Secular state
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States with state secularism
<templatestyles src="Legend/styles.css" /> States with state religion
<templatestyles src="Legend/styles.css" /> Ambiguous states or no data
Template:Use dmy dates Template:Status of religious freedom
A secular state is an idea pertaining to secularity, whereby a state is or purports to be officially neutral in matters of religion, supporting neither religion nor irreligion.[1] A secular state claims to treat all its citizens equally regardless of religion, and claims to avoid preferential treatment for a citizen based on their religious beliefs, affiliation or lack of either over those with other profiles.[2]
Although secular states have no state religion, the absence of an established state religion does not mean that a state is completely secular or egalitarian. For example, some states that describe themselves as secular have religious references in their national anthems and flags, laws that benefit one religion or another, or are members of the Organisation of Islamic Cooperation and of the International Religious Freedom or Belief Alliance.
Origin and practice
Secularity can be established at a state's creation (e.g., the Soviet Union, the United States) or by it later secularizing (e.g., France or Nepal). Movements for laïcité in France and separation of church and state in the United States have defined modern concepts of secularism, the United States of America being the first explicitly secular government in history. Historically, the process of secularisation typically involves granting religious freedom, disestablishing state religions, stopping public funds being used for religion, freeing the legal system from religious control, freeing up the education system, tolerating citizens who change religion or abstain from religion, and allowing political leaders to come to power regardless of their religious beliefs.[3]
In France, Italy, and Spain, for example, official holidays for the public administration tend to be Christian feast days. Any private school in France that contracts with Éducation nationale means its teachers are salaried by the state—most of the Catholic schools are in this situation and, because of history, they are the majority; however, any other religious or non-religious schools also contract this way.[4] In some European states where secularism confronts monoculturalist philanthropy, some of the main Christian denominations and sects of other religions depend on the state for some of the financial resources for their religious charities.[5] It is common in corporate law and charity law to prohibit organized religion from using those funds to organize religious worship in a separate place of worship or for conversion; the religious body itself must provide the religious content, educated clergy and laypersons to exercise its own functions and may choose to devote part of their time to the separate charities. To that effect, some of those charities establish secular organizations that manage part of or all of the donations from the main religious bodies.
Many states that are nowadays secular in practice may have legal vestiges of an earlier established religion. Secularism also has various guises that may coincide with some degree of official religiosity. In the United Kingdom, the head of state is still required to take the Coronation Oath enacted in 1688, swearing to maintain the Protestant Reformed religion and to preserve the established Church of England.[6] The UK also maintains seats in the House of Lords for 26 senior clergymen of the Church of England, known as the Lords Spiritual.[7] In Canada the Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms affords secular freedoms of conscience and religion, thought, belief, opinion and expression, including communication, assembly and association yet the Charter's preamble maintains the concept of "the supremacy of God" which would appear to disadvantage those who hold nontheistic or polytheistic beliefs, including Atheism and Buddhism.[8][9] Italy has been a secular state since the enactment of the Constitution in 1948 (stressed by a Constitutional court's decision in 1989),[10] but still recognizes a special status for the Catholic Church. The reverse progression can also occur, however; a state can go from being secular to being a religious state, as in the case of Iran where the secularized Imperial State of Iran was replaced by an Islamic Republic. Nonetheless, the last 250 years has seen a trend towards secularism.[11][12]
List of secular states by continent
Script error: No such module "Labelled list hatnote". This is the list of countries that are explicitly described as secular in their constitutions or other official state documents.
Africa
- Template:Country data Angola[13]
- Template:Country data Benin[14]
- Template:Country data Botswana[15]
- Template:Country data Burkina Faso[16]
- Template:Country data Burundi[17]
- Template:Country data Cameroon[18]
- Template:Country data Central African Republic[19]
- Template:Country data Chad[20]
- Template:Country data Comoros[21]
- Template:Country data Côte d'Ivoire[22]
- Template:Country data Congo DR[23]
- Template:Country data Congo[24]
- Template:Country data Equatorial Guinea[25]
- Template:Country data Eritrea[26]
- Template:Country data Eswatini[27]
- Template:Country data Ethiopia[28]
- Template:Country data Gabon[29]
- Template:Country data Gambia[30]
- Template:Country data Ghana[31]
- Template:Country data Guinea[32]
- Template:Country data Guinea-Bissau[33]
- Template:Country data Kenya[34]
- Template:Country data Lesotho[35]
- Template:Country data Liberia[36]
- Template:Country data Madagascar[37]
- Template:Country data Malawi[38]
- Template:Country data Mali[39]
- Template:Country data Mozambique[40]
- Template:Country data Namibia[41]
- Template:Country data Niger[42]
- Template:Country data Nigeria[43]
- Template:Country data Rwanda[44]
- Template:Country data Sao Tome and Principe[45]
- Template:Country data Senegal[46]
- Template:Country data Sierra Leone[47]
- Template:Country data South Africa[48]
- Template:Country data South Sudan[49]
- Template:Country data Sudan[50]
- Template:Country data Tanzania[51]
- Template:Country data Togo[52]
- Template:Country data Tunisia[53]
- Template:Country data Uganda[54]
- Template:Country data Zimbabwe[55]
Americas
- Template:Flagicon Antigua and Barbuda[56]
- Template:Flagicon Argentina[57]
- Template:Flagicon Bahamas[58]
- Template:Flagicon Barbados[59]
- Template:Flagicon Belize[60]
- Template:Flagicon Bolivia[61]
- Template:Flagicon Brazil[62]
- Template:Flagicon Canada[63]
- Template:Flagicon Chile[64]
- Template:Flagicon Colombia[65]
- Template:Flagicon Cuba[66]
- Template:Flagicon Dominica[67]
- Template:Flagicon Dominican Republic[68]
- Template:Flagicon Ecuador[69]
- Template:Flagicon El Salvador[70]
- Template:Flagicon Grenada[71]
- Template:Flagicon Guatemala[72]
- Template:Flagicon Guyana[73]
- Template:Flagicon Haiti[74]
- Template:Flagicon Honduras[75]
- Template:Flagicon Jamaica[76]
- Template:Flagicon Mexico[77]
- Template:Flagicon Nicaragua[78]
- Template:Flagicon Paraguay[79]
- Template:Flagicon Panama[80]
- Template:Flagicon Peru[81]
- Template:Flagicon Saint Kitts and Nevis[82]
- Template:Flagicon Saint Lucia[83]
- Template:Flagicon Saint Vincent and the Grenadines[84]
- Template:Flagicon Suriname[85]
- Template:Flagicon Trinidad and Tobago[86]
- Template:Flagicon United States[87]
- Template:Flagicon Uruguay[88]
- Template:Flagicon Venezuela[89]
Asia
- Template:Country data China[90]
- Template:Country data India[91]
- Template:Country data Indonesia[92]
- Template:Country data Japan[93]
- Template:Country data Kyrgyzstan[94]
- Template:Country data Laos[95]
- Template:Country data Lebanon[96]
- Template:Country data Mongolia[97]
- Template:Country data Nepal[98]
- Template:Country data North Korea[99]
- Template:Country data Philippines[100]
- Template:Country data Singapore[101]
- Template:Country data Republic of Korea[102]
- Template:Country data Taiwan[103]Template:Efn
- Template:Country data Tajikistan[104]
- Template:Country data Timor-Leste[105]
- Template:Country data Thailand[106]
- Template:Country data Turkmenistan[107]
- Template:Country data Uzbekistan[108]
- Template:Country data Vietnam[109]
Europe
- Template:Country data Albania[110]
- Template:Country data Andorra[111]
- Template:Country data Austria[112]
- Template:Country data Belarus[113]
- Template:Country data Belgium[114]
- Template:Country data Bosnia and Herzegovina[115]
- Template:Country data Bulgaria[116]
- Template:Country data Croatia[117]
- Template:Country data Czechia[118]
- Template:Country data Estonia[119]
- Template:Country data Finland[120]
- Template:Country data France[121]
- Template:Country data Germany[122]
- Template:Country data Greece[123]
- Template:Country data Hungary[124]
- Template:Country data Ireland[125]
- Template:Country data Italy[126]
- Template:Country data Kosovo[127]Template:Efn
- Template:Country data Latvia[128]
- Template:Country data Lithuania[129]
- Template:Country data Luxembourg
- Template:Country data Moldova[130]
- Template:Country data Kingdom of the Netherlands[131]
- Template:Country data Norway[132]
- Template:Country data Poland[133]
- Template:Country data Portugal[134]
- Template:Country data Romania[135]
- Template:Country data Serbia[136]
- Template:Country data Slovakia[137]
- Template:Country data Slovenia[138]
- Template:Country data Spain[139]
- Template:Country data Sweden[140]
- Template:Country data Switzerland[141]
- Template:Country data Ukraine[142]
Oceania
- Template:Country data Australia[143]Template:Efn
- Template:Country data Fiji[144]
- Template:Country data Kiribati[145]
- Template:Country data Marshall Islands[146]
- Template:Country data Micronesia[147]
- Template:Country data Nauru[148]
- Template:Country data New Zealand[149]
- Template:Country data Palau[150]
- Template:Country data Papua New Guinea[151]
- Template:Country data Solomon Islands[152]
- Template:Country data Vanuatu[153]
Transcontinental countries
- Template:Country data Armenia[154]
- Template:Country data Azerbaijan[155]
- Template:Country data Cyprus[156]
- Template:Country data Georgia[157]
- Template:Country data Kazakhstan[158][159]
- Template:Country data Northern Cyprus[160]Template:Efn
- Template:Country data Russia[161]
- Template:Country data Turkey[162]Template:Efn
Formerly secular states
- Template:Country data Bangladesh (1972–1977)
- The current Constitution of Bangladesh declares Islam as the state religion,[163] but also accepts the secularism as one of the fundamental principles of state policy.[164]
- In 1977, secularism was removed from the constitution by a martial law directive during the military dictatorship of Ziaur Rahman. In 1988, the Parliament of Bangladesh declared Islam as the state religion during the presidency of Hussain Muhammad Ershad. In 2010, the Bangladesh Supreme Court ruled that the removal of secularism in 1977 was illegal because it was done by an unconstitutional martial law regime.
- Template:Flagicon image Democratic Republic of Afghanistan (1978–1987)
- Afghanistan became a secular state following the Saur Revolution however Sunni Islam was briefly reinstated as the state religion under General Secretary Hafizullah Amin until his assassination in December 1979. President Mohammad Najibullah would reinstate Sunni Islam as the state religion in 1987.[165]
- Template:Flagicon image People's Republic of Kampuchea (1979–1993)
- Kampuchea was a secular state from 1979 until the restoration of its monarchy in 1993.
- Template:Country data Djibouti (1977–2010)
- Template:Flagicon image Imperial State of Iran (1925–1979)
- Iran became a de facto secular state following the 1921 Persian coup d'état with the establishment of the Pahlavi dynasty as the ruling house of the country in 1925, until the Islamic Revolution in 1979.
- Template:Country data Ba'athist Iraq (1932–1993)
- Iraq became a secular state in 1932 after its independence. However, the Ba'athist Government led by Saddam Hussein launched the Return to Faith campaign in 1993 and placed significant emphasis on Islam within all sectors of state and public life.[166]
- Template:Country data Monaco (1999–2020)
- In 2020, Monaco government re-established Catholicism as state religion.
- Template:Flagicon image Myanmar (formerly Burma) (1885–1961; 1962–2008)
- Myanmar was a secular state during the colonial period and post-independence period until 1961 and again under the socialist regime, and the military regime until 2008.
- Template:Country data Samoa (1962–2017)
- In 2017, the Samoan legislative assembly approved a constitutional amendment that instituted Christianity as the state religion.[167]
- Template:Flagcountry (1946–2025)
- Syria had been a secular state from its independence in 1946. After the collapse of the Ba'athist Government in 2024, the new Syrian transitional government, formerly the Hay'at Tahrir al-Sham rebels, placed significant emphasis Islam within the country's social fabric.[168][169]
Ambiguous countries
- Template:Country data Bangladesh
- There is constitutional ambiguity whether Bangladesh is a secular country or an Islamic country. In 2010, the high court of Bangladesh reinstated secularism as a part of the Bangladesh constitution after terming the 1977 constitutional amendment done by then Bangladesh President Ziaur Rahman as illegal.[170] Political leaders and experts have expressed uncertainty if Bangladesh is a secular state or an Islamic state.[171]Bangladesh regime changes often advocate for different type of religious freedom as in secularism or pluarism.[172]
- Template:Country data Malaysia
- In Article 3 of the Constitution of Malaysia, Islam is stated as the official religion of the country: "Islam is the religion of the Federation; but other religions may be practiced in peace and harmony in any part of the Federation." In 1956, the Alliance party submitted a memorandum to the Reid Commission, which was responsible for drafting the Malayan constitution. The memorandum quoted: "The religion of Malaya shall be Islam. The observance of this principle shall not impose any disability on non-Muslim nationals professing and practicing their own religion and shall not imply that the state is not a secular state."[173] The full text of the Memorandum was inserted into paragraph 169 of the Commission Report.[174] This suggestion was later carried forward in the Federation of Malaya Constitutional Proposals 1957 (White Paper), specifically quoted in paragraph 57: "There has been included in the proposed Federal Constitution a declaration that Islam is the religion of the Federation. This will in no way affect the present position of the Federation as a secular State...."[175] The Cobbold Commission also made another similar quote in 1962: "....we are agreed that Islam should be the national religion for the Federation. We are satisfied that the proposal in no way jeopardises freedom of religion in the Federation, which in effect would be secular."[176] In December 1987, the Lord President of the Supreme Court, Salleh Abas described Malaysia as governed by "secular law" in a court ruling.[177]
- Template:Country data Syria
- The 2025 Interim Constitution of Syria carries much of the same context of religion as prior constitutions, albeit with a slight wording change regarding the influence of Islamic jurisprudence on legislation. The new constitution however does not explicitly designate a State Religion in the same way as various other Middle Eastern countries do. Article 3 states "The religion of the President of the Republic is Islam; Islamic jurisprudence is the principal source of legislation.[178]
See also
Template:Sister project Template:Col div
- Civil religion
- Freedom of religion
- Secular education
- Secularism
- Secularity
- Secular religion
- Separation of church and state
- State atheism
- State religion
- Theocracy
- Religious law
Notes
References
Bibliography
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- Temperman, Jeroen, State Religion Relationships and Human Rights Law: Towards a Right to Religiously Neutral Governance, BRILL, 2010, Template:ISBN
- ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
- ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
- ↑ Jean Baubérot The secular principle Template:Webarchive
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- ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
- ↑ Hogg, Peter W. Canada Act 1982 Annotated. Toronto, Canada: The Carswell Company Limited, 1982.
- ↑ Paul Russell, "The supremacy of God" does not belong in the Constitution": The Globe & Mail, June 11, 1999
- ↑ Articles 3, 7, 8, 19, 20 of the Constitution of Italy; Constitutional Court's Decision n. 203/1989
- ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
- ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
- ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1"., Article 8: "The Republic of Angola shall be a secular State..."
- ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".: "The Republic of Benin shall be one - indivisible, secular, and democratic."
- ↑ Leaders say Botswana is a secular state Template:Webarchive
- ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".: "Burkina Faso is a democratic, unitary and secular state."
- ↑ Article 4 of Constitution Template:Webarchive: "Le Burundi est une République unitaire, indépendante et souveraine, laïque et démocratique."
- ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".: "... the State shall be secular."
- ↑ Article 24 of the Central African Republic's Constitution of 2016, constituteproject.org: "The Central African Republic is a State of law, unitary, sovereign, indivisible, secular and democratic."
- ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".: "Chad is a sovereign, independent, secular, social, and indivisible ..."
- ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
- ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1"., Article 30: "The Republic of Côte d’Ivoire is one and indivisible, secular, democratic and social."
- ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1"., article 1er: "République Démocratique du Congo est, dans ses frontières du 30 juin 1960, un État de droit, indépendant, souverain, uni et indivisible, social, démocratique et laïc."
- ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1"., Article 1: "The Republic of the Congo is a sovereign and independent State, decentralized, indivisible, secular, democratic, and social."
- ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
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- ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
- ↑ Article 1 of Constitution Template:Webarchive: "La Guinée est une République unitaire, indivisible, laïque, démocratique et sociale."
- ↑ Article 1 of Constitution Template:Webarchive: "Guinea-Bissau is a sovereign, democratic, secular and unitary republic."
- ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
- ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
- ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
- ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1"., Article 1: "The Malagasy People constitute a nation organized as a sovereign, unitary, republican and secular State."
- ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
- ↑ Constitution Template:Webarchive, Article 25: "Mali is an independent, sovereign, indivisible, democratic, secular, social Republic."
- ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
- ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1"., Article 1: "The Republic of Namibia is hereby established as a sovereign, secular, democratic and unitary State ..."
- ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
- ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
- ↑ Article 4 of the Rwanda's Constitution of 2003 with Amendments through 2015, constituteproject.org, Article 4: "The Rwandan State is an independent, sovereign, democratic, social and secular Republic."
- ↑ Article 154 of the Sao Tome and Principe's Constitution of 1975 with Amendments through 2003, constituteproject.org, "The following may not be the subject of a revision to the Constitution: [...] b. The secular status of the State;"
- ↑ Article 1 of the Senegal's Constitution of 2001 with Amendments through 2016, constituteproject.org, "The Republic of Senegal is secular, democratic, and social."
- ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
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- ↑ Article 3 of the Tanzania (United Republic of)'s Constitution of 1977 with Amendments through 2005, constituteproject.org, "The United Republic is a democratic, secular and socialist state which adheres to multi-party democracy"
- ↑ Article 1 of the Togo's Constitution of 1992 with Amendments through 2007, constituteproject.org, "The Togolese Republic is a State of law, secular, democratic and social."
- ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
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- ↑ Template:Multiref2
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- ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1"., "We, The People of India having solemnly resolved to constitute India into a Sovereign Socialist Secular Democratic Republic and to secure to all its..."
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- ↑ Article 1 of Constitution Template:Webarchive, Article 1: "The Kyrghyz Republic (Kyrghyzstan) shall be a sovereign unitary democratic republic created on the basis of a legal secular state."
- ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
- ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
- ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
- ↑ Script error: No such module "Footnotes".: "After 2005, the Marxist-Leninist government of reunified Nepal declared the state atheist while theoretically allowing people the right to practice their religion under the constitution."
- ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
- ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1"., "The separation of Church and State shall be inviolable."
- ↑ See Declaration of Religious Harmony, which explicitly states the secular nature of society
- ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
- ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
- ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1"., Article 1: "The Republic of Tajikistan is a sovereign, democratic, law-governed, secular, and unitary State."
- ↑ Preamble to the Constitution, "The elaboration and adoption of the Constitution of the Democratic Republic of East Timor is the culmination of the secular resistance of the Timorese People ..."
- ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
- ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1"., Article 1: "Turkmenistan is a democratic secular state ..."
- ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
- ↑ Script error: No such module "Footnotes".: "After 1975, the Marxist-Leninist government of reunified Vietnam declared the state atheist while theoretically allowing people the right to practice their religion under the constitution."
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- ↑ In Belgium, Article 20 of the Constitution provides: No one can be obliged to contribute in any way whatsoever to the acts and ceremonies of religion, nor to observe the days of rest. Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
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- ↑ Article 2 of the Charter of Fundamental Rights and Basic Freedoms Template:Webarchive
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- ↑ Fifth Amendment of the Constitution Act, 1972.
- ↑ Articles 3, 7, 8, 19, 20 of Constitution; Constitutional Court's Decision n. 203/1989
- ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
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- ↑ Article 11 of the Constitution Template:Webarchive
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- ↑ The Swedish head of state must according to the Swedish Act of Succession adhere to the Augsburg Confession
- ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
- ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1"., article 35: "The Church and religious organisations in Ukraine are separated from the State, and the school - from the Church."
- ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
- ↑ Article 4 of the 2013 Constitution of Fiji explicitly provides that Fiji is a secular state. It guarantees religious liberty, while stating, "religious belief is personal", and, "religion and the State are separate." Constitution of the Republic of Fiji Template:Webarchive, 2013
- ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
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- ↑ Section 2 of Article IV of the Micronesian constitution provides, "no law may be passed respecting an establishment of religion or impairing the free exercise of religion, except that assistance may be provided to parochial schools for non-religious purposes." Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
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- ↑ Article 2A:
The state religion of the Republic is Islam, but the State shall ensure equal status and equal right in the practice of the Hindu, Buddhist, Christian and other religions. - ↑ Article 8:
(1) The principles of nationalism, socialism, democracy and secularism, together with the principles derived from those as set out in this Part, shall constitute the fundamental principles of state policy.
(2) The principles set out in this Part shall be fundamental to the governance of Bangladesh, shall be applied by the State in the making of laws, shall be a guide to the interpretation of the Constitution and of the other laws of Bangladesh, and shall form the basis of the work of the State and of its citizens, but shall not be judicially enforceable. - ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
- ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
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- ↑ https://www.france24.com/en/middle-east/20250313-syria-leader-sharaa-signs-constitution-putting-country-under-islamist-rule-during-5-year-transition
- ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
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- ↑ Tan Sri Datuk Ahmad Ibrahim, Our Constitution and Islamic Faith, p. 8, 25 August 1987, New Straits Times
- ↑ Islam's status in our secular charter, Richard Y.W. Yeoh, Director, Institute of Research for Social Advancement, 20 July 2006, The Sun, Letters (Used by permission)
- ↑ Federation of Malaya Constitutional Proposals Kuala Lumpur: Government Printer 1957–Articles 53-61 Template:Webarchive (PDF document) hosted by Centre for Public Policy Studies Malaysia, retrieved 8 February 2013
- ↑ The birth of Malaysia: A reprint of the Report of the Commission of Enquiry, North Borneo and Sarawak, 1962 (Cobbold report) and the Report of the Inter-governmental Committee, (1962–I.G.C. report), p. 58
- ↑ Wan Azhar Wan Ahmad, Historical legal perspective, 17 March 2009, The Star (Malaysia)
- ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".