Oxalate

Template:Short description Template:Chembox Oxalate (systematic IUPAC name: ethanedioate) is an anion with the chemical formula Template:Chem2. This dianion is colorless. It occurs naturally, including in some foods. It forms a variety of salts, for example sodium oxalate (Template:Chem2), and several esters such as dimethyl oxalate (Template:Chem2). It is a conjugate base of oxalic acid. At neutral pH in aqueous solution, oxalic acid converts completely to oxalate.

Relationship to oxalic acid

The dissociation of protons from oxalic acid proceeds in a determined order; as for other polyprotic acids, loss of a single proton results in the monovalent hydrogenoxalate anion Template:Chem2. A salt with this anion is sometimes called an acid oxalate, monobasic oxalate, or hydrogen oxalate. The equilibrium constant (K_a) for loss of the first proton is Template:Val (pK_a = 1.27). The loss of the second proton, which yields the oxalate ion, has an equilibrium constant of Template:Val (pK_a = 4.28). These values imply, in solutions with neutral pH, no oxalic acid and only trace amounts of hydrogen oxalate exist. The literature is often unclear on the distinction between Template:Chem2, Template:Chem2, and Template:Chem2, and the collection of species is referred to as oxalic acid.

Structure

The oxalate anion exists in a nonplanar conformation where the O–C–C–O dihedrals approach 90° with approximate D_2d symmetry. When chelated to cations, oxalate adopts the planar, D_2h conformation. However, in the structure of caesium oxalate Template:Chem2 the O–C–C–O dihedral angle is 81(1)°. Therefore, Template:Chem2 is more closely approximated by a D_2d symmetry structure because the two Template:Chem2 planes are staggered. Two structural forms of rubidium oxalate Template:Chem2 have been identified by single-crystal X-ray diffraction: one contains a planar and the other a staggered oxalate.

The barrier to rotation about this bond is calculated to be roughly 2–6 kcal/mol for the free dianion, Template:Chem2. Such results are consistent with the interpretation that the central C−C bond is regarded as a single bond with minimal π interactions between the two Template:Chem2 units. This barrier to rotation about the C−C bond (which formally corresponds to the difference in energy between the planar and staggered forms) may be attributed to electrostatic interactions as unfavorable O−O repulsion is maximized in the planar form.

Occurrence in nature

Oxalate occurs in many plants, where it is synthesized by the incomplete oxidation of saccharides.

Several plant foods such as the root and/or leaves of spinach, rhubarb, and buckwheat are high in oxalic acid and can contribute to the formation of kidney stones in some individuals. Other oxalate-rich plants include fat hen ("lamb's quarters"), sorrel, and several Oxalis species (also sometimes called sorrels). The root and/or leaves of rhubarb and buckwheat are high in oxalic acid. Other edible plants with significant concentrations of oxalate include, in decreasing order, star fruit (carambola), black pepper, parsley, poppy seed, amaranth, chard, beets, cocoa, chocolate, most nuts, most berries, fishtail palms, New Zealand spinach (Tetragonia tetragonioides), and beans. Leaves of the tea plant (Camellia sinensis) contain among the greatest measured concentrations of oxalic acid relative to other plants. However, the drink derived by infusion in hot water typically contains only low to moderate amounts of oxalic acid due to the small mass of leaves used for brewing.

Common high-oxalate foods

Food item	Serving	Oxalate content (mg)
Beetroot greens, cooked	Template:1/2 cup	916
Purslane, leaves, cooked	Template:1/2 cup	910
Rhubarb, stewed, no sugar	Template:1/2 cup	860
Spinach, cooked	Template:1/2 cup	750
Beet, cooked	Template:1/2 cup	675
Chard, Swiss, leaves cooked	Template:1/2 cup	660
Rhubarb, canned	Template:1/2 cup	600
Spinach, frozen	Template:1/2 cup	600
Beet, pickled	Template:1/2 cup	500
Poke greens, cooked	Template:1/2 cup	476
Almond, raw	1 oz	296
Endive, raw	20 long leaves	273
Cocoa, dry	Template:1/3 cup	254
Dandelion greens, cooked	Template:1/2 cup	246
Okra, cooked	8–9 pods	146
Sweet potato, cooked	Template:1/2 cup	141
Kale, cooked	Template:1/2 cup	125
Peanuts, raw	Template:1/3 cup (1+3⁄4 oz)	113
Turnip greens, cooked	Template:1/2 cup	110
Chocolate, unsweetened	1 oz	91
Parsnips, diced, cooked	Template:1/2 cup	81
Collard greens, cooked	Template:1/2 cup	74
Pecans, halves, raw	Template:1/3 cup (1+1⁄4 oz)	74
Tea, leaves (4-minute infusion)	1 level tsp in 7 fl oz water	72
Cereal germ, toasted	Template:1/4 cup	67
Gooseberries	Template:1/2 cup	66
Potato, Idaho white, baked	1 medium	64
Carrots, cooked	Template:1/2 cup	45
Apple, raw with skin	1 medium	41
Brussels sprouts, cooked	6–8 medium	37
Strawberries, raw	Template:1/2 cup	35
Celery, raw	2 stalks	34
Milk chocolate bar	1 bar (1.02 oz)	34
Raspberries, black, raw	Template:1/2 cup	33
Orange, edible portion	1 medium	24
Green beans, cooked	Template:1/2 cup	23
Chives, raw, chopped	1 tablespoon	19
Leeks, raw	Template:1/2 medium	15
Blackberries, raw	Template:1/2 cup	13
Concord grapes	Template:1/2 cup	13
Blueberries, raw	Template:1/2 cup	11
Redcurrants	Template:1/2 cup	11
Apricots, raw	2 medium	10
Raspberries, red, raw	Template:1/2 cup	10
Broccoli, cooked	1 large stalk	6
Cranberry juice	Template:1/2 cup (4 oz)	6

Physiological effects

File:Surface of a kidney stone.jpg

Scanning electron micrograph of the surface of a kidney stone showing tetragonal crystals of weddellite (calcium oxalate dihydrate) emerging from the amorphous central part of the stone; the horizontal length of the picture represents 0.5 mm of the figured original.

Excess consumption of oxalate-rich foods has been linked to kidney stone formation of metal ions, such as calcium oxalate, a risk factor for kidney stones.

Some fungi of the genus Aspergillus produce oxalic acid.

As a ligand for metal ions

Oxalate also forms coordination compounds where it is sometimes abbreviated as ox. It is commonly encountered as a bidentate ligand. When the oxalate chelates to a single metal center, it always adopts the planar conformation. As a bidentate ligand, it forms a 5-membered Template:Chem2 ring. An illustrative complex is potassium ferrioxalate, Template:Chem2. The drug oxaliplatin exhibits improved water solubility relative to older platinum-based drugs, avoiding the dose-limiting side-effect of nephrotoxicity. Oxalic acid and oxalates can be oxidized by permanganate in an autocatalytic reaction. One of the main applications of oxalic acid is rust-removal, which arises because oxalate forms water-soluble derivatives with the ferric ion.

Excess

An excess oxalate level in the blood is termed hyperoxalemia, and high levels of oxalate in the urine is termed hyperoxaluria.

Acquired

Although unusual, consumption of oxalates (for example, the grazing of animals on oxalate-containing plants such as Bassia hyssopifolia, or human consumption of wood sorrel or, specifically in excessive quantities, black tea) may result in kidney disease or even death due to oxalate poisoning. The New England Journal of Medicine reported acute oxalate nephropathy "almost certainly due to excessive consumption of iced tea" in a 56-year-old man, who drank "sixteen 8-ounce glasses of iced tea daily" (roughly one gallon or Template:Convert). The authors of the paper hypothesized that acute oxalate nephropathy is an underdiagnosed cause of kidney failure and suggested thorough examination of patient dietary history in cases of unexplained kidney failure without proteinuria (an excess of protein in the urine) and with large amounts of calcium oxalate in urine sediment. Oxalobacter formigenes in the gut flora may help alleviate this.

Congenital

Primary hyperoxaluria is a rare, inherited condition, resulting in increased excretion of oxalate, with oxalate stones being common.

External links

• Oxalate.org - Oxalate content of 750+ foods from university and government sources
• Oxalatecontent.com - Oxalate content database based on the latest trustworthy studies