Passive-aggressive behavior: Difference between revisions

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'''Passive-aggressive behavior''' is characterized by a pattern of passive [[hostility]] and an avoidance of direct communication.<ref>{{Cite magazine |url=https://time.com/4916056/passive-aggressive-definition-meaning/ |title=7 Signs You're Dealing With A Passive-Aggressive Person |last1=Kluger |first1=Jeffrey |author1-link=Jeffrey Kluger |date=30 August 2017 |magazine=[[Time (magazine)|Time]] |archive-url=https://archive.today/20200111184254/https://time.com/4916056/passive-aggressive-definition-meaning/ |archive-date=11 January 2020 |access-date=21 May 2021 |url-status=unfit}}</ref><ref name=":0">{{Cite web|last=Hall-Flavin, M.D.|first=Daniel K.|title=What is passive-aggressive behavior? What are some of the signs?|url=https://www.mayoclinic.org/healthy-lifestyle/adult-health/expert-answers/passive-aggressive-behavior/faq-20057901|access-date=21 November 2020|website=[[Mayo Clinic]]}}</ref> Inaction where some action is [[Social norm|socially customary]] is a typical passive-aggressive strategy (showing up late for functions, staying silent when a response is expected).<ref name=":0" /> It is typically used to avoid confrontation, rejection, or criticism. Passive-aggressive behavior is sometimes protested by associates, evoking exasperation or confusion. People who are recipients of passive-aggressive behavior may experience [[anxiety]] due to the discordance between what they perceive and what the perpetrator is saying.<ref>{{Cite web|last=Kinsey|first=Michael|date=12 September 2019|title=6 Tips to Crush Passive Aggressive Behavior|url=https://mindsplain.com/how-to-deal-with-passive-aggressive-behavior/|access-date=21 November 2020|website=Mindsplain}}</ref>
'''Passive-aggressive behavior''' is a [[communication]] that in the mind of the speaker is based on a strong, negative [[emotion]] such as [[anger]] but is expressed using words that do not convey the emotion, including completely [[Silent treatment |avoiding direct communication]] when it is [[Social norm |socially customary]].<ref>{{Cite magazine |url=https://time.com/4916056/passive-aggressive-definition-meaning/ |title=7 Signs You're Dealing With A Passive-Aggressive Person |last1=Kluger |first1=Jeffrey |author1-link=Jeffrey Kluger |date=30 August 2017 |magazine=[[Time (magazine)|Time]] |archive-url=https://archive.today/20200111184254/https://time.com/4916056/passive-aggressive-definition-meaning/ |archive-date=11 January 2020 |access-date=21 May 2021 |url-status=unfit}}</ref><ref name=":0">{{Cite web|last=Hall-Flavin, M.D.|first=Daniel K.|title=What is passive-aggressive behavior? What are some of the signs?|url=https://www.mayoclinic.org/healthy-lifestyle/adult-health/expert-answers/passive-aggressive-behavior/faq-20057901|access-date=21 November 2020|website=[[Mayo Clinic]]}}</ref> It can be effective to avoid confrontation, rejection, and criticism but can be confusing, annoying, and exasperating to a recipient of the communication due to the discordance between what they hear and what they perceive.<ref>{{Cite web|last=Kinsey|first=Michael|date=12 September 2019|title=6 Tips to Crush Passive Aggressive Behavior|url=https://mindsplain.com/how-to-deal-with-passive-aggressive-behavior/|access-date=21 November 2020|website=Mindsplain}}</ref>


==Application==
Passive-aggressive behavior was first defined clinically by Colonel [[William C. Menninger]] during [[World War II]] in the context of men's reaction to military [[Compliance (psychology)|compliance]]. Menninger described soldiers who were not openly defiant but expressed their [[civil disobedience]] (what he called "aggressiveness") by "passive measures, such as pouting, stubbornness, procrastination, inefficiency, and passive obstructionism" due to what Menninger saw as an "immaturity" and a reaction to "routine military stress".<ref name="Lane">{{Citation|last = Lane | first=C |title=The Surprising History of Passive–aggressive Personality Disorder|journal=Theory & Psychology|date=1 February 2009|volume=19|issue=1|pages=55–70|doi= 10.1177/0959354308101419| url = https://sites.northwestern.edu/christopher-lane/files/2016/08/lanedocpapd2009-24w8s9n.pdf| citeseerx=10.1.1.532.5027 | s2cid=147019317 }}</ref>
===Psychology===
{{further|Passive–aggressive personality disorder}}
In [[psychology]], "passive-aggression" is one of the most misused psychological terms. After some debate, the [[American Psychiatric Association]] dropped it from the list of personality disorders in the DSM IV as too narrow to be a full-blown diagnosis and not well enough supported by [[scientific evidence]] to meet increasingly rigorous standards of definition. Culturally, the ambiguous "passive-aggressive" label is misused by laymen and professionals alike. The removal of the passive-aggressive personality definition from the official diagnostic manual was in large measure because of the frequent misapplication and because of the often contradictory and unclear descriptions clinicians in the field provided. Most of the definitions which follow (which had previously been classified as passive-aggressive) are often more correctly described as overt [[aggression]] or covert aggression.{{citation needed|date=February 2022}}


The outdated definition rejected by the American Psychiatric Association is as follows: Passive-aggressive behavior is characterized by a habitual pattern of non-active resistance to expected work requirements, opposition, sullenness, stubbornness, and negative attitudes in response to requirements for normal performance levels expected by others. Most frequently it occurs in the workplace, where resistance is exhibited by indirect behaviors such as [[procrastination]], [[forgetfulness]], and purposeful [[inefficiency]], especially in reaction to demands by [[authority figure]]s, but it can also occur in [[interpersonal]] contexts.<ref name="dsmiv734">{{cite book|last=American Psychiatric Association|title=Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders-IV|year=2000|publisher=American Psychiatic Association|location=Washington, DC|isbn=978-0890420621|pages=[https://archive.org/details/diagnosticstatis00amer_0/page/733 733]–734|url-access=registration|url=https://archive.org/details/diagnosticstatis00amer_0}}</ref>
The [[passive–aggressive personality disorder]] can be described as: A personality trait marked by a pervasive pattern of negative attitudes and characterized by passive, sometimes obstructionist resistance to complying with expectations in interpersonal or occupational situations. This includes behaviors such as [[condescension]], belittling, snubbing, [[insult|subtly insulting insinuations]], [[contrarianism]], [[procrastination]], [[Rigidity (psychology)|stubbornness]], [[sabotage]], the [[silent treatment]], [[victim playing]], [[sarcasm]], [[resentment]], [[sullenness]], or deliberate/repeated failure to accomplish requested tasks for which one is often explicitly responsible.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://medical-dictionary.thefreedictionary.com/Passive–aggressive%20personality%20disorder-diagnostic%20criteria|title=Passive–aggressive personality disorder-diagnostic criteria}}</ref>


Another source characterizes passive-aggressive behavior as: A personality trait marked by a pervasive pattern of negative attitudes and characterized by passive, sometimes obstructionist resistance to complying with expectations in interpersonal or occupational situations. This includes behaviors such as [[condescension]], belittling, [[snubbing]], [[insult|subtly insulting insinuations]], [[contrarianism]], [[procrastination]], [[Rigidity (psychology)|stubbornness]], [[sabotage]], the [[silent treatment]], [[victim playing]], [[sarcasm]], [[resentment]], [[sullenness]], or deliberate/repeated failure to accomplish requested tasks for which one is often explicitly responsible.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://medical-dictionary.thefreedictionary.com/Passive–aggressive%20personality%20disorder-diagnostic%20criteria|title=Passive–aggressive personality disorder-diagnostic criteria}}</ref>
An outdated definition rejected by the [[American Psychiatric Association]] is as follows: Passive-aggressive behavior is characterized by a habitual pattern of non-active resistance to expected work requirements, opposition, sullenness, stubbornness, and negative attitudes in response to requirements for normal performance levels expected by others. Most frequently it occurs in the workplace, where resistance is exhibited by indirect behaviors such as [[procrastination]], [[forgetfulness]], and purposeful [[inefficiency]], especially in reaction to demands by [[authority figure]]s, but it can also occur in [[interpersonal]] contexts.<ref name="dsmiv734">{{cite book|last=American Psychiatric Association|title=Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders-IV|year=2000|publisher=American Psychiatic Association|location=Washington, DC|isbn=978-0890420621|pages=[https://archive.org/details/diagnosticstatis00amer_0/page/733 733]–734|url-access=registration|url=https://archive.org/details/diagnosticstatis00amer_0}}</ref>


===Conflict theory===
In [[conflict theory]], passive-aggressive behavior can resemble a behavior better described as [[wikt:catty|catty]], as it consists of deliberate, active, but carefully veiled hostile acts which are distinctively different in character from the non-assertive style of passive resistance.<ref>{{Citation|last=Simon|first=George|title=In Sheep's Clothing: Understanding and Dealing with Manipulative People|year=2010|publisher=Parkhurst}}</ref>
In [[conflict theory]], passive-aggressive behavior can resemble a behavior better described as [[wikt:catty|catty]], as it consists of deliberate, active, but carefully veiled hostile acts which are distinctively different in character from the non-assertive style of passive resistance.<ref>{{Citation|last=Simon|first=George|title=In Sheep's Clothing: Understanding and Dealing with Manipulative People|year=2010|publisher=Parkhurst}}</ref>


=== Work ===
Passive-aggressive behavior at the workplace can lead to [[Workplace conflict|conflict]] and damage team unity and [[productivity]]. If ignored, it could result in decreased office [[efficiency]] and frustration among [[Work (human activity)#Workers|workers]].<ref>{{Citation | last = Harms | first = Kimberly A. | title = Passive Aggressive Behaviour in the Dental Office | edition = 3 |date=May–June 2012}}.</ref> If [[Management|managers]] are passive-aggressive, it can end up stifling team creativity. Paula De Angelis says, "It would actually make perfect sense that those promoted to leadership positions might often be those who on the surface appear to be agreeable, diplomatic and supportive, yet who are actually dishonest, backstabbing [[saboteurs]] behind the scenes."<ref>{{Citation | last = De Angelis | first = Paula | title = Blindsided: Recognizing and Dealing with Passive–aggressive Leadership in the Workplace | page = 3 | year = 2009 | isbn = 978-1442159204 |publisher = CreateSpace Independent Publishing Platform}}.</ref>
{{Main|Workplace conflict}}
Passive-aggressive behavior from [[Work (human activity)#Workers|workers]] and [[Management|managers]] is damaging to team unity and [[productivity]]. If this behavior is ignored, it could result in decreased office [[efficiency]] and frustration among workers.<ref>{{Citation | last = Harms | first = Kimberly A. | title = Passive Aggressive Behaviour in the Dental Office | edition = 3 |date=May–June 2012}}.</ref> If managers are passive-aggressive in their behavior, it can end up stifling team creativity. Paula De Angelis says, "It would actually make perfect sense that those promoted to leadership positions might often be those who on the surface appear to be agreeable, diplomatic and supportive, yet who are actually dishonest, backstabbing [[saboteurs]] behind the scenes."<ref>{{Citation | last = De Angelis | first = Paula | title = Blindsided: Recognizing and Dealing with Passive–aggressive Leadership in the Workplace | page = 3 | year = 2009 | isbn = 978-1442159204 |publisher = CreateSpace Independent Publishing Platform}}.</ref>
 
== History ==
Passive-aggressive behavior was first defined clinically by Colonel [[William C. Menninger]] during [[World War II]] in the context of men's reaction to military [[Compliance (psychology)|compliance]]. Menninger described soldiers who were not openly defiant but expressed their [[civil disobedience]] (what he called "aggressiveness") by "passive measures, such as pouting, stubbornness, procrastination, inefficiency, and passive obstructionism" due to what Menninger saw as an "immaturity" and a reaction to "routine military stress".<ref name="Lane">{{Citation|last = Lane | first=C |title=The Surprising History of Passive–aggressive Personality Disorder|journal=Theory & Psychology|date=1 February 2009|volume=19|issue=1|pages=55–70|doi= 10.1177/0959354308101419| url = https://sites.northwestern.edu/christopher-lane/files/2016/08/lanedocpapd2009-24w8s9n.pdf| citeseerx=10.1.1.532.5027 | s2cid=147019317 }}</ref>
 
According to some [[Psychoanalysis|psychoanalytic]] views, noncompliance is not indicative of true passive-aggressive behavior, which may instead be defined as the manifestation of emotions that have been repressed based on a self-imposed need for acceptance.{{Citation needed|reason=This claim needs a reliable source.|date=December 2020}}


== See also ==
== See also ==
{{div col|colwidth=15em}}
* [[Antisocial personality disorder]]
* [[Counterproductive work behavior]]
* [[Dark triad]]
* [[Gaming the system]]
* [[Gossip]]
* [[Gossip]]
* [[Guilt trip]]
* [[Guilt trip]]
* [[Let the Wookiee win]]
* [[Malicious compliance]]
* [[Mind games]]
* [[Narcissistic personality disorder]]
* [[Neglect]]
* [[Nonviolent resistance]]
* [[One-upmanship]]
* [[Oppositional defiant disorder]]
* [[Passivity (behavior)|Passivity]]
* [[Psychological manipulation]]
* [[Relational aggression]]
* [[Sarcasm]]
* [[Sarcasm]]
* [[Silent treatment]]
* [[Silent treatment]]
* [[Ostracism#Qahr and ashti|Qahr and ashti]], Iranian "silent treatment"
* [[Social undermining]]
* [[Workplace aggression]]
* [[Workplace bullying]]
* [[Work to rule]]
{{div col end}}
{{Portal|Psychology}}
{{Portal|Psychology}}


Latest revision as of 16:34, 25 October 2025

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Passive-aggressive behavior is a communication that in the mind of the speaker is based on a strong, negative emotion such as anger but is expressed using words that do not convey the emotion, including completely avoiding direct communication when it is socially customary.[1][2] It can be effective to avoid confrontation, rejection, and criticism but can be confusing, annoying, and exasperating to a recipient of the communication due to the discordance between what they hear and what they perceive.[3]

Passive-aggressive behavior was first defined clinically by Colonel William C. Menninger during World War II in the context of men's reaction to military compliance. Menninger described soldiers who were not openly defiant but expressed their civil disobedience (what he called "aggressiveness") by "passive measures, such as pouting, stubbornness, procrastination, inefficiency, and passive obstructionism" due to what Menninger saw as an "immaturity" and a reaction to "routine military stress".[4]

The passive–aggressive personality disorder can be described as: A personality trait marked by a pervasive pattern of negative attitudes and characterized by passive, sometimes obstructionist resistance to complying with expectations in interpersonal or occupational situations. This includes behaviors such as condescension, belittling, snubbing, subtly insulting insinuations, contrarianism, procrastination, stubbornness, sabotage, the silent treatment, victim playing, sarcasm, resentment, sullenness, or deliberate/repeated failure to accomplish requested tasks for which one is often explicitly responsible.[5]

An outdated definition rejected by the American Psychiatric Association is as follows: Passive-aggressive behavior is characterized by a habitual pattern of non-active resistance to expected work requirements, opposition, sullenness, stubbornness, and negative attitudes in response to requirements for normal performance levels expected by others. Most frequently it occurs in the workplace, where resistance is exhibited by indirect behaviors such as procrastination, forgetfulness, and purposeful inefficiency, especially in reaction to demands by authority figures, but it can also occur in interpersonal contexts.[6]

In conflict theory, passive-aggressive behavior can resemble a behavior better described as catty, as it consists of deliberate, active, but carefully veiled hostile acts which are distinctively different in character from the non-assertive style of passive resistance.[7]

Passive-aggressive behavior at the workplace can lead to conflict and damage team unity and productivity. If ignored, it could result in decreased office efficiency and frustration among workers.[8] If managers are passive-aggressive, it can end up stifling team creativity. Paula De Angelis says, "It would actually make perfect sense that those promoted to leadership positions might often be those who on the surface appear to be agreeable, diplomatic and supportive, yet who are actually dishonest, backstabbing saboteurs behind the scenes."[9]

See also

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References

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Bibliography

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External links

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Template:Nonverbal communication Template:Authority control

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