici Graeci: Testimonia et fragmenta, Pars II: Orphicorum et Orphicis similium testimonia et fragmenta, Fasc 1, Bibliotheca Teubneriana, Munich and Leipzig, K. G. Saur Verlag, 2004. Template:ISBN. .
• Bernabé, Alberto (2007), Poetae epici Graeci: Testimonia et fragmenta, Pars II: Musaeus. Linus. Epimenides. Papyrus Derveni. Indices, Fasc 3, Bibliotheca Teubneriana, Berlin, De Gruyter, 2007. Template:ISBN. .
• Bernabé, Alberto (2008), "Teogonías Órficas", in Orfeo y la tradición órfica, pp. 291–324, edited by Alberto Bernabé and Fransec Casadesús, Madrid, Akal, 2008. Template:ISBN.
• Betegh, Gábor, "On Eudemus Fr. 150 (Wehrli)", in Eudemus of Rhodes, pp. 337–357, edited by István Bodnár and William W. Fortenbaugh, Abingdon and New York, Routledge, 2002. Template:ISBN. .
• Binder, Carsten, "Thessalus (1)", in Brill's New Pauly: Encyclopaedia of the Ancient World. Antiquity, Volume 14, Sym – Tub, edited by Hubert Cancik and Helmuth Schneider, Leiden, Brill, 2009. Template:ISBN. Internet Archive.
• Bömer, Franz, P. Ovidius Naso: Die Fasten. Band II: Kommentar, Heidelberg, Universitätsverlag Winter, 1958. Template:Catalog lookup link. Internet Archive.
• Bowen, Anthony, and Peter Garnsey, Lactantius: Divine Institutes, Liverpool, Liverpool University Press, 2003. Template:ISBN. Internet Archive.
• Bowie, Ewen, "Phocylides (1)", in Brill's New Pauly: Encyclopaedia of the Ancient World. Antiquity, Volume 11, Phi – Prok, edited by Hubert Cancik and Helmuth Schneider, Leiden, Brill, 2007. Template:ISBN. Internet Archive.
• Boyd, Barbara Weiden, "Celabitur Auctor: The Crisis of Authority and Narrative Patterning in Ovid Fasti 5", in Phoenix, Vol. 54, No. 1/2, pp. 64–98, 2000. JSTOR 1089091.
• Boyle, A. J., and R. D. Woodard, Ovid: Fasti, London and New York, Penguin Books, 2000. Template:ISBN. Internet Archive.
• Braswell, Bruce Karl, Didymos of Alexandria: Commentary on Pindar, Basel, Schwabe, 2017. Template:ISBN.
• Bremmer, Jan N., "Amalthea", in Brill's New Pauly: Encyclopaedia of the Ancient World. Antiquity, Volume 1: A – Ari, edited by Hubert Cancik and Helmuth Schneider, Leiden and Boston, Brill, 2002. Template:ISBN.
• Brisson, Luc, Orphée et l'Orphisme dans l'Antiquité gréco-romaine, Aldershot, Variorum, 1995. Template:ISBN.
• Buddensieg, Tilmann, "Die Ziege Amalthea von Riccio und Falconetto", in Jahrbuch der Berliner Museen, Vol. 5, pp. 121–150, 1963. JSTOR 4125642.
• Bull, Malcolm, The Mirror of the Gods: Classical Mythology in Renaissance Art, London, Penguin, 2005. Template:ISBN.
• Campbell, David A., Greek Lyric Poetry: A Selection of Early Greek Lyric, Elegiac and Iambic Poetry, London and New York, Bloomsbury, 1982. Template:ISBN. Internet Archive.
• Chrysanthou, Anthi, Defining Orphism: The Beliefs, the Teletae and the Writings, Berlin and Boston, De Gruyter, 2020. Template:ISBN. .
• Clayman, Dee L., Callimachus. Hecale. Hymns. Epigrams, Loeb Classical Library No. 129, Cambridge, Massachusetts, Harvard University Press, 2022. Template:ISBN. Loeb Classical Library.
• Davies, Gilbert Austin, The Trachiniae of Sophocles, London, Cambridge University Press, 1908. Template:Catalog lookup link. Internet Archive.
• Diels, Hermann A., Die Fragmente der Vorsokratiker, Volume II, Berlin, Weidmann, 1912. Template:Catalog lookup link. Internet Archive.
• Dindorf, Karl Wilhelm, Scholia Graeca in Homeri Iliadem, Volume II, Oxford, Clarendon Press, 1875. Template:Catalog lookup link. Internet Archive. Perseus Digital Library.
• Draper, James David, and Guilhem Scherf, Playing with Fire: European Terracotta Models, 1740–1840, New York, Metropolitan Museum of Art, 2003. Template:ISBN.
• Farnell, Lewis Richard, The Cults of the Greek States, Volume I, Oxford, Clarendon Press, 1896. Template:Catalog lookup link. Internet Archive.
• Fontenrose, Joseph Eddy, Python: A Study of Delphic Myth and Its Origins, Berkeley, Los Angeles, and London, University of California Press, 1959. Template:ISBN.
• Fowler, Robert L. (2000), Early Greek Mythography: Volume 1: Text and Introduction, Oxford, Oxford University Press, 2000. Template:ISBN. .
• Fowler, Robert L. (2013), Early Greek Mythography: Volume 2: Commentary, Oxford, Oxford University Press, 2013. Template:ISBN. .
• Frazer, James George (1921), Apollodorus. The Library, Volume I: Books 1–3.9, Loeb Classical Library No. 121, Cambridge, Massachusetts, Harvard University Press, 1921. Template:ISBN. Loeb Classical Library. Perseus Digital Library.
• Frazer, James George (1929a), Fastorum Libri Sex: The Fasti of Ovid. Vol. III: Commentary on Books III and IV, London, Macmillan, 1929. Template:Catalog lookup link. Internet Archive.
• Frazer, James George (1929b), Fastorum Libri Sex: The Fasti of Ovid. Vol. IV: Commentary on Books V and VI, London, Macmillan, 1929. Template:Catalog lookup link. Internet Archive.
• Frey, Alexandra, "Melisseus", in Brill's New Pauly: Encyclopaedia of the Ancient World. Antiquity, Volume 8: Lyd – Mine, edited by Hubert Cancik and Helmuth Schneider, Leiden and Boston, Brill, 2006. Template:ISBN. Internet Archive.
• Gantz, Timothy, Early Greek Myth: A Guide to Literary and Artistic Sources, Baltimore, Johns Hopkins University Press, 1993. Template:ISBN. Internet Archive: Volume 1.
• Gee, Emma, Ovid, Aratus and Augustus: Astronomy in Ovid's Fasti, Cambridge, Cambridge University Press, 2000. Template:ISBN. Internet Archive.
• Gerber, Douglas E., Greek Elegiac Poetry: From the Seventh to the Fifth Centuries BC, Loeb Classical Library No. 258, Cambridge, Massachusetts, Harvard University Press, 1999. Template:ISBN. Loeb Classical Library.
• Graf, Fritz, "Orphic literature", in Oxford Classical Dictionary, edited by Tim Whitmarsh, New York, Oxford University Press, 2016. Template:ISBN.
• Grimal, Pierre, The Dictionary of Classical Mythology, Malden, Oxford, and Carlton, Blackwell Publishing, 1986. Template:ISBN. Internet Archive.
• Gruppe, Otto, Griechische Mythologie und Religionsgeschichte, Volume II, Munich, C. H. Beck, 1906. Template:Catalog lookup link. Internet Archive.
• Hansen, William, Handbook of Classical Mythology, Santa Barbara, ABC-Clio, 2004. Template:ISBN. Internet Archive.
• Hard, Robin (2004), The Routledge Handbook of Greek Mythology: Based on H.J. Rose's "Handbook of Greek Mythology", London and New York, Routledge, 2004. Template:ISBN. . Internet Archive.
• Hard, Robin (2015), Eratosthenes and Hyginus: Constellation Myths, With Aratus's Phaenomena, Oxford, Oxford University Press, 2015. Template:ISBN.
• Hartt, Frederick, Giulio Romano. Volume I: Text, New Haven, Yale University Press, 1958. Template:Catalog lookup link.
• Heitzmann, Annick, "La laiterie de Rambouillet", in Versalia. Revue de la Société des Amis de Versailles, Vol. 10, pp. 46–57, 2007. .
• Henig, Martin, "Amaltheia", in Lexicon Iconographicum Mythologiae Classicae (LIMC). I.1: Aara – Aphlad, pp. 582–584, Zurich and Munich, Artemis Verlag, 1981. Template:ISBN. Internet Archive.
• Hibbard, Howard, Bernini, Harmondsworth, Penguin, 1965. Template:Catalog lookup link. Internet Archive.
• d'Hulst, Roger Adolf, Jacob Jordaens (1593–1678). Volume II: Drawings and Prints, Brussels, Gemeentekrediet, 1993. Template:ISBN. Internet Archive.
• d'Hulst, Roger Adolf, Nora de Poorter, and Marc Vandenven, Jacob Jordaens (1593–1678). Volume I: Paintings and Tapestries, Brussels, Gemeentekrediet, 1993. Template:ISBN. Internet Archive.
• Hunter, Richard L., Eubulus: The Fragments, Cambridge, New York, and Melbourne, Cambridge University Press, 1983. Template:ISBN. Internet Archive.
• Hutchinson, Richard Wyatt, Prehistoric Crete, Baltimore, Penguin Books, 1962. Template:Catalog lookup link. Internet Archive.
• Jones, Horace Leonard (1927), Strabo. Geography, Volume IV: Books 8–9, Loeb Classical Library No. 196, Cambridge, Massachusetts, Harvard University Press, 1927. Template:ISBN. Loeb Classical Library. LacusCurtius.
• Jones, Horace Leonard (1928), Strabo. Geography, Volume V: Books 10–12, Loeb Classical Library No. 211, Cambridge, Massachusetts, Harvard University Press, 1928. Template:ISBN. Loeb Classical Library. LacusCurtius.
• Kanas, Nick, Star Maps: History, Artistry, and Cartography, Chichester, Praxis, 2007. Template:ISBN.
• Kassel, Rudolf, and Colin Austin (1983), Poetae Comici Graeci. Volumen IV: Aristophon – Crobylus, Berlin and New York, De Gruyter, 1983. Template:ISBN. .
• Kassel, Rudolf, and Colin Austin (1984), Poetae Comici Graeci. Volumen III,2: Aristophanes Testimonia et Fragmenta, Berlin and New York, De Gruyter, 1984. Template:ISBN. .
• Kassel, Rudolf, and Colin Austin (1989), Poetae Comici Graeci. Volumen VII: Menecrates – Xenophon, Berlin and New York, De Gruyter, 1989. Template:ISBN. .
• Kassel, Rudolf, and Colin Austin (1991), Poetae Comici Graeci. Volumen II: Agathenor – Aristonymus, Berlin and New York, De Gruyter, 1991. Template:ISBN. .
• Kerényi, Karl, The Gods of the Greeks, Thames and Hudson, London, 1951. Template:Catalog lookup link. Internet Archive.
• Kidd, Douglas, Aratus: Phaenomena, Cambridge, Cambridge University Press, 1997. Template:ISBN. Internet Archive.
• Kirichenko, Alexander, "Nothing to Do with Zeus? The Old and the New in Callimachus' First Hymn", in Gods and Religion in Hellenistic Poetry, pp. 181–201, edited by M. A. Harder, R. F. Regtuit, and G. C. Wakker, Leuven, Paris, Walpole, Peeters, 2012. Template:ISBN. Academia.
• Larson, Jennifer, Greek Nymphs: Myth, Cult, Lore, New York, Oxford University Press, 2001. Template:ISBN.
• Lavagne, Henri, Operosa Antra. Recherches sur la grotte à Rome de Sylla à Hadrien, Rome, École française de Rome, 1988. Template:ISBN. .
• Levey, Michael, Painting and Sculpture in France: 1700–1789, New Haven and London, Yale University Press, 1972. Template:ISBN. Internet Archive.
• López-Riuz, Carolina, "Siting the Gods: Narrative, Cult, and Hybrid Communities in the Iron Age Mediterranean", in Gods and Mortals in Early Greek and Near Eastern Mythology, edited by Adrian Kelly and Christopher Metcalf, Cambridge, Cambridge University Press, 2021. Template:ISBN.
• Maehler, Herwig, Pindarus Carmina cum fragmentis. Pars II: Fragmenta. Indices, Bibliotheca Teubneriana, Munich and Leipzig, K. G. Saur Verlag, 1989. Template:ISBN.
• Mair, A. W., and G. R. Mair, Callimachus, Lycophron, Aratus, Hymns and Epigrams. Lycophron: Alexandra. Aratus: Phaenomena, Loeb Classical Library No. 129, Cambridge, Massachusetts, Harvard University Press, 1921. Template:ISBN. Loeb Classical Library.
• Marshall, Peter K., Hyginus: Fabulae, Bibliotheca Teubneriana, Munich and Leipzig, K. G. Saur Verlag, 2002 (2nd edition). Template:ISBN. .
• Martin, Jean, Scholia in Aratum vetera, Bibliotheca Teubneriana, Leipzig, Teubner, 1974. Template:ISBN. Internet Archive.
• Martin, Meredith, Dairy Queens: The Politics of Pastoral Architecture from Catherini de' Medici to Marie-Antoinette, Cambridge, Massachusetts, and London, Harvard University Press, 2011. Template:ISBN.
• McLennan, George Robert, Callimachus, Hymn to Zeus: Introduction and Commentary, Rome, Edizioni dell'Ateneo, 1977. Template:Catalog lookup link.
• Meisner, Dwayne A., Orphic Tradition and the Birth of the Gods, Oxford, Oxford University Press, 2018. Template:ISBN. .
• Miller, John F., "Ovid and the Legend of Capella (Fasti 5.111–128)", in At the Crossroads of Greco-Roman History, Culture, and Religion: Papers in Memory of Carin M. C. Green, pp. 217–228, edited by Sinclair W. Bell and Lora L. Holland, Oxford, Archaeopress, 2018. Template:ISBN. .
• Montanari, Franco, The Brill Dictionary of Ancient Greek, edited by Madeleine Goh and Chad Schroeder, Leiden, Brill, 2015. Template:ISBN.
• Moore, Frank Gardner, "Cicero's Amaltheum", in Classical Philology, Vol. 1, No. 2, pp. 121–126, 1906. JSTOR 262255.
• Most, Glenn W., Hesiod, Theogony, Works and Days, Testimonia, Loeb Classical Library No. 57, Cambridge, Massachusetts, Harvard University Press, 2018. Template:ISBN. Loeb Classical Library.
• Mussies, Gerard, "Amaltheia Ἀμάλθεια", in Dictionary of Deities and Demons in the Bible, edited by Karel van der Toorn, Bob Becking, and Pieter W. van der Horst, Leiden, Boston, and Cologne, Brill, 1999. Template:ISBN. Internet Archive.
• Nilsson, Martin P., The Minoan-Mycenaean Religion and Its Survival in Greek Religion, Lund, Gleerup, 1927. Template:Catalog lookup link. Internet Archive.
• Oldfather, C. H. (1935), Diodorus Siculus. Library of History, Volume II: Books 2.35–4.58, Loeb Classical Library No. 303, Cambridge, Massachusetts, Harvard University Press, 1935. Template:ISBN. Loeb Classical Library. LacusCurtius.
• Oldfather, C. H. (1939), Diodorus Siculus. Library of History, Volume III: Books 4.59–8, Loeb Classical Library No. 340, Cambridge, Massachusetts, Harvard University Press, 1939. Template:ISBN. Loeb Classical Library. LacusCurtius.
• Olivieri, Alexander, Pseudo-Eratosthenis: Catasterismi, Bibliotheca Teubneriana, Leipzig, Teubner, 1897. Template:Catalog lookup link. Internet Archive.
• Olson, S. Douglas, Athenaeus. The Learned Banqueters, Volume VI: Books 12–13.594b, Loeb Classical Library No. 327, Cambridge, Massachusetts, Harvard University Press, 2010. Template:ISBN. Loeb Classical Library.
• Page, Denys Lionel, Poetae Melici Graeci, Oxford, Clarendon Press, 1962. Template:ISBN. Internet Archive.
• Parker, Robert, "Aegis", in Brill's New Pauly: Encyclopaedia of the Ancient World. Antiquity, Volume 1, A – Ari, edited by Hubert Cancik and Helmuth Schneider, Leiden, Brill, 2002. Template:ISBN.
• Parsons, Peter J., The Oxyrhynchus Papyri, Volume XLII, London, Egypt Exploration Society, 1974. Template:Catalog lookup link.
• Pearson, Alfred Chilton, The Fragments of Sophocles, Volume I, London and Edinburgh, Cambridge University Press, 1917. Template:Catalog lookup link. Internet Archive.
• Preimesberger, Rudolf, Paragons and Paragone: Van Eyck, Raphael, Michelangelo, Caravaggio, and Bernini, Los Angeles, Getty Publications, 2011. Template:ISBN.
• Radt, Stefan, Tragicorum Graecorum Fragmenta. Vol. 3: Aeschylus, Göttingen, Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, 1985. Template:ISBN.
• Reeder, Jane Clark, The Villa of Livia ad Gallinas Albas: A Study in the Augustan Villa and Garden, Providence, Center for Old World Archaeology and Art, 2001. Template:ISBN.
• Reitzenstein, Richard August, Der Anfang des Lexikons des Photios, Leipzig, Teubner, 1907. Template:Catalog lookup link. Internet Archive.
• Robbins, Emmet, "Anacreon (1)", in Brill's New Pauly: Encyclopaedia of the Ancient World. Antiquity, Volume 1, A – Ari, edited by Hubert Cancik and Helmuth Schneider, Leiden, Brill, 2002. Template:ISBN.
• Roscher, Wilhelm Heinrich, Ausführliches Lexikon der griechischen und römischen Mythologie, Leipzig, Teubner, 1884. Template:Catalog lookup link. Internet Archive.
• Rouse, W. H. D., Nonnos. Dionysiaca, Volume II: Books 16–35, Loeb Classical Library No. 345, Cambridge, Massachusetts, Harvard University Press, 1940. Template:ISBN. Loeb Classical Library. Internet Archive.
• Santoni, Anna, Eratostene: Epitome dei Catasterismi, Pisa, Edizioni ETS, 2009. Template:ISBN.
• Sauron, Gilles (1991), "De Buthrote à Sperlonga: À propos d'une étude récente sur le thème de la grotte dans les décors romains", in Revue Archéologique, Vol. 1, pp. 3–42, 1991. JSTOR 41745095.
• Sauron, Gilles (2007), "? Un 'Amaltheum' dans la villa d'Oplontis/Torre Annunziata", in Rivista di Studi Pompeiani, Vol. 18, pp. 41–46, 2007. JSTOR 44291142.
• Scherf, Guilhem, "Pierre Julien: Junges Mädchen mit Ziege (Jeune fille à la chèvre)", in Skulptur aus dem Louvre: 89 Werke des französischen Klassizismus, 1770–1830, pp. 126–127, edited by Christoph Brockhaus, Paris, Association Française d'Action Artistique, 1989. Template:ISBN.
• Schneidewin, Friedrich Wilhelm, Corpus Paroemiographorum Graecorum: Tomus I, Göttingen, Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, 1839. Template:Catalog lookup link. Internet Archive.
• Sinn, Friederike, Vatikanische Museen. Museo Gregoriano Profano ex Lateranense. Katalog der Skulpturen. Band III: Reliefgeschmückte Gattungen römischer Lebenskultur. Griechische Originalskulptur. Monumente orientalischer Kulte, Wiesbaden, Reichert, 2006. Template:ISBN.
• Smith, Scott R., and Stephen M. Trzaskoma, Apollodorus' Library and Hyginus' Fabulae: Two Handbooks of Greek Mythology, Indianapolis and Cambridge, Hackett Publishing, 2007. Template:ISBN. Internet Archive.
• Smith, William, Dictionary of Greek and Roman Biography and Mythology, London, John Murray, 1873. Template:Catalog lookup link. Perseus Digital Library.
• Stephens, Susan A., Callimachus: The Hymns, Oxford and New York, Oxford University Press, 2015. Template:ISBN.
• Stone, Shelley, "5.2. Campana Reliefs", in The Collection of Antiquities of the American Academy in Rome, pp. 148–153, edited by Larissa Bonfante and Helen Nagy, USA, University of Michigan, 2015. Template:ISBN.
• Sutton, Peter C., Northern European Paintings in the Philadelphia Museum of Art: From the Sixteenth Through the Nineteenth Century, Philadelphia, Philadelphia Museum of Art, 1990. Template:ISBN. Internet Archive.
• Tripp, Edward, Crowell's Handbook of Classical Mythology, New York, Thomas Y. Crowell, 1970. Template:ISBN. Internet Archive.
• van Veen, Henk, Cosimo I de' Medici and His Self-Presentation in Florentine Art and Culture, Cambridge, Cambridge University Press, 2006. Template:ISBN.
• Verdi, Richard, Nicolas Poussin: 1594–1665, London, Zwemmer, 1995. Template:ISBN. Internet Archive.
• Vian, Francis, Nonnos de Panopolis, Les Dionysiaques. Tome V: Chants XI–XIII, Collection Budé, Paris, Les Belles Lettres, 1990. Template:ISBN.
• Wernicke, Konrad, "Amaltheia (1)", in Realencyclopädie der classischen Altertumswissenschaft, Band I, Halbband 2, edited by Georg Wissowa, Stuttgart, J. B. Metzler, 1894. Template:Catalog lookup link. Wikisource.
• West, Martin Litchfield (1966), Hesiod: Theogony, Oxford, Clarendon Press, 1966. Template:ISBN. Internet Archiive.
• West, Martin Litchfield (1983), The Orphic Poems, Oxford, Clarendon Press, 1983. Template:ISBN.
• Willetts, R. F., Ancient Crete: A Social History: From Early Times until the Roman Occupation, Abingdon, Routledge, 1965. Template:ISBN.
• Winiarczyk, Marek, The "Sacred History" of Euhemerus of Messene, Berlin and Boston, De Gruyter, 2013. Template:ISBN. .
• Wittkower, Rudolf, Bernini: The Sculptor of the Roman Baroque, London, Phaidon, 1997. Template:ISBN. Internet Archive.
• Woods, David, "Gallienus, Amalthea, and the Pietas Faleri", American Journal of Numismatics, Vol. 31, pp. 189–206, 2019. JSTOR 27095032.
• Zirpolo, Lilian H., Historical Dictionary of Baroque Art and Architecture, Lanham, Toronto, and Plymouth, Scarecrow Press, 2010. Template:ISBN. Internet Archive.

External links

• Template:Sister-inline