Historicity of Jesus: Difference between revisions

Revision as of 11:55, 20 June 2025

Template:Pp-vandalism Template:Short description Template:Use dmy dates

Template:Sidebar with collapsible lists The historicity of Jesus is the scholarly question in Biblical criticism and early Christian historyTemplate:Sfn of whether Jesus historically existed or was a purely mythological figure. Scholarly discussions questioning the historical existence of Jesus have remained marginal within academic circles for over two hundred years,Template:Sfn and the question of historicity was generally settled in scholarship in the early 20th century.Template:Sfn Template:Sfn Template:Sfn Template:Sfn Template:Refn Modern scholars agree that a Jewish man named Jesus of Nazareth existed in the Herodian Kingdom of Judea and the subsequent Herodian tetrarchy in the 1st century AD, upon whose life and teachings Christianity was later constructed.Template:Refn However scholars distinguish between the 'Christ of faith' as presented in the New Testament and the subsequent Christian theology and a minimal 'Jesus of history', of whom almost nothing can be known.Template:Refn

Beyond this, there is no scholarly consensus concerning most elements of Jesus's life as described in the Bible, and only two key events of the biblical story of Jesus's life are widely accepted as historical, based on the criterion of embarrassment, namely his baptism by John the Baptist and his crucifixion by the order of Pontius Pilate.Template:Sfn Template:Sfn Template:Sfn Template:Sfn Template:Sfn Template:Sfn Furthermore, the historicity of supernatural elements like his purported miracles and resurrection are deemed to be solely a matter of 'faith' or of 'theology', or lack thereof.Template:Refn

The Christ myth theory, developed in 19th century scholarship and gaining popular attraction since the turn of the 20th century,Template:Sfn Template:Sfn Template:Sfn is the view that Jesus is purely a mythological figureTemplate:Sfn and that Christianity began with belief in such a figure.Template:Sfn Proponents use a three-fold argument developed in the 19th century: that the New Testament has no historical value with respect to Jesus's existence, that there are no non-Christian references to Jesus from the first century, and that Christianity had pagan or mythical roots.Template:Sfn Template:Sfn The idea that Jesus was a purely mythical figure has a fringe status in scholarly circles and has no support in critical studies, with most such theories going without recognition or serious engagement.Template:Sfn Template:Sfn Template:Refn

Academic efforts in biblical studies to determine facts of Jesus's life are part of the "quest for the historical Jesus", and several criteria of authenticity are used in evaluating the authenticity of elements of the Gospel-story. The criterion of multiple attestation is used to argue that attestation by multiple independent sources confirms his existence. There are at least fourteen independent sources for the historicity of Jesus from multiple authors within a century of the crucifixion of JesusTemplate:Sfn such as the letters of Paul (contemporary of Jesus who personally knew eyewitnesses),Template:Refn^[1]Template:Sfn^[2]Template:Refn the gospels,^[3] and non-Christian sources such as Josephus (Jewish historian and commander in Galilee)^[4] and Tacitus (Roman historian and Senator).Template:Sfn Template:Sfn

Modern scholarship

A historical Jesus existed

Template:Main article

Scholars regard the question of historicity as generally settled in the early 20th century,Template:Sfn Template:Sfn Template:Sfn and scholars agree that a Jewish man named Jesus of Nazareth existed in the Herodian Kingdom of Judea in the 1st century AD.^[5]Template:Refn Since the 18th century, three separate scholarly quests for the historical Jesus have taken place, each with distinct characteristics and based on different research criteria, which were often developed during that phase.^[6]^[7] Modern scholarly research on the historical Jesus focuses on what is historically probable or plausible about Jesus.^[8]Template:Sfn Template:Refn

File:Sapsaphas Madaba.jpg

Part of the 6th-century Madaba Map asserting two possible baptism locations

File:Bronzino-Christ-Nice.jpg

The crucifixion of Jesus as depicted by Mannerist painter Bronzino (Template:Circa)

There is no scholarly consensus concerning most elements of Jesus's life as described in the Christian and non-Christian sources. Reconstructions of the "historical Jesus" are broadly debated for their reliability,Template:Refn Template:Refn but two events of this historical Jesus are subject to "almost universal assent," namely that Jesus was baptized by John the Baptist and was crucified by order of the Roman Prefect Pontius Pilate (who officiated 26–36 AD).Template:Sfn Template:Sfn Template:Sfn Template:Sfn Template:Sfn Template:Sfn Template:Refn Lightfoot Professor of Divinity James Dunn stated that these two facts "rank so high on the 'almost impossible to doubt or deny' scale of historical 'facts' they are obvious starting points for an attempt to clarify the what and why of Jesus' mission."Template:Sfn Template:Refn

File:Bautismo de Cristo por Navarrete el Mudo.jpg

The Baptism of Jesus by Juan Fernández Navarrete (16th century)

Based on the criterion of embarrassment, scholars argue that the early Christian Church would not have invented the painful death of their leader.^[9] The criterion of embarrassment is also used to argue in favor of the historicity of the baptism of Jesus,^[10]^[11]Template:Sfn given that John baptised for the remission of sins, although Jesus was viewed as without sin and this positioned John above Jesus.^[10]Template:Sfn Template:Sfn

In his popular book Did Jesus Exist? (2012), American New Testament scholar Bart Ehrman explained:

Nearly all critical scholars agree at least on those points about the historical Jesus. But there is obviously a lot more to say, and that is where scholarly disagreements loom large – disagreements not over whether Jesus existed but over what kind of Jewish teacher and preacher he was.Template:Sfn

Script error: No such module "Check for unknown parameters".

A distinction is made between 'the Jesus of history and the Christ of faith',Template:Refn and the historicity of the supernatural elements of the latter narrative, including his purported miracles or resurrection, are outside the reach of the historical methods.Template:Refn

Christ myth theory

Template:Main article

The Christ myth theory, which developed within scholarly research in the 19th century, is, in Geoffrey W. Bromiley's words, the view that "the story of Jesus is a piece of mythology" possessing no "substantial claims to historical fact".Template:Sfn Bart Ehrman summarises Earl Doherty's view as being "that no historical Jesus worthy of the name existed, that Christianity began with a belief in a spiritual, mythical figure, that the Gospels are essentially allegory and fiction, and that no single identifiable person lay at the root of the Galilean preaching tradition".Template:Sfn

Many mythicism proponents use a three-fold argument developed in the 19th century: that the New Testament has no historical value with respect to Jesus's existence, that there are no non-Christian references to Jesus from the first century, and that Christianity had pagan or mythical roots.Template:Sfn Template:Sfn

Mythicism has not gained traction among experts.Template:Refn The Christ myth theory has been on the fringes of scholarship for over two centuries,Template:Refn with virtually no support from scholars.Template:Sfn Template:Sfn Template:Sfn^{[web 1]}Template:Refn Virtually all scholars dismiss theories of Jesus's non-existence or regard them as refuted.Template:Refn

Mythicism is criticized on numerous grounds such as commonly being advocated by non-experts or poor scholarship, being ideologically driven, its reliance on arguments from silence, lacking positive evidence, the dismissal or distortion of sources, questionable or outdated methodologies, either no explanation or wild explanations of origins of Christian belief and early churches, and outdated comparisons with mythology.Template:Refn

David Gullotta states that modern interest in mythicism has been "amplified by internet conspiracy culture, pseudoscience, and media sensationalism".Template:Sfn Justin Meggitt, Professor of the Study of Religion at Cambridge University,^[12] partially attributed the recent cultural prominence of mythicism to the popularisation of a new wave of scholarship promoting the idea.Template:Sfn Maurice Casey and Ehrman note that many mythicism proponents are either atheists or agnostics.Template:Sfn Template:Sfn Template:Refn

Sources for the historicity of Jesus

Template:Main article

File:First century Iudaea province.gif

Judea Province during the 1st century

Methodological considerations

Multiple attestation

The criterion of multiple attestation looks at the number of early sources that mention Jesus and evaluates the reliability of those sources. To establish the existence of a person without any assumptions, one source from one author (either a supporter or opponent) is needed; for Jesus, there are at least twelve independent sources from five authors in the first century from supporters and two independent sources from two authors from non-supporters,Template:Sfn most of which represents sources that have become canonical for Christianity. Other independent sources did not survive.Template:Refn Template:Refn

There are Christian sources on the person of Jesus (the letters of Paul and the Gospels), and there are also Jewish and Roman sources (e.g. Josephus, Suetonius, Tacitus, Pliny the Younger) that mention Jesus.Template:Sfn Template:Sfn Template:Sfn From Paul, Josephus, and Tacitus alone, the existence of Jesus along with the general time and place of his activity can be confirmed.Template:Sfn

There are also apocryphal texts that are examples of the wide variety of writings from early Christianity. These are additional independent sources on Jesus's existence, and they corroborate details found in other surviving sources as a "bedrock of historical tradition".Template:Sfn Contemporary non-Christian sources in the first and second century never deny the existence of Jesus,Template:Sfn and there is also no indication that Pagan or Jewish writers in antiquity who opposed Christianity questioned the existence of Jesus.^[13]^[14] Taking into consideration that sources on other first-century individuals from Galilee were also written by either supporters or enemies as well, the sources on Jesus cannot be dismissed.Template:Sfn Template:Sfn

Early dates of the Christian oral traditions and Paul

Biblical scholarship assumes that the gospel-stories are based on oral traditions and memories of Jesus. These traditions precede the surviving gospels by decades, going back to the time of Jesus and the time of Paul's persecution of the early Christian Jews, prior to his conversion.Template:Sfn Template:Refn

According to British biblical scholar and Anglican priest Christopher M. Tuckett, most available sources are collections of early oral traditions about Jesus. He states that the historical value of traditions are not necessarily correlated with the later dates of composition of writings since even later sources can contain early tradition material.Template:Sfn TheissenTemplate:Who? and MerzTemplate:Who? state that these traditions can be dated back well before the composition of the synoptic gospels, that such traditions show local familiarity of the region, and that such traditions were explicitly called "memory", indicating biographical elements that included historical references such as notable people from his era.Template:Sfn According to Maurice Casey, some sources, such as parts of the Gospel of Mark, are translations of early Aramaic sources that indicate proximity with eyewitness testimony.Template:Sfn

Paul's letters (generally dated to circa 48–62 AD) are the earliest surviving sources on Jesus. Paul adds autobiographical details such as knowing and interacting with eyewitnesses of Jesus, including his most intimate disciples (Peter and John) and family members (his brother James) starting around 36 AD, within a few years of the crucifixion (30 or 33 AD).Template:Sfn Template:Sfn Template:Refn Paul was a contemporary of Jesus and a fairly full outline of the life of Jesus can be found throughout his letters.^[1]Template:Sfn

Reliability of sources

Template:Main article

Since the third quest for the historical Jesus, the four gospels and noncanonical texts have been viewed as more useful sources to reconstruct the life of Jesus compared to the previous quests.^[15]^[16]

German historian of religion Hans-Joachim Schoeps argued that the Gospels are unsatisfactory as they were not written as detailed historical biographies, that the non-Christian sources provide no new information, and that the sources hopelessly intertwine history and legend, but present the views and beliefs of the early disciples and the Christian community.^[17] However, evangelical New Testament scholars like Craig Blomberg argue that the source material on Jesus correlates significantly with historical data.Template:Refn

Christian origins scholar Craig A. Evans argued that there are also archeological finds that corroborate aspects of the time of Jesus mentioned in the surviving sources, such as context from Nazareth, the Caiaphas ossuary, numerous synagogue buildings, and Jehohanan, a crucified victim who had a Jewish burial after execution.^[18]^[19] Written sources and archeologist Ken Dark's excavations on Nazareth correlate with Jesus' existence, Joseph and Jesus' occupation as craftworkers, presence of literacy, existence of synagogues, Gospel accounts relating to Nazareth, and other Roman period sources on Nazareth.Template:Sfn

Other historical persons in first-century AD sources

Historiographical approaches associated with the study of the poor in the past, such as microhistory, can help assess what type of sources can be reasonably expected in the historical record for individuals like Jesus. For instance, Justin Meggitt argues that since most people in antiquity left no sign of their existence, especially the poor, it is unreasonable to expect non-Christian sources to corroborate the specific existence of someone with Jesus's socio-economic status.Template:Sfn Ehrman argues that the historical record for the first century was so lacking that no contemporary eyewitness reports for prominent individuals such as Pontius Pilate or Josephus survive.^[20] Theissen and Merz observe that even if ancient sources were to be silent on any individual, they would not impact their historicity since there are numerous instances of people whose existence is never doubted and yet were not mentioned by contemporary authors. For instance, Paul is not mentioned by Josephus or non-Christian sources; John the Baptist is not mentioned by Paul, Philo, or rabbinic writings; Rabbi Hillel is not mentioned by Josephus - despite him being a Pharisee; Bar Kochba, a leader of the Jewish revolt against the Romans, is not mentioned by Dio Cassius in his account of the revolt.Template:Sfn

With at least 14 sources by believers and nonbelievers within a century of the crucifixion, there is more evidence available for Jesus than for other notable people from 1st-century Galilee.Template:Sfn Classicist-numismatist Michael Grant argued that when the New Testament is analyzed with the same criteria used by historians on ancient writings that contain historical material, Jesus's existence cannot be denied any more than secular figures whose existence is never questioned.Template:Sfn

New Testament sources

Pauline epistles

The seven Pauline epistles considered by scholarly consensus to be genuine were written in a span of a decade starting in the late 40s (i.e., approximately 20 to 30 years after the generally accepted time period of Jesus's death) and are the earliest surviving texts that include any information about Jesus.Template:Sfn However, Paul started interacting with eyewitnesses of Jesus in the mid-30s AD, within a few years of the crucifixion, since he wrote about meeting and knowing James, the brother of Jesus^[21]Template:Refn Template:Refn Template:Refn and Jesus's intimate disciples Peter Template:Sfnand John.^[22] From Paul's writings alone, a fairly full outline of the life of Jesus can be found: his descent from Abraham and David, his upbringing in the Jewish Law, gathering together disciples (including Cephas (Peter) and John), having a brother named James, living an exemplary life, the Last Supper and the betrayal, numerous details surrounding his death and resurrection (e.g. crucifixion, Jewish involvement in putting him to death, burial, resurrection; seen by Peter, James, the twelve and others) along with numerous quotations referring to notable teachings and events found in the Gospels.^[23]Template:Sfn Template:Sfn^[2] Although Paul the Apostle provides relatively little biographical information about Jesus compared to the Gospels, he was a contemporary of Jesus and provides numerous substantial biographical elementsTemplate:Sfn and he makes it clear that he considers Jesus to have been a real person who was "born of a woman"Template:Refn and a Jew.^[2]^[24]^[25]^[26]Template:Refn Additionally, there are independent sources (Mark, John, Paul, Josephus) affirming that Jesus had brothers.Template:Sfn The particular term used by Paul to refer to Jesus being 'born of a woman' also relates to human births in other ancient literature such as Plato’s Republic and Josephus’ Antiquities.Template:Sfn

Craig A. Evans and Ehrman argue that Paul's letters are among the earliest sources that provide a direct link to people who lived with and knew Jesus since Paul was personally acquainted with Peter and John, two of Jesus's original disciples, and James, the brother of Jesus.Template:Sfn Template:Sfn Paul's first meeting with Peter and James was around 36 AD.Template:Sfn Paul is the earliest surviving source to document Jesus' death by crucifixion and his conversion occurred two years after this event.Template:Sfn Paul mentioned details in his letters such as that Jesus was a Jew, born of the line of David, and had biological brothers.Template:Sfn According to Simon Gathercole, Paul's description of Jesus's life on Earth, his personality, and family tend to establish that Paul regarded Jesus as a natural person, rather than an allegorical figure.^[27]

Synoptic Gospels

Script error: No such module "Labelled list hatnote".

File:Byzantinischer Maler um 1020 003.jpg

An 11th-century Byzantine manuscript containing the opening of the Gospel of Luke

The synoptic gospels are the primary sources of historical information about Jesus and of the religious movement he founded.^[28]^[29] The Gospels of Matthew, Mark, and Luke recount the life, ministry, crucifixion and resurrection of a Jew named Jesus who spoke Aramaic. There are different hypotheses regarding the origin of the texts because the gospels of the New Testament were written in Greek for Greek-speaking communities,^[30] and were later translated into Syriac, Latin, and Coptic.^[31] Scholars argue that the surviving gospels show usage of earlier independent written and oral sources that extended back to the time of Jesus's death, but did not survive.Template:Refn Template:Refn Template:Refn Aramaic sources have been detected in Mark's Gospel, which could indicate use of early or even eyewitness testimony when it was being written.Template:Sfn Template:Sfn Historians often study the historical reliability of the Acts of the Apostles when studying the reliability of the gospels, as the Book of Acts was seemingly written by the same author as the Gospel of Luke.^[32]

Among contemporary scholars, there is consensus that the gospels are a type of ancient biography.^[33]^[34]^[35]

Non-Christian sources

Josephus and Tacitus

Script error: No such module "Labelled list hatnote".

Non-Christian sources used to study and establish the historicity of Jesus include the Template:Circa first century Jewish historian Josephus and Roman historian Tacitus. These sources are compared to Christian sources, such as the Pauline letters and synoptic gospels, and are usually independent of each other. Similarities and differences between these sources are used in the authentication process.Template:Sfn^[36]^[37]Template:Sfn From these two independent sources alone, certain facts about Jesus can be adduced: that he existed, his personal name was Jesus, he was called a messiah, he had a brother named James, he won over Jews and gentiles, Jewish leaders had unfavorable opinions of him, Pontius Pilate decided his execution, he was executed by crucifixion, and he was executed during Pilate's governorship.^[38] Josephus and Tacitus agree on four sequential points: a movement was started by Jesus, he was executed by Pontius Pilate, his movement continued after his death, and that a group of "Christians" still existed; analogous to common knowledge of founders and their followers like Plato and Platonists.^[39]

Josephus was personally involved in Galilee, where Jesus ministered and people who knew him resided, when he was the commander of Jewish forces during the revolt against Roman occupation and trained 65,000-100,000 fighters in the region.^[40]^[4] He even stationed in Sepphoris for a time, which was 3 miles away from Jesus's hometown of Nazareth and kept contact with people in the trials of Jesus and his brother James such as the Sanhedrin and Ananus II.^[4] Jesus is referenced by Josephus twice, once in Book 18 and once in Book 20 of Antiquities of the Jews, written around 93 to 94 AD. On the first reference, the general scholarly view holds that the longer passage, known as the Testimonium Flavianum, in Book 18 most likely consists of an authentic nucleus that was subjected to later Christian interpolation or forgery.^[41]^[42] On the second reference, Josephus scholar Louis H. Feldman states that "few have doubted the genuineness" of the reference found in Antiquities 20, 9, 1 to "the brother of Jesus, who was called Christ, whose name was James".^[43]^[44]Template:Sfn^[45]

Tacitus, in his Annals (written Template:Circa), book 15, chapter 44,^[46] describes Nero's scapegoating of the Christians following the Great Fire of Rome. He writes that the founder of the sect was named Christus (the Christian title for Jesus); that he was executed under Pontius Pilate; and that the movement, initially checked, broke out again in Judea and even in Rome itself.Template:Sfn The scholarly consensus is that Tacitus' reference to the execution of Jesus by Pilate is both authentic and of historical value as an independent Roman source.Template:Sfn^[47]^[48]

Mishnah

The Mishnah (Template:Circa 200) may refer to Jesus as it reflects the early Jewish traditions of portraying Jesus as a sorcerer or magician.^[49]^[50]^[51]^[52] Other references to Jesus and his execution exist in the Talmud, but they aim to discredit his actions, not deny his existence.^[49]Template:R^[53]

Mara bar Serapion

Script error: No such module "Labelled list hatnote". Mara bar Serapion was a Stoic philosopher from the Roman province of Syria. In a letter he wrote to his son Serapion he refers to the unjust treatment of "three wise men": the murder of Socrates, the burning of Pythagoras, and the execution of "the wise king" of the Jews.Template:R^[54] Most scholars date it to shortly after 73 AD during the first century.^[55]

Notes

Template:Noteslist Template:Reflist

References

Template:Reflist

Sources

Printed sources

Template:Refbegin

Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
Boyarin, Daniel (2004). Border Lines. The Partition of Judaeo-Christianity. University of Pennsylvania Press.
Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
Script error: No such module "Citation/CS1".
Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
Doherty, Earl (1999). The Jesus Puzzle. Did Christianity Begin with a Mythical Christ? : Challenging the Existence of an Historical Jesus. Template:ISBN
Drews, Arthur & Burns, C. Deslisle (1998). The Christ Myth (Westminster College–Oxford Classics in the Study of Religion). Template:ISBN
Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
Template:Skeptoid
Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
Script error: No such module "Citation/CS1".
Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
France, R.T. (2001). The Evidence for Jesus. Hodder & Stoughton.
George, Augustin & Grelot, Pierre (Eds.) (1992). Introducción Crítica al Nuevo Testamento. Herder. Template:ISBN
Gowler, David B. (2007). What Are They Saying About the Historical Jesus?. Paulist Press.
Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
Script error: No such module "Citation/CS1".
Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
Script error: No such module "Citation/CS1".
Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
Meier, John P., A Marginal Jew: Rethinking the Historical Jesus, Anchor Bible Reference Library, Doubleday

(1991), v. 1, The Roots of the Problem and the Person, Template:ISBN

(1994), v. 2, Mentor, Message, and Miracles, Template:ISBN

(2001), v. 3, Companions and Competitors, Template:ISBN

(2009), v. 4, Law and Love, Template:ISBN

Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
Script error: No such module "Citation/CS1".
Mendenhall, George E. (2001). Ancient Israel's Faith and History: An Introduction to the Bible in Context. Template:ISBN
Messori, Vittorio (1977). Jesus hypotheses. St Paul Publications. Template:ISBN
New Oxford Annotated Bible with the Apocrypha, New Revised Standard Version. (1991) New York, Oxford University Press. Template:ISBN
Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
Wells, George A. (1988). The Historical Evidence for Jesus. Prometheus Books. Template:ISBN
Wells, George A. (1998). The Jesus Myth. Template:ISBN
Wells, George A. (2004). Can We Trust the New Testament?: Thoughts on the Reliability of Early Christian Testimony. Template:ISBN
Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
Wilson, Ian (2000). Jesus: The Evidence (1st ed.). Regnery Publishing.

Template:Refend

Web-sources

Template:Reflist

External links

Template:Jesus footer Template:The Bible and history Template:Historicity Template:Historiography

Template:Authority control

↑ ^a ^b Jesus and the Gospels: An Introduction and Survey by Craig L. Blomberg 2009 Baker Academic Template:ISBN pp. 441-442
↑ ^a ^b ^c Template:Harvtxt
↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
↑ ^a ^b ^c Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
↑ Robert M. Price (a Christian atheist) who denies the existence of Jesus agrees that this perspective runs against the views of the majority of scholars: Robert M. Price "Jesus at the Vanishing Point" in The Historical Jesus: Five Views edited by James K. Beilby & Paul Rhodes Eddy, 2009 InterVarsity, Template:ISBN p. 61
↑ Ben Witherington, The Jesus Quest: The Third Search for the Jew of Nazareth (1997) Template:ISBN pp. 9–13
↑ Jesus as a Figure in History: How Modern Historians View the Man from Galilee by Mark Allan Powell (1999) Template:ISBN pp. 19–23
↑ John, Jesus, and History Volume 1 by Paul N. Anderson, Felix Just and Tom Thatcher (2007) Template:ISBN p. 131
↑ John P. Meier "How do we decide what comes from Jesus" in The Historical Jesus in Recent Research by James D. G. Dunn and Scot McKnight 2006 Template:ISBN pp. 126–128
↑ ^a ^b Jesus as a figure in history: how modern historians view the man from Galilee by Mark Allan Powell 1998 Template:ISBN p. 47
↑ Who Is Jesus? by John Dominic Crossan, Richard G. Watts 1999 Template:ISBN pp. 31–32
↑ Professor Justin Meggitt
↑ Encyclopedia of theology: a concise Sacramentum mundi by Karl Rahner 2004 Template:ISBN pp. 730–731
↑ Van Voorst, Robert E (2000). Jesus Outside the New Testament: An Introduction to the Ancient Evidence. Eerdmans Publishing. Template:ISBN p. 15
↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
↑ Craig Evans, "Life-of-Jesus Research and the Eclipse of Mythology," Theological Studies 54 (1993) p. 13-14
↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
↑ Script error: No such module "Footnotes".: "Think again of our earlier point of comparison, Pontius Pilate. Here is a figure who was immensely significant in every way to the life and history of Palestine during the adult life of Jesus (assuming Jesus lived), politically, economically, culturally, socially. As I have indicated, there was arguably no one more important. And how many eyewitness reports of Pilate do we have from his day? None. Not a single one. The same is true of Josephus. And these are figures who were of the highest prominence in their own day."
↑ Galatians 1:19
↑ Galatians 2:9
↑ Jesus and the Gospels: An Introduction and Survey by Craig L. Blomberg 2009 Template:ISBN pp. 441-442
↑ Jesus Remembered: Christianity in the Making by James D. G. Dunn (2003) Template:ISBN p. 143
↑ Jesus Christ in History and Scripture by Edgar V. McKnight (1999) Template:ISBN p. 38
↑ Jesus according to Paul by Victor Paul Furnish (1994) Template:ISBN pp. 19–20
↑ Gathercole, Simon. "The Historical and Human Existence of Jesus in Paul’s Letters." Journal for the Study of the Historical Jesus 16.2–3 (2018): 191, n. 32.
↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
↑ Vermes, Geza. The authentic gospel of Jesus. London, Penguin Books. 2004.
↑ Mark Allan Powell (editor), The New Testament Today, p. 50 (Westminster John Knox Press, 1999). Template:ISBN
↑ Stanley E. Porter (editor), Handbook to Exegesis of the New Testament, p. 68 (Leiden, 1997). Template:ISBN
↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
↑ Stanton, G. H. (2004). Jesus and Gospel. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. p. 192.
↑ Burridge, R. A. (2006). Gospels. In J. W. Rogerson & Judith M. Lieu (Eds) The Oxford Handbook of Biblical Studies. Oxford: Oxford University Press. p. 437
↑ Wills, L. M. (1997). The Quest of the Historical Gospel: Mark, John and the Origins of the Gospel Genre. London: Routledge. p. 10.
↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
↑ Jesus and the Gospels: An Introduction and Survey by Craig L. Blomberg (2009) Template:ISBN pp. 431–436
↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
↑ Crossan, John (2009). "Response to Robert M. Price". In Beilby, James K.; Eddy, Paul R. (eds.). The Historical Jesus: Five Views. InterVarsity Press. pp. 86. Template:ISBN
↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
↑ The new complete works of Josephus by Flavius Josephus, William Whiston, Paul L. Maier Template:ISBN pp. 662–663
↑ Josephus XX by Louis H. Feldman (1965), Template:ISBN p. 496
↑ Flavius Josephus; Maier, Paul L. (December 1995). Josephus, the Essential Works: A Condensation of Jewish Antiquities and The Jewish war Template:ISBN pp. 284–285
↑ P. E. Easterling, E. J. Kenney (general editors), The Cambridge History of Latin Literature, p. 892 (Cambridge University Press, 1982, reprinted 1996) Template:ISBN
↑ Mercer dictionary of the Bible by Watson E. Mills, Roger Aubrey Bullard (2001) Template:ISBN page 343
↑ Pontius Pilate in History and Interpretation by Helen K. Bond (2004) Template:ISBN page xi
↑ ^a ^b Jesus and the Politics of his Day by E. Bammel and C. F. D. Moule (1985) Template:ISBN p. 393
↑ In Jesus: The Complete Guide edited by J. L. Houlden (8 Feb 2006) Template:ISBN pp. 693–694
↑ Jesus in the Talmud by Peter Schäfer (24 Aug 2009) Template:ISBN pp. 9, 141
↑ Jesus and the Gospels: An Introduction and Survey by Craig L. Blomberg (1 Aug 2009) Template:ISBN p. 280
↑ Kostenberger, Andreas J.; Kellum, L. Scott; Quarles, Charles L. (2009). The Cradle, the Cross, and the Crown: An Introduction to the New Testament Template:ISBN. pp. 107–109
↑ Evidence of Greek Philosophical Concepts in the Writings of Ephrem the Syrian by Ute Possekel 1999 Template:ISBN pages 29-30
↑ Van Voorst, Robert E (2000). Jesus Outside the New Testament: An Introduction to the Ancient Evidence. Eerdmans Publishing. Template:ISBN pages 53-56

Cite error: <ref> tags exist for a group named "web", but no corresponding <references group="web"/> tag was found

[ReferenceB-1] Jesus and the Gospels: An Introduction and Survey by Craig L. Blomberg 2009 Baker Academic Template:ISBN pp. 441-442

[Tuck_125-2] Template:Harvtxt

[3] Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".

[schmidt-4] Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".

[5] Robert M. Price (a Christian atheist) who denies the existence of Jesus agrees that this perspective runs against the views of the majority of scholars: Robert M. Price "Jesus at the Vanishing Point" in The Historical Jesus: Five Views edited by James K. Beilby & Paul Rhodes Eddy, 2009 InterVarsity, Template:ISBN p. 61

[BenQ9-6] Ben Witherington, The Jesus Quest: The Third Search for the Jew of Nazareth (1997) Template:ISBN pp. 9–13

[AlanP19-7] Jesus as a Figure in History: How Modern Historians View the Man from Galilee by Mark Allan Powell (1999) Template:ISBN pp. 19–23

[8] John, Jesus, and History Volume 1 by Paul N. Anderson, Felix Just and Tom Thatcher (2007) Template:ISBN p. 131

[JMeier126-9] John P. Meier "How do we decide what comes from Jesus" in The Historical Jesus in Recent Research by James D. G. Dunn and Scot McKnight 2006 Template:ISBN pp. 126–128

[Powell47-10] Jesus as a figure in history: how modern historians view the man from Galilee by Mark Allan Powell 1998 Template:ISBN p. 47

[Whois31-11] Who Is Jesus? by John Dominic Crossan, Richard G. Watts 1999 Template:ISBN pp. 31–32

[13] Professor Justin Meggitt

[Rahner730-14] Encyclopedia of theology: a concise Sacramentum mundi by Karl Rahner 2004 Template:ISBN pp. 730–731

[voorst15-15] Van Voorst, Robert E (2000). Jesus Outside the New Testament: An Introduction to the Ancient Evidence. Eerdmans Publishing. Template:ISBN p. 15

[16] Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".

[17] Craig Evans, "Life-of-Jesus Research and the Eclipse of Mythology," Theological Studies 54 (1993) p. 13-14

[Schoeps-18] Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".

[19] Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".

[20] Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".

[21] Script error: No such module "Footnotes".: "Think again of our earlier point of comparison, Pontius Pilate. Here is a figure who was immensely significant in every way to the life and history of Palestine during the adult life of Jesus (assuming Jesus lived), politically, economically, culturally, socially. As I have indicated, there was arguably no one more important. And how many eyewitness reports of Pilate do we have from his day? None. Not a single one. The same is true of Josephus. And these are figures who were of the highest prominence in their own day."

[22] Galatians 1:19

[23] Galatians 2:9

[24] Jesus and the Gospels: An Introduction and Survey by Craig L. Blomberg 2009 Template:ISBN pp. 441-442

[JRDunn143-25] Jesus Remembered: Christianity in the Making by James D. G. Dunn (2003) Template:ISBN p. 143

[McK38-26] Jesus Christ in History and Scripture by Edgar V. McKnight (1999) Template:ISBN p. 38

[Furnish19-27] Jesus according to Paul by Victor Paul Furnish (1994) Template:ISBN pp. 19–20

[28] Gathercole, Simon. "The Historical and Human Existence of Jesus in Paul’s Letters." Journal for the Study of the Historical Jesus 16.2–3 (2018): 191, n. 32.

[29] Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".

[Vermes-30] Vermes, Geza. The authentic gospel of Jesus. London, Penguin Books. 2004.

[31] Mark Allan Powell (editor), The New Testament Today, p. 50 (Westminster John Knox Press, 1999). Template:ISBN

[32] Stanley E. Porter (editor), Handbook to Exegesis of the New Testament, p. 68 (Leiden, 1997). Template:ISBN

[33] Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".

[34] Stanton, G. H. (2004). Jesus and Gospel. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. p. 192.

[35] Burridge, R. A. (2006). Gospels. In J. W. Rogerson & Judith M. Lieu (Eds) The Oxford Handbook of Biblical Studies. Oxford: Oxford University Press. p. 437

[36] Wills, L. M. (1997). The Quest of the Historical Gospel: Mark, John and the Origins of the Gospel Genre. London: Routledge. p. 10.

[ChiltonEvans1998-37] Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".

[Blomberg431-38] Jesus and the Gospels: An Introduction and Survey by Craig L. Blomberg (2009) Template:ISBN pp. 431–436

[BAS-39] Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".

[40] Crossan, John (2009). "Response to Robert M. Price". In Beilby, James K.; Eddy, Paul R. (eds.). The Historical Jesus: Five Views. InterVarsity Press. pp. 86. Template:ISBN

[41] Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".

[42] Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".

[Cradle-43] Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".

[JosephusM662-44] The new complete works of Josephus by Flavius Josephus, William Whiston, Paul L. Maier Template:ISBN pp. 662–663

[45] Josephus XX by Louis H. Feldman (1965), Template:ISBN p. 496

[46] Flavius Josephus; Maier, Paul L. (December 1995). Josephus, the Essential Works: A Condensation of Jewish Antiquities and The Jewish war Template:ISBN pp. 284–285

[47] P. E. Easterling, E. J. Kenney (general editors), The Cambridge History of Latin Literature, p. 892 (Cambridge University Press, 1982, reprinted 1996) Template:ISBN

[Bible'_page_343-48] Mercer dictionary of the Bible by Watson E. Mills, Roger Aubrey Bullard (2001) Template:ISBN page 343

[ReferenceA-49] Pontius Pilate in History and Interpretation by Helen K. Bond (2004) Template:ISBN page xi

[Bammel393-50] Jesus and the Politics of his Day by E. Bammel and C. F. D. Moule (1985) Template:ISBN p. 393

[Leslie693-51] In Jesus: The Complete Guide edited by J. L. Houlden (8 Feb 2006) Template:ISBN pp. 693–694

[PeterS141-52] Jesus in the Talmud by Peter Schäfer (24 Aug 2009) Template:ISBN pp. 9, 141

[Blom280-53] Jesus and the Gospels: An Introduction and Survey by Craig L. Blomberg (1 Aug 2009) Template:ISBN p. 280

[Kellum107-54] Kostenberger, Andreas J.; Kellum, L. Scott; Quarles, Charles L. (2009). The Cradle, the Cross, and the Crown: An Introduction to the New Testament Template:ISBN. pp. 107–109

[Ute-55] Evidence of Greek Philosophical Concepts in the Writings of Ephrem the Syrian by Ute Possekel 1999 Template:ISBN pages 29-30

[voorst53-56] Van Voorst, Robert E (2000). Jesus Outside the New Testament: An Introduction to the Ancient Evidence. Eerdmans Publishing. Template:ISBN pages 53-56

[1]

[2]

[3]

[4]

[5]

[6]

[7]

[8]

[9]

[10]

[11]

[web 1]

[12]

[13]

[14]

[15]

[16]

[17]

[18]

[19]

[20]

[21]

[22]

[23]

[24]

[25]

[26]

[27]

[28]

[29]

[30]

[31]

[32]

[33]

[34]

[35]

[36]

[37]

[38]

[39]

[40]

[41]

[42]

[43]

[44]

[45]

[46]

[47]

[48]

[49]

[50]

[51]

[52]

[53]

[54]

[55]

@@ Line 1: / Line 1: @@
+{{pp-vandalism|small=yes}}
 <includeonly></includeonly>{{Short description|Whether Jesus was a historical figure}}
 {{Use dmy dates|date=February 2020}}
-{{Jesus|expanded=in history}} The '''historicity of Jesus''' is the [[Biblical studies|scholarly]] question in [[Biblical criticism]] and early Christian history{{sfn|Meggitt|2019|p=2}} of whether [[Historical Jesus|Jesus historically]] existed or was a purely [[myth]]ological figure. "Debate on the existence of Jesus has been in the fringes of scholarship [...] for more than two centuries,"{{sfn|Van Voorst|2003|p=658}} and the question of historicity was generally settled in scholarship in the early 20th century.{{sfn|Wells|2007|p=477}}{{sfn|Casey|2014|p=1}}{{sfn|Casey|2010|p=33}}{{sfn|Johnson|2011|p=4}}{{sfn|Van Voorst|2003|pp=658, 660}}{{refn|group=note|name="Jesus existed"}} Modern scholars agree that a [[Jewish]] man named Jesus of Nazareth existed in the [[Herodian Kingdom of Judea]] and the subsequent [[Herodian tetrarchy]] in the 1st century [[Common Era|AD]], upon whose life and teachings [[Christianity]] was later constructed.{{refn|group=note|name=Jesus existed}} However scholars distinguish between the 'Christ of faith' as presented in the New Testament literature and the subsequent Christian theology, vs a minimal 'Jesus of history', of whom almost nothing can be known.{{refn|group=note|name="Christ of faith"}}
+{{Jesus|expanded=in history}} The '''historicity of Jesus''' is the [[Biblical studies|scholarly]] question in [[Biblical criticism]] and early Christian history{{sfn|Meggitt|2019|p=2}} of whether [[Historical Jesus|Jesus historically]] existed or was a purely [[myth]]ological figure. Scholarly discussions questioning the historical existence of Jesus have remained marginal within academic circles for over two hundred years,{{sfn|Van Voorst|2003|p=658}} and the question of historicity was generally settled in scholarship in the early 20th century.{{sfn|Wells|2007|p=477}}{{sfn|Casey|2010|p=33}}{{sfn|Johnson|2011|p=4}}{{sfn|Van Voorst|2003|pp=658, 660}}{{refn|group=note|name="Jesus existed"}} Modern scholars agree that a [[Jewish]] man named Jesus of Nazareth existed in the [[Herodian Kingdom of Judea]] and the subsequent [[Herodian tetrarchy]] in the 1st century [[Common Era|AD]], upon whose life and teachings [[Christianity]] was later constructed.{{refn|group=note|name=Jesus existed}} However scholars distinguish between the 'Christ of faith' as presented in the [[New Testament]] and the subsequent Christian theology and a minimal 'Jesus of history', of whom almost nothing can be known.{{refn|group=note|name="Christ of faith"}}
 Beyond this, there is no scholarly consensus concerning most elements of Jesus's life as described in the [[Bible]], and only two key events of the biblical story of Jesus's life are widely accepted as historical, based on the [[criterion of embarrassment]], namely [[Baptism of Jesus|his baptism]] by [[John the Baptist]] and [[Crucifixion of Jesus|his crucifixion]] by the order of [[Pontius Pilate]].{{sfn|Davies|Sanders|2008|pp=623–625}}{{sfn|Levine|Allison|Crossan|2006|pp=4}}{{sfn|Herzog|2005|pp=1–6}}{{sfn|Powell|1998|pp=168–173}}{{sfn|Dunn|2003|p=339}}{{sfn|Crossan|1994|p=145}} Furthermore, the historicity of supernatural elements like his purported [[Miracles of Jesus|miracles]] and [[Resurrection of Jesus|resurrection]] are deemed to be solely a matter of 'faith' or of 'theology', or lack thereof.{{refn|group=note|name=Miracles}}
-The [[Christ myth theory]], developed in 19th century scholarship and gaining popular attraction since the turn of the 20th century,{{sfn|Gray|2016|p=113-114}}{{sfn|Gullotta|2017|pp=313–314, 346}}{{sfn|Meggitt|2019|p=2}} is the view that Jesus is purely a mythological figure{{sfn|Bromiley|1982|p=1034}} and that Christianity began with belief in such a figure.{{sfn|Ehrman|2012|pp=12, 347, n.1}} Proponents use a [[Christ myth theory#Overview of main mythicist arguments|three-fold argument]] developed in the 19th century: that the New Testament has no historical value with respect to Jesus's existence, that there are no non-Christian references to Jesus from the first century, and that Christianity had pagan and/or mythical roots.{{sfn|Van Voorst|2000|p=8–9}}{{sfn|Price|2009|pp=55–83}} The idea that Jesus was a purely mythical figure has a [[fringe theory|fringe status]] in scholarly circles and has no support in [[Biblical criticism|critical studies]], with most theories on it "remain[ing] unnoticed and unaddressed."{{sfn|Gullotta|2017|p=312, 314}}{{sfn|Meggitt|2019|p=2}}{{refn|group=note|name="CMT rejected"}}
+The [[Christ myth theory]], developed in 19th century scholarship and gaining popular attraction since the turn of the 20th century,{{sfn|Gray|2016|p=113-114}}{{sfn|Gullotta|2017|pp=313–314, 346}}{{sfn|Meggitt|2019|p=2}} is the view that Jesus is purely a mythological figure{{sfn|Bromiley|1982|p=1034}} and that Christianity began with belief in such a figure.{{sfn|Ehrman|2012|pp=12, 347, n.1}} Proponents use a [[Christ myth theory#Overview of main mythicist arguments|three-fold argument]] developed in the 19th century: that the New Testament has no historical value with respect to Jesus's existence, that there are no non-Christian references to Jesus from the first century, and that Christianity had pagan or mythical roots.{{sfn|Van Voorst|2000|p=8–9}}{{sfn|Price|2009|pp=55–83}} The idea that Jesus was a purely mythical figure has a [[fringe theory|fringe status]] in scholarly circles and has no support in [[Biblical criticism|critical studies]], with most such theories going without recognition or serious engagement.{{sfn|Gullotta|2017|p=312, 314}}{{sfn|Meggitt|2019|p=2}}{{refn|group=note|name="CMT rejected"}}
-Academic efforts in biblical studies to determine facts of Jesus's life are part of the "[[quest for the historical Jesus]]", and several [[Quest for the historical Jesus#Criteria of authenticity|criteria of authenticity]] are used in evaluating the authenticity of elements of the Gospel-story. The criterion of [[multiple attestation]] is used to argue that attestation by multiple independent sources confirms his existence. There are at least fourteen independent [[sources for the historicity of Jesus]] from multiple authors within a century of the crucifixion of Jesus{{sfn|Dark|2023|p=150-151}} such as the letters of Paul (contemporary of Jesus who personally knew eyewitnesses),{{refn|group=note|name="Ehrmann_2012"}}<ref name="ReferenceB">''Jesus and the Gospels: An Introduction and Survey'' by Craig L. Blomberg 2009 Baker Academic {{ISBN|0805444823}} pp. 441-442</ref>{{sfn|Eddy|Boyd|2007|p=202,208-228}}<ref name="Tuck 125">{{harvtxt|Tuckett|2001|p=125}}</ref>{{refn|group=note|name="Paul"}} the [[gospel]]s,<ref>{{cite book |editor1-last=Gray |editor1-first=Patrick |title=The Cambridge Companion to the New Testament |date=2021 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=9781108437707 |pages=98-99|quote=At the moment, the consensus in scholarship is that the gospels are best described as a variation of Greco-Roman biography. David Aune defines an ancient biography as “a discrete prose narrative devoted exclusively to the portrayal of the whole life of a particular individual perceived as historical."...they stand in some literary analogy to the Greco-Roman biographical tradition and books such as Xenophon’s [[Memorabilia (Xenophon)|''Memoirs of Socrates'']] and similar works.}}</ref> and non-Christian sources such as [[Josephus on Jesus|Josephus]] (Jewish historian and commander in Galilee) and [[Tacitus on Christ|Tacitus]] (Roman historian and Senator).{{sfn|Davies|Sanders|2008|p=621}}{{sfn|Tuckett|2001|p=124–125}}
+Academic efforts in biblical studies to determine facts of Jesus's life are part of the "[[quest for the historical Jesus]]", and several [[Quest for the historical Jesus#Criteria of authenticity|criteria of authenticity]] are used in evaluating the authenticity of elements of the Gospel-story. The criterion of [[multiple attestation]] is used to argue that attestation by multiple independent sources confirms his existence. There are at least fourteen independent [[sources for the historicity of Jesus]] from multiple authors within a century of the crucifixion of Jesus{{sfn|Dark|2023|p=150-151}} such as the letters of Paul (contemporary of Jesus who personally knew eyewitnesses),{{refn|group=note|name="Ehrmann_2012"Ehrmann_2012"}}<ref name="ReferenceB">''Jesus and the Gospels: An Introduction and Survey'' by Craig L. Blomberg 2009 Baker Academic {{ISBN|0805444823}} pp. 441-442</ref>{{sfn|Eddy|Boyd|2007|p=202,208-228}}<ref name="Tuck 125">{{harvtxt|Tuckett|2001|p=125}}</ref>{{refn|group=note|name="Paul"}} the [[gospel]]s,<ref>{{cite book |editor1-last=Gray |editor1-first=Patrick |title=The Cambridge Companion to the New Testament |date=2021 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=9781108437707 |pages=98-99|quote=At the moment, the consensus in scholarship is that the gospels are best described as a variation of Greco-Roman biography. David Aune defines an ancient biography as “a discrete prose narrative devoted exclusively to the portrayal of the whole life of a particular individual perceived as historical."...they stand in some literary analogy to the Greco-Roman biographical tradition and books such as Xenophon’s [[Memorabilia (Xenophon)|''Memoirs of Socrates'']] and similar works.}}</ref> and non-Christian sources such as [[Josephus on Jesus|Josephus]] (Jewish historian and commander in Galilee)<ref name="schmidt">{{cite book |author=T.C. Schmidt |date=2025 |title=Josephus and Jesus: New Evidence for the One Called Christ |publisher=[[Oxford University Press]]|url=https://academic.oup.com/book/60034 |isbn=9780191957697 |page=9,145-147,149-151,188|quote=Later, in the 60s ce, Josephus was stationed in Galilee for several years at which time he visited many places where Jesus once ministered, such as Cana and Capernaum.".."Then, a year or so later, Josephus was appointed general of Galilee and later sent by ‘the first men of Jerusalem’ (τῶν Ἱεροσολυμιτῶν οἱ πρῶτοι) into Galilee itself...Upon arriving in Galilee, Josephus gathered an army of 100,000 men and began planning defenses, all while staying in communication with the ‘Sanhedrin’(τῷ συνεδρίῳ) and the ‘first men of Jerusalem’ (τῶν ἐν Ἱεροσολύμοις πρώτων). He also set about becoming familiar with the geography of Galilee and its inhabitants...Josephus was further acquainted with places where early Christians are known to have had residence. He, for example, was stationed in Sepphoris for a time, where the Tosefta (third–fourth centuries ce) reports that some early Christians were ministering. Sepphoris, like Cana, was also only three or so miles down the road from Nazareth, Jesus’ hometown, and it surely would have had citizens in Josephus’ day who remembered Jesus...Ananus II was therefore known to Josephus directly, if not intimately..It was he, the reader will remember, who considered James, the brother of Jesus, such a threat that at enormous political risk he went to the extent of having James illegally executed in 62 ce...And of course, it was this Ananus’ father and brother-in-law who personally had Jesus arrested, interrogated, and condemned to death.}}</ref> and [[Tacitus on Christ|Tacitus]] (Roman historian and Senator).{{sfn|Davies|Sanders|2008|p=621}}{{sfn|Tuckett|2001|p=124–125}}
 ==Modern scholarship==
@@ Line 38: / Line 39: @@
 The Christ myth theory, which developed within scholarly research in the 19th century, is, in [[Geoffrey W. Bromiley]]'s words, the view that "the story of Jesus is a piece of [[mythology]]" possessing no "substantial claims to historical fact".{{sfn|Bromiley|1982|p=1034}} [[Bart D. Ehrman|Bart Ehrman]] summarises [[Earl Doherty]]'s view as being "that no historical Jesus worthy of the name existed, that Christianity began with a belief in a spiritual, mythical figure, that the Gospels are essentially allegory and fiction, and that no single identifiable person lay at the root of the Galilean preaching tradition".{{sfn|Ehrman|2012|pp=12, 347, n.1}}
-Many mythicism proponents use a [[Christ myth theory#Overview of main mythicist arguments|three-fold argument]] developed in the 19th century: that the New Testament has no historical value with respect to Jesus's existence, that there are no non-Christian references to Jesus from the first century, and that Christianity had pagan and/or mythical roots.{{sfn|Van Voorst|2000|p=8–9}}{{sfn|Price|2009|pp=55–83}}
+Many mythicism proponents use a [[Christ myth theory#Overview of main mythicist arguments|three-fold argument]] developed in the 19th century: that the New Testament has no historical value with respect to Jesus's existence, that there are no non-Christian references to Jesus from the first century, and that Christianity had pagan or mythical roots.{{sfn|Van Voorst|2000|p=8–9}}{{sfn|Price|2009|pp=55–83}}
 Mythicism has not gained traction among experts.{{refn|group=note|name="CMT rejected"}} The Christ myth theory has been on the [[fringe theory|fringes]] of scholarship for over two centuries,{{refn|group=note|name="CMT rejected"}} with virtually no support from scholars.{{sfn|Van Voorst|2003|pp=658, 660}}{{sfn|Fox|2005|p=48}}{{sfn|Burridge|Gould|2004|p=34}}<ref name="Ehrman Blog" group="web">{{cite web |last=Ehrman |first=Bart |author-link=Bart D. Ehrman |date=25 April 2012 |title=Fuller Reply to Richard Carrier |url=https://ehrmanblog.org/fuller-reply-to-richard-carrier/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190217065712/https://ehrmanblog.org/fuller-reply-to-richard-carrier/ |archive-date=17 February 2019 |access-date=2 May 2018 |website=The Bart Ehrman Blog |ref=none}}</ref>{{refn|group=note|name="CMT rejected"}} Virtually all scholars dismiss theories of Jesus's non-existence or regard them as refuted.{{refn|group=note|name="CMT rejected"}}
@@ Line 44: / Line 45: @@
 Mythicism is criticized on numerous grounds such as commonly being advocated by non-experts or poor scholarship, being ideologically driven, its reliance on [[arguments from silence]], lacking positive evidence, the dismissal or distortion of sources, questionable or outdated methodologies, either no explanation or wild explanations of origins of Christian belief and early churches, and outdated comparisons with mythology.{{refn|group=note|name="criticism"}}
-David Gullotta states that modern interest in mythicism has been "amplified by internet conspiracy culture, pseudoscience, and media sensationalism".{{sfn|Gullotta|2017|pp=313–314, 346}} Justin Meggitt, Professor of the Study of Religion at Cambridge University,<ref>[https://www.divinity.cam.ac.uk/directory/justin-meggitt Professor Justin Meggitt]</ref> partially attributed the recent cultural prominence of mythicism to the popularisation of a new wave of scholarship promoting the idea.{{sfn|Meggitt|2019|pp=458-459}} [[Maurice Casey]] and Ehrman note that many mythicism proponents are either atheists or agnostics.{{sfn|Casey|2014|pp=41, 243–245}}{{sfn|Ehrman|2012|pp=336–338}}{{refn|group=note|{{harvtxt|Ehrman|2012|pp=336–338}}: "It is no accident that virtually all mythicists (in fact, all of them, to my knowledge) are either atheists or agnostics. The ones I know anything about are quite virulently, even militantly, atheist."}}
+David Gullotta states that modern interest in mythicism has been "amplified by internet conspiracy culture, pseudoscience, and media sensationalism".{{sfn|Gullotta|2017|pp=313–314, 346}} [[Justin Meggitt]], Professor of the Study of Religion at Cambridge University,<ref>[https://www.divinity.cam.ac.uk/directory/justin-meggitt Professor Justin Meggitt]</ref> partially attributed the recent cultural prominence of mythicism to the popularisation of a new wave of scholarship promoting the idea.{{sfn|Meggitt|2019|pp=458-459}} [[Maurice Casey]] and Ehrman note that many mythicism proponents are either atheists or agnostics.{{sfn|Casey|2014|pp=41, 243–245}}{{sfn|Ehrman|2012|pp=336–338}}{{refn|group=note|{{harvtxt|Ehrman|2012|pp=336–338}}: "It is no accident that virtually all mythicists (in fact, all of them, to my knowledge) are either atheists or agnostics. The ones I know anything about are quite virulently, even militantly, atheist."}}
 ==Sources for the historicity of Jesus==
@@ Line 64: / Line 65: @@
 According to British biblical scholar and Anglican priest [[Christopher M. Tuckett]], most available sources are collections of early oral traditions about Jesus. He states that the historical value of traditions are not necessarily correlated with the later dates of composition of writings since even later sources can contain early tradition material.{{sfn|Tuckett|2001|p=122}} Theissen{{Who?|date=April 2025}} and Merz{{Who?|date=April 2025}} state that these traditions can be dated back well before the composition of the synoptic gospels, that such traditions show local familiarity of the region, and that such traditions were explicitly called "memory", indicating biographical elements that included historical references such as notable people from his era.{{sfn|Theissen|Merz|1998|p=100-104}} According to [[Maurice Casey]], some sources, such as parts of the Gospel of Mark, are translations of early [[Aramaic]] sources that indicate proximity with eyewitness testimony.{{sfn|Casey|2010|p=63-64 "It also provides evidence that Mark is an unrevised literal translation of an Aramaic source, and this at a point where there is every reason to believe that the story is literally true. This means that our oldest source is sometimes perfectly accurate, because parts of it were originally written by people who were in close touch with the events of the historic ministry. This is only one short step away from eyewitness testimony".}}
-[[Pauline epistles|Paul's letters]] (generally dated to circa 48–62 AD) are the earliest surviving sources on Jesus. Paul adds autobiographical details such as knowing and interacting with eyewitnesses of Jesus, including his most intimate disciples (Peter and John) and family members (his brother James) starting around 36&nbsp;AD, within a few years of the crucifixion (30 or 33 AD).{{sfn|Ehrman|2012|pp=144–146}}{{sfn|Evans|2016}}{{refn|group=note|name="Ehrmann_2012"}} Paul was a contemporary of Jesus and a fairly full outline of the life of Jesus can be found throughout his letters.<ref name="ReferenceB"/>{{sfn|Eddy|Boyd|2007|p=202,208-228}}
+[[Pauline epistles|Paul's letters]] (generally dated to circa 48–62 AD) are the earliest surviving sources on Jesus. Paul adds autobiographical details such as knowing and interacting with eyewitnesses of Jesus, including his most intimate disciples (Peter and John) and family members (his brother James) starting around 36&nbsp;AD, within a few years of the crucifixion (30 or 33 AD).{{sfn|Ehrman|2012|pp=144–146}}{{sfn|Evans|2016}}{{refn|group=note|name="Ehrmann_2012"}} Paul was a contemporary of Jesus and a fairly full outline of the life of Jesus can be found throughout his letters.<ref name="ReferenceB">''Jesus and the Gospels: An Introduction and Survey'' by Craig L. Blomberg 2009 Baker Academic {{ISBN|0805444823}} pp. 441-442</ref>{{sfn|Eddy|Boyd|2007|p=202,208-228}}
 ====Reliability of sources====
@@ Line 99: / Line 100: @@
 {{Main|Josephus on Jesus|Tacitus on Jesus}}
-Non-Christian sources used to study and establish the historicity of Jesus include the {{circa}} first century Jewish historian Josephus and Roman historian Tacitus. These sources are compared to Christian sources, such as the Pauline letters and synoptic gospels, and are usually independent of each other. Similarities and differences between these sources are used in the authentication process.{{sfn|Tuckett|2001|pp=121–125}}<ref name="ChiltonEvans1998">{{cite book|author1=Bruce David Chilton|author2=Craig Alan Evans|title=Studying the Historical Jesus: Evaluations of the State of Current Research|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=AJM9grxOjjMC|year=1998|publisher=BRILL|pages=460–470|isbn=978-90-04-11142-4|access-date=29 May 2016|archive-date=4 October 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201004084608/https://books.google.com/books?id=AJM9grxOjjMC|url-status=live}}</ref><ref name="Blomberg431">''Jesus and the Gospels: An Introduction and Survey'' by Craig L. Blomberg (2009) {{ISBN|0-8054-4482-3}} pp. 431–436</ref>{{sfn|Van Voorst|2000|pp=39–53}} From these two independent sources alone, certain facts about Jesus can be adduced: that he existed, his personal name was Jesus, he was called a messiah, he had a brother named James, he won over Jews and gentiles, Jewish leaders had unfavorable opinions of him, Pontius Pilate decided his execution, he was executed by crucifixion, and he was executed during Pilate's governorship.<ref name="BAS">{{cite web |last1=Mykytiuk |first1=Lawrence |title=Did Jesus Exist? Searching for Evidence Beyond the Bible |url=https://www.biblicalarchaeology.org/daily/people-cultures-in-the-bible/jesus-historical-jesus/did-jesus-exist/ |website=Biblical Archaeology Society |language=en |date=January 2015}}</ref> Josephus and Tacitus agree on four sequential points: a movement was started by Jesus, he was executed by Pontius Pilate, his movement continued after his death, and that a group of "Christians" still existed; analogous to common knowledge of founders and their followers like Plato and Platonists.<ref>Crossan, John (2009). "Response to Robert M. Price". In Beilby, James K.; Eddy, Paul R. (eds.). The Historical Jesus: Five Views. InterVarsity Press. pp. 86. {{ISBN|978-0-8308-3868-4}}</ref> Josephus was personally involved in Galilee when he was the commander of Jewish forces during the revolt against Roman occupation and trained 65,000 fighters in the region.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Josephus |first1=Flavius |last2=Whiston |first2=William |last3=Maier |first3=Paul L. |title=The New Complete Works of Josephus |date=1999 |publisher=Kregel Publications |location=Grand Rapids, MI |isbn=9780825429484 |page=8}}</ref>
+Non-Christian sources used to study and establish the historicity of Jesus include the {{circa}} first century Jewish historian Josephus and Roman historian Tacitus. These sources are compared to Christian sources, such as the Pauline letters and synoptic gospels, and are usually independent of each other. Similarities and differences between these sources are used in the authentication process.{{sfn|Tuckett|2001|pp=121–125}}<ref name="ChiltonEvans1998">{{cite book|author1=Bruce David Chilton|author2=Craig Alan Evans|title=Studying the Historical Jesus: Evaluations of the State of Current Research|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=AJM9grxOjjMC|year=1998|publisher=BRILL|pages=460–470|isbn=978-90-04-11142-4|access-date=29 May 2016|archive-date=4 October 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201004084608/https://books.google.com/books?id=AJM9grxOjjMC|url-status=live}}</ref><ref name="Blomberg431">''Jesus and the Gospels: An Introduction and Survey'' by Craig L. Blomberg (2009) {{ISBN|0-8054-4482-3}} pp. 431–436</ref>{{sfn|Van Voorst|2000|pp=39–53}} From these two independent sources alone, certain facts about Jesus can be adduced: that he existed, his personal name was Jesus, he was called a messiah, he had a brother named James, he won over Jews and gentiles, Jewish leaders had unfavorable opinions of him, Pontius Pilate decided his execution, he was executed by crucifixion, and he was executed during Pilate's governorship.<ref name="BAS">{{cite web |last1=Mykytiuk |first1=Lawrence |title=Did Jesus Exist? Searching for Evidence Beyond the Bible |url=https://www.biblicalarchaeology.org/daily/people-cultures-in-the-bible/jesus-historical-jesus/did-jesus-exist/ |website=Biblical Archaeology Society |language=en |date=January 2015}}</ref> Josephus and Tacitus agree on four sequential points: a movement was started by Jesus, he was executed by Pontius Pilate, his movement continued after his death, and that a group of "Christians" still existed; analogous to common knowledge of founders and their followers like Plato and Platonists.<ref>Crossan, John (2009). "Response to Robert M. Price". In Beilby, James K.; Eddy, Paul R. (eds.). The Historical Jesus: Five Views. InterVarsity Press. pp. 86. {{ISBN|978-0-8308-3868-4}}</ref>
-Jesus is referenced by Josephus twice, once in Book [[s:The Antiquities of the Jews/Book XVIII#Chapter 3|18]] and once in Book [[s:The Antiquities of the Jews/Book XX#Chapter 9|20]]'' of [[Antiquities of the Jews]]'', written around 93 to 94&nbsp;AD. On the first reference, the general scholarly view holds that the longer passage, known as the ''[[Testimonium Flavianum]]'', in Book 18 most likely consists of an authentic nucleus that was subjected to later Christian [[interpolation (manuscripts)|interpolation]] or [[literary forgery|forgery]].<ref>{{cite book|last=Schreckenberg|first=Heinz|title=Jewish Traditions in Early Christian Literature|year=1992|isbn=978-90-232-2653-6|author2=Kurt Schubert|publisher=Van Gorcum }}</ref><ref name="Cradle">{{cite book|last=Kostenberger|first=Andreas J.|title=The Cradle, the Cross, and the Crown: An Introduction to the New Testament|year=2009|isbn=978-0-8054-4365-3|author2=L. Scott Kellum |author3=Charles L. Quarles |publisher=B&H Publishing }}</ref> On the second reference, Josephus scholar [[Louis H. Feldman]] states that "few have doubted the genuineness" of the reference found in [[s:The Antiquities of the Jews/Book XX#Chapter 9|Antiquities 20, 9, 1]] to "the brother of Jesus, who was called Christ, whose name was James".<ref name=JosephusM662 >''The new complete works of Josephus'' by Flavius Josephus, William Whiston, Paul L. Maier {{ISBN|0-8254-2924-2}} pp. 662–663</ref><ref>''Josephus XX'' by [[Louis H. Feldman]] (1965), {{ISBN|0674995023}} p. 496</ref>{{sfn|Van Voorst|2000|p=83}}<ref>Flavius Josephus; Maier, Paul L. (December 1995). ''Josephus, the Essential Works: A Condensation of Jewish Antiquities and The Jewish war'' {{ISBN|978-0-8254-3260-6}} pp. 284–285</ref>
+Josephus was personally involved in Galilee, where Jesus ministered and people who knew him resided, when he was the commander of Jewish forces during the revolt against Roman occupation and trained 65,000-100,000 fighters in the region.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Josephus |first1=Flavius |last2=Whiston |first2=William |last3=Maier |first3=Paul L. |title=The New Complete Works of Josephus |date=1999 |publisher=Kregel Publications |location=Grand Rapids, MI |isbn=9780825429484 |page=8}}</ref><ref name="schmidt" /> He even stationed in Sepphoris for a time, which was 3 miles away from Jesus's hometown of Nazareth and kept contact with people in the trials of Jesus and his brother James such as the Sanhedrin and Ananus II.<ref name="schmidt" /> Jesus is referenced by Josephus twice, once in Book [[s:The Antiquities of the Jews/Book XVIII#Chapter 3|18]] and once in Book [[s:The Antiquities of the Jews/Book XX#Chapter 9|20]]'' of [[Antiquities of the Jews]]'', written around 93 to 94&nbsp;AD. On the first reference, the general scholarly view holds that the longer passage, known as the ''[[Testimonium Flavianum]]'', in Book 18 most likely consists of an authentic nucleus that was subjected to later Christian [[interpolation (manuscripts)|interpolation]] or [[literary forgery|forgery]].<ref>{{cite book|last=Schreckenberg|first=Heinz|title=Jewish Traditions in Early Christian Literature|year=1992|isbn=978-90-232-2653-6|author2=Kurt Schubert|publisher=Van Gorcum }}</ref><ref name="Cradle">{{cite book|last=Kostenberger|first=Andreas J.|title=The Cradle, the Cross, and the Crown: An Introduction to the New Testament|year=2009|isbn=978-0-8054-4365-3|author2=L. Scott Kellum |author3=Charles L. Quarles |publisher=B&H Publishing }}</ref> On the second reference, Josephus scholar [[Louis H. Feldman]] states that "few have doubted the genuineness" of the reference found in [[s:The Antiquities of the Jews/Book XX#Chapter 9|Antiquities 20, 9, 1]] to "the brother of Jesus, who was called Christ, whose name was James".<ref name=JosephusM662 >''The new complete works of Josephus'' by Flavius Josephus, William Whiston, Paul L. Maier {{ISBN|0-8254-2924-2}} pp. 662–663</ref><ref>''Josephus XX'' by [[Louis H. Feldman]] (1965), {{ISBN|0674995023}} p. 496</ref>{{sfn|Van Voorst|2000|p=83}}<ref>Flavius Josephus; Maier, Paul L. (December 1995). ''Josephus, the Essential Works: A Condensation of Jewish Antiquities and The Jewish war'' {{ISBN|978-0-8254-3260-6}} pp. 284–285</ref>
 Tacitus, in his ''[[Annals (Tacitus)|Annals]]'' (written {{circa|115 AD|lk=no}}), [[s:The Annals (Tacitus)/Book 15#44|book 15, chapter 44]],<ref>[[P. E. Easterling]], [[E. J. Kenney]] (general editors), ''The Cambridge History of Latin Literature'', p. 892 (Cambridge University Press, 1982, reprinted 1996) {{ISBN|0-521-21043-7}}</ref> describes [[Nero]]'s [[scapegoating]] of the Christians following the [[Great Fire of Rome]]. He writes that the founder of the sect was named Christus (the Christian title for Jesus); that he was executed under Pontius Pilate; and that the movement, initially checked, broke out again in [[Judea]] and even in Rome itself.{{sfn|Eddy|Boyd|2007|pp=179-180}} The scholarly consensus is that Tacitus' reference to the execution of Jesus by Pilate is both authentic and of historical value as an independent Roman source.{{sfn|Evans|2001|p=42}}<ref name="Bible' page 343">''Mercer dictionary of the Bible'' by Watson E. Mills, Roger Aubrey Bullard (2001) {{ISBN|0-86554-373-9}} page 343</ref><ref name="ReferenceA">''Pontius Pilate in History and Interpretation'' by Helen K. Bond (2004) {{ISBN|0-521-61620-4}} page xi</ref>

Historicity of Jesus: Difference between revisions

Revision as of 11:55, 20 June 2025

Contents

Modern scholarship

A historical Jesus existed

Christ myth theory

Sources for the historicity of Jesus

Methodological considerations

Multiple attestation

Early dates of the Christian oral traditions and Paul

Reliability of sources

Other historical persons in first-century AD sources

New Testament sources

Pauline epistles

Synoptic Gospels

Non-Christian sources

Josephus and Tacitus

Mishnah

Mara bar Serapion

See also

Notes

References

Sources

External links

Navigation menu