Burrowing owl: Difference between revisions

Latest revision as of 18:07, 26 December 2025

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The burrowing owl (Athene cunicularia), also called the shoco, is a small, long-legged, primarily terrestrial—though not flightless—species of owl native to the open landscapes of North and South America. They are typically found in grasslands, rangelands, agricultural areas, deserts, or any other open, dry area with low vegetation.^[1] They nest and roost in burrows, and, despite their common name, do not often construct these dwellings themselves, rather repurposing disused burrows or tunnels previously excavated and inhabited by other species, such as American badgers (Taxidea taxus), foxes (Vulpes sp.), ground squirrels or prairie dogs (Cynomys spp.), among others.

Unlike most owls, burrowing owls are often active during the day, although they tend to avoid the heat of midday. But, similar to many other species of owls, they are mostly crepuscular hunters, as they can utilize their night vision and attuned hearing to maximum potential during sunrise and sunset. Having evolved to live on open grasslands and prairie habitat (as well as badlands, chaparral and desert ecosystems), as opposed to dense forest, the burrowing owl has developed longer legs than other owls, a trait which enables it to sprint when pursuing its prey, not dissimilarly to the greater roadrunner, as well as providing momentum when taking flight; however, burrowing owls typically only become airborne for short bursts, such as when fleeing threats, and typically do not fly very high off of the ground.

Taxonomy

The burrowing owl was formally described by Spanish naturalist Juan Ignacio Molina in 1782 under the binomial name Strix cunicularia from a specimen collected in Chile.^[2]^[3] The specific epithet is from the Latin cunicularius, meaning "burrower" or "miner".^[4] The burrowing owl is now placed in the genus Athene which was introduced by German zoologist Friedrich Boie in 1822.^[5]^[6]

The burrowing owl is sometimes classified in the monotypic genus Speotyto (based on an overall unique morphology and karyotype). Osteology and DNA sequence data, though, suggests that the burrowing owl is a terrestrial member of the little owls genus (Athene), thus it is placed in that group today by most authorities.

A considerable number of subspecies have been described, though they differ little in appearance; the taxonomic validity of several is still up for debate.^[7] Most subspecies are found in or near the Andes and within the Antilles of the Caribbean Sea. Although distinct from each other, the relationship of the Florida subspecies, for instance, to (and its distinctness from) the Caribbean owls, is not quite clear.^[8]

The 18 recognised subspecies, of which two are now extinct, are:^[6]

†A. c. amaura (Lawrence, 1878): Antiguan burrowing owl – formerly Antigua and Saint Kitts and Nevis; extinct (circa 1905)
A. c. boliviana (L. Kelso, 1939): Bolivian burrowing owl – the Bolivian altiplano
A. c. brachyptera (Richmond, 1896): Margarita Island burrowing owl – Margarita Island (may include A. c. apurensis)
A. c. carrikeri (Stone, 1922): East Colombian burrowing owl – Eastern Colombia; doubtfully distinct from A. c. tolimae
A. c. cunicularia (Molina, 1782):- southern burrowing owl – lowlands of southern Bolivia and southern Brazil south to Tierra del Fuego
A. c. floridana (Ridgway, 1874): Florida burrowing owl – Florida and the Bahamas; listed as Vulnerable^[9]
A. c. grallaria (Temminck, 1822): Brazilian burrowing owl – Central and eastern Brazil
†A. c. guadeloupensis (Ridgway, 1874): Guadeloupe burrowing owl – formerly Guadeloupe and Marie-Galante islands; extinct (circa 1890)
A. c. guantanamensis (Garrido, 2001): Cuban burrowing owl – Cuba and Isla de la Juventud
A. c. hypugaea (Bonaparte, 1825): western burrowing owl – Southern Canada through the Great Plains, south to Central America; listed as Apparently Secure^[10]
A. c. juninensis (Berlepsch & Stolzmann, 1902): south Andean burrowing owl – Andes Mountains and foothills from central Perú to northwestern Argentina (may include A. c. punensis)
A. c. minor (Cory, 1918): Guyanese burrowing owl – southern Guyana and Roraima state (Brazil)
A. c. nanodes (Berlepsch & Stolzmann, 1892): Southwest Peruvian burrowing owl – southwestern Perú (may include A. c. intermedia)
A. c. pichinchae (Boetticher, 1929): West Ecuadorean burrowing owl – western Ecuador
A. c. rostrata (C. H. Townsend, 1890): Revillagigedo burrowing owl – Clarion and Revillagigedo Islands
A. c. tolimae (Stone, 1899): West Colombian burrowing owl – Western Colombia (may include A. c. carrikeri)
A. c. troglodytes (Wetmore & Swales, 1931): Hispaniolan burrowing owl – Hispaniola (Haiti and the Dominican Republic) and surrounding islands (Gonâve, Beata Island)

includes A. c. partridgei (Olrog, 1976): Corrientes burrowing owl – Corrientes Province, Argentina (probably not distinct from A. c. cunicularia)

A paleosubspecies, A. c. providentiae, has been described from fossil remains from the Pleistocene of the Bahamas. How these birds relate to the extant A. c. floridana – that is, whether they were among the ancestors of that subspecies, or whether they represented a more distant lineage that completely disappeared later – is unknown.

In addition, prehistoric fossils of similar owls have been recovered from many islands in the Caribbean (Barbuda, the Cayman Islands, Jamaica, Mona Island and Puerto Rico). These birds became extinct towards the end of the Pleistocene, probably because of ecological and sea-level changes at the end of the last ice age rather than human activity. These fossil owls differed in size from present-day burrowing owls, and their relationship to the modern taxa has not been resolved.

Western burrowing owl (A. c. hypugaea), California.

Western burrowing owl (A. c. hypugaea),
California.
Florida burrowing owl (A. c. floridana), Florida.

Florida burrowing owl (A. c. floridana),
Florida.
Brazilian burrowing owl A. c. grallaria Pantanal, Brazil

Brazilian burrowing owl
A. c. grallaria
Pantanal, Brazil
Southern burrowing owl (A. c. cunicularia), Uruguay

Southern burrowing owl (A. c. cunicularia),
Uruguay

Description

Burrowing owls have bright eyes; their beaks can be dark yellow or gray depending on the subspecies. They lack ear tufts and have a flattened facial disc. The owls have prominent white eyebrows and a white "chin" patch which they expand and display during certain behaviors, such as a bobbing of the head when agitated.

Adults have brown heads and wings with white spotting. Their chests and abdomens are white with variable brown spotting or barring, also depending on the subspecies. Juvenile owls are similar in appearance, but they lack most of the white spotting above and brown barring below. The juveniles have a buff bar across their upper wings and their breasts may be buff-colored rather than white. Burrowing owls of all ages have grayish legs longer than those of other owls.

Males and females are similar in size and appearance, so display little sexual dimorphism. Females tend to be heavier, but males tend to have longer linear measurements (wing length, tail length, etc.). Adult males appear lighter in color than females because they spend more time outside the burrow during daylight, and their feathers become "sun-bleached". The burrowing owl measures Script error: No such module "convert". long and spans Script error: No such module "convert". across the wings, and weighs Script error: No such module "convert"..^[1]^[11]^[12] As a size comparison, an average adult is slightly larger than an American robin (Turdus migratorius).^[1]Script error: No such module "Unsubst".

Wild burrowing owl near Santa Fe, New Mexico

Wild burrowing owl near Santa Fe, New Mexico
Immature

Immature
A. c. floridana, adult, Pembroke Pines, Florida

A. c. floridana, adult, Pembroke Pines, Florida
Five southern burrowing owls

Five southern burrowing owls

Distribution and habitat

Before European colonization, burrowing owls probably inhabited every suitable area of the New World, but in North America, they have experienced some restrictions in distribution since then. In parts of South America, they are expanding their range due to deforestation.^[13] The western burrowing owls (A. c. hypugaea) are most common in the Rocky Mountain Arsenal National Wildlife Refuge, as well as in most of the western states. Known resident populations inhabit areas of Colorado, Arizona, New Mexico, Texas and California, where their population is reportedly threatened by human encroachment and construction.^[14]^[15]

Burrowing owls range from the southern portions of the western Canadian provinces (British Columbia, Alberta, Saskatchewan, Manitoba) and all the way through Mexico to western Panamá. They are also found across the state of Florida, as well as some Caribbean islands. In South America, they are fairly common, and are known to inhabit every country on the continent, with the exception of the dense Amazon rainforest interior and the highest ranges of the Andes Mountains. Their preference is for the cooler, possibly sub-tropical coastal and temperate regions. South of the Amazon, their population seems to again rebound, as they are widely distributed from southern Brazil and the Pantanal down to Patagonia and Tierra del Fuego.

Burrowing owls are year-round residents in most of their range. Birds that breed in Canada and the northern U.S. usually migrate south to Mexico and the southern U.S. during winter months.

Behaviour and ecology

File:Burrowing Owl in Flight.jpg

Burrowing owl in flight

This species can live for at least 9 years in the wild and over 10 years in captivity.^[1] They are often killed by vehicles when crossing roads, and have many natural enemies, including badgers, coyotes, and snakes.^[16] They are also killed by both feral and domestic cats and dogs. Two birds studied in the Parque Nacional de La Macarena of Colombia were free of blood parasites.^[17]

Burrowing owls often nest and roost in the burrows made by ground squirrels, a strategy also used by rattlesnakes.^[16] When threatened, the owl retreats to the burrow and produces rattling and hissing sounds similar to those of a rattlesnake. The behavior is suggested to be an example of acoustic Batesian mimicry and has been observed to be an effective strategy against animals that are familiar with the dangers posed by rattlesnakes.^[18]

Breeding

File:Zico e filhotes 2.jpg

A family of burrowing owls

The nesting season begins in late March or April in North America. Burrowing owls usually only have one mate but occasionally a male will have two mates.^[1] Pairs of owls will sometimes nest in loose colonies. Their typical breeding habitat is open grassland or prairie, but they can occasionally adapt to other open areas like airports, golf courses, and agricultural fields. Burrowing owls are slightly tolerant of human presence, often nesting near roads, farms, homes, and regularly maintained irrigation canals.

The owls nest in a burrow, hence the name burrowing owl. If burrows are unavailable and the soil is not hard or rocky, the owls may excavate their own. Burrowing owls will also nest in shallow, underground, man-made structures that have easy access to the surface.

During the nesting season, burrowing owls will collect a wide variety of materials to line their nest, some of which are left around the entrance to the burrow. The most common material is mammal dung, usually from cattle. At one time it was thought that the dung helped to mask the scent of the juvenile owls, but researchers now believe the dung helps to control the microclimate inside the burrow and to attract insects, which the owls may eat.^[19]

The female lays an egg every one or two days until she has completed a clutch, which can consist of four to 12 eggs (usually 9). She then incubates the eggs for 3–4 weeks while the male brings her food. After the eggs hatch, both parents feed the chicks. Four weeks after hatching, the chicks can make short flights and begin leaving the nest burrow. The parents still help feed the chicks for 1–3 months.

Site fidelity rates appear to vary among populations. In some locations, owls will frequently reuse a nest several years in a row. Owls in migratory northern populations are less likely to return to the same burrow every year. Also, as with many other birds, the female owls are more likely to disperse to a different site than are male owls.^[20]

Food and feeding

File:Burrowing Owl2.jpg

A burrowing owl on the lookout

When hunting, they wait on a perch until they spot prey. Then, they swoop down on prey or fly up to catch insects in flight. Sometimes, they chase prey on foot across the ground. The highly variable diet includes invertebrates and small vertebrates, which make up roughly one third and two thirds of the diet, respectively. Burrowing owls mainly eat large insects and small rodents. Although burrowing owls often live close to ground squirrels (Marmotini), they rarely prey upon them. They also hunt bats.^[21] An analysis of burrowing owl diets in the Dominican Republic found the owls consumed ~53% invertebrates, ~28% other birds, ~15% reptiles, ~3% amphibians, and 1% mammals.^[22]

Rodent prey is usually dominated by locally superabundant species, like the delicate vesper mouse (Calomys tener) in southern Brazil. Among squamates and amphibians, small lizards like the tropical house gecko (Hemidactylus mabouia), snakes, frogs, and toads predominate.^[21] Generally, most vertebrate prey is in the weight class of several grams per individual. The largest prey are usually birds, such as eared doves (Zenaida auriculata) which may weigh almost as much as a burrowing owl, as well as sparrows.^[23]^[21]

Regarding invertebrates, the burrowing owl seems less of a generalist. It is extremely fond of termites such as Termitidae, and Orthoptera such as Conocephalinae and Copiphorinae katydids, Jerusalem crickets (Stenopelmatidae), true crickets (Gryllidae) and grasshoppers.^[23]^[21] Bothynus and Dichotomius anaglypticus scarab beetles (Scarabaeidae) were eaten far more often than even closely related species by many burrowing owls across central São Paulo (Brazil). Similarly, it was noted that among scorpions Bothriuridae were much preferred, among spiders Lycosidae (wolf spiders), and among millipedes (Diplopoda) certain Diplocheta. Small ground beetles (Carabidae) are eaten in quantity, while larger ones are much less popular as burrowing owl food, perhaps due to the vigorous defense the large species can put up.^[24] Earthworms are also preyed upon.^[21] Burrowing owls are also known to place the fecal matter of large herbivorous mammals around the outside of their burrows to attract dung beetles, which are used to provide a steady source of food for the owls.^[25] Burrowing owls can also predate on invertebrates attracted to artificial night lighting.^[26]

Unlike other owls, they also eat fruits and seeds, especially the fruit of tasajillo (Cylindropuntia leptocaulis) and other prickly pear and cholla cacti. On Clarion Island, where mammalian prey is lacking, they feed essentially on crickets and prickly pear fruit, adding Clarión wrens (Troglodytes tanneri) and young Clarion mourning doves (Zenaida macroura clarionensis) on occasion.^[27]

Status and conservation

File:Burrowing Owl and burrow.jpg

A burrowing owl makes a home out of a buried piece of pipe.

File:Burrowing Owl2 .flk (4).jpg

A. c. floridana by its burrow in Florida

The burrowing owl is endangered in Canada^[28] and threatened in Mexico. It is a state threatened species in Colorado and Florida^[29] and a California species of special concern. It is common and widespread in open regions of many Neotropical countries, where they sometimes even inhabit fields and parks in cities. In regions bordering the Amazon rainforest they are spreading with deforestation.^[13] It is therefore listed as Least Concern on the IUCN Red List.^[30] Burrowing owls are protected under the Migratory Bird Treaty Act in Canada, the United States, and Mexico. They are also included in CITES Appendix II. NatureServe lists the species as Apparently Secure.^[22]

California Endangered Species Act Listing Petition

In March 2024, Center for Biological Diversity, Urban Bird Foundation, Defenders of Wildlife, Burrowing Owl Preservation Society, Santa Clara Valley Audubon Society, Central Valley Bird Club and San Bernardino Valley Audubon Society submitted a California Endangered Species Act listing petition to the Fish and Game Commission to get protections for five populations of the western burrowing owl.^[31]^[32]^[33]

The petition requests endangered status for burrowing owls in southwestern California, central-western California and the San Francisco Bay Area, and threatened status for burrowing owls in the Central Valley and southern desert range.^[34]^[35]

Dependency on burrowing animals

The major reasons for declining populations in North America are loss of habitat, and control programs for prairie dogs. While some species of burrowing owl can dig their own burrows, most species rely on burrowing animals to burrow holes that the owls can use as shelter and nesting space.^[36] There is a high correlation between the location of burrowing animal colonies, like those of ground squirrels, with the presence of burrowing owls.^[37]^[38] Rates of burrowing owl decline have also been shown to correlate with prairie dog decline.^[36]^[39]^[40] Western burrowing owls, for example, nest in burrows made by black-tailed prairie dogs since they are unable to dig their own.^[36] However, prairie dog populations have experienced a decline, one of the causes of this being prairie dog eradication programs.^[39] When prairie dogs dig burrows, they can uproot plants in the process.^[41] This is most common in agricultural areas, where burrows cause damage to existing crops, creating a problem for local farmers.^[41] In Nebraska and Montana, eradication programs have already been put in place to manage the population of prairie dogs.^[39]^[41] Eradication programs for ground squirrels have also been put in place.^[42] In California, California ground squirrels have been known to feed on crop seedlings as well as grasses meant for cattle, which prevents crop growth and decreases food supply for cattle.^[42] However, as burrowing animal populations decrease, burrowing owls become more vulnerable to exposure to predators.^[43] With fewer burrows available, burrowing owl populations will be more concentrated, with more owls occupying fewer burrows .^[39] As a result, predators will more easily detect owl populations and be capable of eliminating larger broods of owls at once.^[39] Prairie dogs and ground squirrels also act as a buffer between owls and their predators, since they become the target prey rather than the owls.^[39]^[43] Another benefit prairie dogs in particular provide burrowing owls takes the form of their alarm calls, which alert burrowing owls if predators are nearby, therefore giving the owls ample time to hide or escape.^[39] Without burrowing animals, almost every aspect contributing to suitable and safe living for burrowing owls will no longer be available. Organizations have tried contributing to the conservation of burrowing owls by digging artificial burrows for these owls to occupy in areas with no active colony of burrowing animals.^[44] However, creating artificial burrows is not sustainable and is not effective as a long term solution.^[44]

Anthropogenic impacts

Burrowing owls at a golf course in Plantation, FL

File:Burrowing Owl, Costa del Este, Provincia de Buenos Aires, Argentina imported from iNaturalist photo 352308304.jpg

At Buenos Aires, Argentina

Burrowing owls readily inhabit some anthropogenic landscapes, such as airport grasslands or golf courses, and are known to take advantage of artificial nest sites (plastic burrows with tubing for the entrance) and perches.^[45]^[46] Burrowing owls have demonstrated similar reproductive success in rural grasslands and urban settings.^[47]^[48] The urban-residing burrowing owls have also developed the behavior of digging their own burrows^[49] and exhibit different fear responses to human and domestic dogs compared to their rural counterparts.^[50] Research has suggested that this species has made adaptations to the rapid urbanization of their usual habitat, and conservation efforts should be considered accordingly.^[51]^[52] Genetic analysis of the two North American subspecies indicates that inbreeding is not a problem within those populations.^[8]

In Florida specifically there is a rise of urban development which impacts the burrowing owl's populations. While burrowing owls can adapt to urban settings, the rapid change and construction causes issues including habitat destruction and car strikes.^[53] Studies have recently shown that in areas that have a lower adult survival rate, juvenile survival rates increase. This is due to increased nesting opportunities and is called compensatory demographic response.^[54] However groups like FAU^[55] and Project Perch^[56] have helped preserve the habitats in place and relocating the burrowing owls nearby if necessary.

Relocation

Where the presence of burrowing owls conflicts with development interests, a passive relocation technique has been applied successfully: rather than capturing the birds and transporting them to a new site (which may be stressful and prone to failure), the owls are half-coerced, half-enticed to move on their own accord. The preparations need to start several months prior to the anticipated disturbance with observing the owl colony and noting especially their local movements and site preferences. After choosing a location nearby that has suitable ground and provides good burrowing owl breeding habitat, this new site is enhanced by adding burrows, perches, etc. Once the owls have accustomed to the changes and are found to be interested in the location – if possible, this should be at the onset of spring, before the breeding season starts – they are prevented from entering the old burrows. A simple one-way trapdoor design has been described that is placed over the burrow for this purpose.^[57] If everything has been correctly prepared, the owl colony will move over to the new site in the course of a few nights at most. It will need to be monitored occasionally for the following months or until the major human construction nearby has ended.^[58]

Some organizations like Center for Biological Diversity and Urban Bird Foundation contend that the removal from their burrows, either through active or passive relocation, has been a factor in the extirpation of burrowing owl populations in California^[59] because of the species high site fidelity.^[60]

Predation

In Florida, burrowing owls may be eaten by some growth stage of invasive snakes such as Burmese pythons, reticulated pythons, Southern African rock pythons, Central African rock pythons, boa constrictors, yellow anacondas, Bolivian anacondas, dark-spotted anacondas, and green anacondas.^[61]

References

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↑ ^a ^b ^c Montana Department of Agriculture. 2019. "PRAIRIE DOG MANAGEMENT," 11.
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External links

Template:Sister project Template:Sister project

Burrowing Owl Live Camera Feed & Fact Sheet at critterzoom.com
Template:BirdLife
Rocky Mountain Arsenal National Wildlife Refuge: Burrowing Owl Study
Burrowing Owl Species Account – Cornell Lab of Ornithology
Template:InternetBirdCollection
Burrowing Owl Conservation Network
Burrowing Owl Photo Essay at The Ark in Space
Template:VIREO
Urban Bird Foundation

Template:Taxonbar Template:Authority control

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 {{Short description|Species of owl}}
 {{Speciesbox
-| image = Brazilian burrowing owl (Athene cunicularia grallaria) Rio Negro.jpg
+| image =
-| image_caption = Brazilian burrowing owl<br /> ''A. c. grallaria''<br />[[Pantanal]], Brazil
+{{Easy CSS image crop
+|image                 = Southern burrowing owl (Athene cunicularia cunicularia) Colonia.jpg
+|desired_width         = 220
+|crop_left_perc        = 35
+|crop_right_perc       = 20
+|crop_top_perc         = 10
+|crop_bottom_perc      = 5
+|alt                   =
+}}
+| image_caption = ''A. c. cunicularia'', Uruguay
 | status = LC
 | status_system = IUCN3.1
-| status_ref = <ref name=IUCN>{{cite iucn |author=BirdLife International |date=2016 |title=''Athene cunicularia'' |page=e.T22689353A93227732 |doi=10.2305/IUCN.UK.2016-3.RLTS.T22689353A93227732.en |access-date=30 October 2022}}</ref>
+| status_ref = <ref name=IUCN>{{cite iucn |author=BirdLife International |date=2016 |title=''Athene cunicularia'' |article-number=e.T22689353A93227732 |doi=10.2305/IUCN.UK.2016-3.RLTS.T22689353A93227732.en |access-date=30 October 2022}}</ref>
 | status2 = CITES_A2
 | status2_system = CITES
@@ Line 22: / Line 32: @@
 }}
-The '''burrowing owl''' ('''''Athene cunicularia'''''), also called the '''shoco''', is a small, long-legged, primarily [[Terrestrial animal|terrestrial]]—though not [[Flightless bird|flightless]]—[[species]] of [[owl]] native to the open landscapes of [[North America|North]] and [[South America]]. They are typically found in [[grassland]]s, [[rangeland]]s, agricultural areas, [[desert]]s, or any other open, dry area with low vegetation.<ref name = lewis2005/> They nest and [[bird#Resting and roosting|roost]] in [[Burrow|burrows]], and, despite their common name, do not often construct these dwellings themselves, rather repurposing disused burrows or tunnels previously excavated and inhabited by other species, such as [[American badger|American badgers]] (''Taxidea taxus''), foxes (''[[Vulpes]]'' sp.), [[Ground squirrel|ground squirrels]] or [[prairie dog]]s (''Cynomys'' spp.), among others.
+The '''burrowing owl''' ('''''Athene cunicularia'''''), also called the '''shoco''', is a small, long-legged, primarily [[Terrestrial animal|terrestrial]]—though not [[Flightless bird|flightless]]—[[species]] of [[owl]] native to the open landscapes of [[North America|North]] and [[South America]]. They are typically found in [[grassland]]s, [[rangeland]]s, agricultural areas, [[desert]]s, or any other open, dry area with low vegetation.<ref name = lewis2005/> They nest and [[bird#Resting and roosting|roost]] in [[burrow]]s, and, despite their common name, do not often construct these dwellings themselves, rather repurposing disused burrows or tunnels previously excavated and inhabited by other species, such as [[American badger]]s (''Taxidea taxus''), foxes (''[[Vulpes]]'' sp.), [[ground squirrel]]s or [[prairie dog]]s (''Cynomys'' spp.), among others.
-Unlike most owls, burrowing owls are often [[Diurnality|active during the day]], although they tend to avoid the heat of midday. But, similar to many other species of owls, they are mostly [[Crepuscular animal|crepuscular]] hunters, as they can utilize their [[night vision]] and attuned hearing to maximum potential during [[sunrise]] and [[sunset]]. Having evolved to live on open [[Grassland|grasslands]] and [[prairie]] habitat (as well as [[badlands]], [[chaparral]] and [[desert]] ecosystems), as opposed to dense forest, the burrowing owl has developed longer legs than other owls, a trait which enables it to sprint when pursuing its prey, not dissimilarly to the [[greater roadrunner]], as well as providing momentum when taking flight; however, burrowing owls typically only become airborne for short bursts, such as when fleeing threats, and typically do not fly very high off of the ground.
+Unlike most owls, burrowing owls are often [[Diurnality|active during the day]], although they tend to avoid the heat of midday. But, similar to many other species of owls, they are mostly [[Crepuscular animal|crepuscular]] hunters, as they can utilize their [[night vision]] and attuned hearing to maximum potential during [[sunrise]] and [[sunset]]. Having evolved to live on open [[grassland]]s and [[prairie]] habitat (as well as [[badlands]], [[chaparral]] and [[desert]] ecosystems), as opposed to dense forest, the burrowing owl has developed longer legs than other owls, a trait which enables it to sprint when pursuing its prey, not dissimilarly to the [[greater roadrunner]], as well as providing momentum when taking flight; however, burrowing owls typically only become airborne for short bursts, such as when fleeing threats, and typically do not fly very high off of the ground.
 ==Taxonomy==
 The burrowing owl was [[Species description|formally described]] by Spanish naturalist [[Juan Ignacio Molina]] in 1782 under the [[binomial name]] ''Strix cunicularia'' from a specimen collected in [[Chile]].<ref>{{ cite book | last=Molina | first=Giovanni Ignazio | author-link=Juan Ignacio Molina | year=1782 | title=Saggio sulla storia naturale del Chili | language=it | location=Bologna | publisher=Stamperia di S. Tommaso d'Aquino | page=263 | url=https://bibdigital.rjb.csic.es/viewer/9635/?offset=#page=264 }}</ref><ref>{{ cite book | editor-last=Peters | editor-first=James Lee | editor-link=James L. Peters | year=1940 | title=Check-List of Birds of the World | volume=4 | publisher=Harvard University Press | place=Cambridge, Massachusetts  | page=153 | url=https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/page/14476624 }}</ref> The [[Specific name (zoology)|specific epithet]] is from the Latin ''cunicularius'', meaning "burrower" or "miner".<ref>{{cite book | last=Jobling | first=James A. | year=2010| title=The Helm Dictionary of Scientific Bird Names | publisher=Christopher Helm | location=London | isbn=978-1-4081-2501-4 | page=124 }}</ref> The burrowing owl is now placed in the genus ''[[Athene (bird)|Athene]]'' which was introduced by German zoologist [[Friedrich Boie]] in 1822.<ref>{{ cite journal | last=Boie | first=Friedrich | author-link=Friedrich Boie | year=1822 | title=Ueber Classification, insonderheit der europäischen Vogel | journal=Isis von Oken | volume=1822 | at=Cols 545–564 [549] | language=de | url=https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/page/27515506 }}</ref><ref name=ioc>{{cite web| editor1-last=Gill | editor1-first=Frank | editor1-link=Frank Gill (ornithologist) | editor2-last=Donsker | editor2-first=David | editor3-last=Rasmussen | editor3-first=Pamela | editor3-link=Pamela Rasmussen | year=2020 | title=Owls | work=IOC World Bird List Version 10.2 | url=https://www.worldbirdnames.org/bow/owls/ | publisher=International Ornithologists' Union | access-date=30 September 2020 }}</ref>
-The burrowing owl is sometimes classified in the [[monotypic]] [[genus]] ''Speotyto'' (based on an overall unique [[Morphology (biology)|morphology]] and [[karyotype]]). [[Osteology]] and [[DNA sequence]] data, though, suggests that the burrowing owl is a terrestrial member of the little owls genus (''Athene''), thus it is placed in that group today, by most authorities.
+The burrowing owl is sometimes classified in the [[monotypic]] [[genus]] ''Speotyto'' (based on an overall unique [[Morphology (biology)|morphology]] and [[karyotype]]). [[Osteology]] and [[DNA sequence]] data, though, suggests that the burrowing owl is a terrestrial member of the little owls genus (''Athene''), thus it is placed in that group today by most authorities.
 A considerable number of [[subspecies]] have been described, though they differ little in appearance; the [[Taxonomy (biology)|taxonomic]] validity of several is still up for debate.<ref name=holtetal1999/> Most subspecies are found in or near the [[Andes]] and within the [[Antilles]] of the [[Caribbean Sea]]. Although distinct from each other, the relationship of the Florida subspecies, for instance, to (and its distinctness from) the [[Caribbean]] owls, is not quite clear.<ref name=korfantaetal2005/>
@@ Line 58: / Line 68: @@
 In addition, prehistoric fossils of similar owls have been recovered from many islands in the Caribbean ([[Barbuda]], the [[Cayman Islands]], [[Jamaica]], [[Mona, Puerto Rico|Mona Island]] and [[Puerto Rico]]). These birds became extinct towards the end of the Pleistocene, probably because of ecological and sea-level changes at the end of the [[Quaternary glaciation|last ice age]] rather than human activity. These fossil owls differed in size from present-day burrowing owls, and their relationship to the modern [[taxon|taxa]] has not been resolved.
-<gallery>
+<gallery mode="packed">
-Western burrowing owl, Glenn County-0550.jpg|Western burrowing owl (''A. c. hypugaea''),<br />[[California]].
+File:Western burrowing owl, Glenn County-0550.jpg|Western burrowing owl (''A. c. hypugaea''),<br />[[California]].
-Burrowing Owl Florida.jpg|Florida burrowing owl (''A. c. floridana''),<br />Florida.
+File:Burrowing Owl Florida.jpg|Florida burrowing owl (''A. c. floridana''),<br />Florida.
-Athene cunicularia2.jpg| Brazilian burrowing owl (''A. c. grallaria''),<br />[[Jaú]] ([[São Paulo (state)|São Paulo]], Brazil).
+Brazilian burrowing owl (Athene cunicularia grallaria) Rio Negro.jpg|Brazilian burrowing owl<br /> ''A. c. grallaria''<br />[[Pantanal]], Brazil
-LECHUCITA DE CAMPO Athene cunicularia.jpg|Southern burrowing owl (''A. c. cunicularia''),<br />[[Uruguay]].
+Southern burrowing owl (Athene cunicularia cunicularia) Colonia 2.jpg|Southern burrowing owl (''A. c. cunicularia''),<br />[[Uruguay]]
 </gallery>
@@ Line 80: / Line 90: @@
 ==Distribution and habitat ==
-Before European colonization, burrowing owls probably inhabited every suitable area of the [[New World]], but in North America, they have experienced some restrictions in distribution since then. In parts of South America, they are expanding their range due to deforestation.<ref name=Amazon/> The western burrowing owls (''A. c. hypugaea'') are most common in the [[Rocky Mountain Arsenal National Wildlife Refuge]], as well as in most of the western states. Known resident populations inhabit areas of Colorado, Arizona, New Mexico, Texas and California, where their population is reportedly threatened by human encroachment and construction.<ref name=USFWS2003/><ref>{{cite web|url=https://sandiegozoowildlifealliance.org/species/burrowing-owl |title=Burrowing Owl |publisher=San Diego Zoo Wildlife Alliance |accessdate=12 December 2022}}</ref>
+Before European colonization, burrowing owls probably inhabited every suitable area of the [[New World]], but in North America, they have experienced some restrictions in distribution since then. In parts of South America, they are expanding their range due to deforestation.<ref name=Amazon/> The western burrowing owls (''A. c. hypugaea'') are most common in the [[Rocky Mountain Arsenal National Wildlife Refuge]], as well as in most of the western states. Known resident populations inhabit areas of Colorado, Arizona, New Mexico, Texas and California, where their population is reportedly threatened by human encroachment and construction.<ref name=USFWS2003/><ref>{{cite web|url=https://sandiegozoowildlifealliance.org/species/burrowing-owl |title=Burrowing Owl |publisher=San Diego Zoo Wildlife Alliance |access-date=12 December 2022}}</ref>
 Burrowing owls range from the southern portions of the western Canadian provinces (British Columbia, Alberta, Saskatchewan, Manitoba) and all the way through Mexico to western Panamá. They are also found across the state of Florida, as well as some Caribbean islands. In South America, they are fairly common, and are known to inhabit  every country on the continent, with the exception of the dense Amazon rainforest interior and the highest ranges of the Andes Mountains. Their preference is for the cooler, possibly sub-tropical coastal and temperate regions. South of the Amazon, their population seems to again rebound, as they are widely distributed from southern Brazil and the [[Pantanal]] down to [[Patagonia]] and [[Tierra del Fuego]].
@@ Line 107: / Line 117: @@
 ===Food and feeding===
 [[File:Burrowing Owl2.jpg|thumb|right|A burrowing owl on the lookout]]
-When hunting, they wait on a perch until they spot prey. Then, they swoop down on prey or fly up to catch insects in flight. Sometimes, they chase prey on foot across the ground. The highly variable diet includes [[invertebrate]]s and small [[vertebrate]]s, which make up roughly one third and two thirds of the diet, respectively. Burrowing owls mainly eat large insects and small [[Rodent|rodents]]. Although burrowing owls often live close to [[ground squirrel]]s (Marmotini), they rarely prey upon them. They also hunt bats.<ref name="animaldiversity.org">{{cite web | url=https://animaldiversity.org/accounts/Athene_cunicularia/ | title=Athene cunicularia (Burrowing owl) | website=[[Animal Diversity Web]] }}</ref> An analysis of burrowing owl diets in the Dominican Republic found the owls consumed ~53% invertebrates, ~28% other birds, ~15% reptiles, ~3% amphibians, and 1% mammals.<ref name="TNC"/>
+When hunting, they wait on a perch until they spot prey. Then, they swoop down on prey or fly up to catch insects in flight. Sometimes, they chase prey on foot across the ground. The highly variable diet includes [[invertebrate]]s and small [[vertebrate]]s, which make up roughly one third and two thirds of the diet, respectively. Burrowing owls mainly eat large insects and small [[rodent]]s. Although burrowing owls often live close to [[ground squirrel]]s (Marmotini), they rarely prey upon them. They also hunt bats.<ref name="animaldiversity.org">{{cite web | url=https://animaldiversity.org/accounts/Athene_cunicularia/ | title=Athene cunicularia (Burrowing owl) | website=[[Animal Diversity Web]] }}</ref> An analysis of burrowing owl diets in the Dominican Republic found the owls consumed ~53% invertebrates, ~28% other birds, ~15% reptiles, ~3% amphibians, and 1% mammals.<ref name="TNC"/>
 Rodent prey is usually dominated by locally superabundant species, like the [[delicate vesper mouse]] (''Calomys tener'') in southern Brazil. Among [[Squamata|squamates]] and amphibians, small lizards like the [[tropical house gecko]] (''Hemidactylus mabouia''), snakes, frogs, and toads predominate.<ref name="animaldiversity.org"/> Generally, most vertebrate prey is in the weight class of several grams per individual. The largest prey are usually birds, such as [[eared dove]]s (''Zenaida auriculata'') which may weigh almost as much as a burrowing owl, as well as [[New World sparrow|sparrow]]s.<ref name=":6">{{Cite web |last=Hailey |first=A. |title=Athene cunicularia (Burrowing Owl) |url=https://sta.uwi.edu/fst/lifesciences/sites/default/files/lifesciences/images/Athene%20cunicularia%20-%20Burrowing%20Owl.pdf |access-date=2023-12-16 |website=[[UWI St. Augustine]]}}</ref><ref name="animaldiversity.org"/>
-Regarding invertebrates, the burrowing owl seems less of a [[generalist and specialist species|generalist]]. It is extremely fond of termites such as Termitidae, and [[Orthoptera]] such as Conocephalinae and Copiphorinae [[tettigoniidae|katydid]]s, [[Jerusalem cricket]]s (Stenopelmatidae), true crickets (Gryllidae) and [[grasshopper]]s.<ref name=":6" /><ref name="animaldiversity.org"/> ''Bothynus'' and ''Dichotomius anaglypticus'' [[Scarabaeidae|scarab beetle]]s (Scarabaeidae) were eaten far more often than even closely related species by many burrowing owls across central [[São Paulo (state)|São Paulo]] (Brazil). Similarly, it was noted that among scorpions [[Bothriuridae]] were much preferred, among spiders Lycosidae ([[wolf spider]]s), and among [[millipede]]s (Diplopoda) certain [[Diplocheta (millipedes)|Diplocheta]]. Small [[ground beetle]]s (Carabidae) are eaten in quantity, while larger ones are much less popular as burrowing owl food, perhaps due to the vigorous defense the large species can put up.<ref name=mottajunior2006 /> [[Earthworm]]s are also preyed upon.<ref name="animaldiversity.org"/> Burrowing owls are also known to place the fecal matter of large herbivorous mammals around the outside of their burrows to attract dung beetles, which are used to provide a steady source of food for the owls.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Levey |first1=Douglas J. |last2=Duncan |first2=R. Scot |last3=Levins |first3=Carrie F. |title=Use of dung as a tool by burrowing owls |journal=Nature |date=September 2004 |volume=431 |issue=7004 |pages=39 |doi=10.1038/431039a |pmid=15343324 |s2cid=4351225 |doi-access=free }}</ref> Burrowing owls can also predate on invertebrates attracted to artificial night lighting.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Rodríguez |first1=Airam |last2=Orozco-Valor |first2=Paula Maiten |last3=Sarasola |first3=José Hernán |title=Artificial light at night as a driver of urban colonization by an avian predator |journal=Landscape Ecology |date=7 October 2020 |volume=36 |pages=17–27 |doi=10.1007/s10980-020-01132-3 |hdl=10261/221083 |s2cid=225167543 |hdl-access=free }}</ref>
+Regarding invertebrates, the burrowing owl seems less of a [[generalist and specialist species|generalist]]. It is extremely fond of termites such as Termitidae, and [[Orthoptera]] such as Conocephalinae and Copiphorinae [[tettigoniidae|katydid]]s, [[Jerusalem cricket]]s (Stenopelmatidae), true crickets (Gryllidae) and [[grasshopper]]s.<ref name=":6" /><ref name="animaldiversity.org"/> ''Bothynus'' and ''Dichotomius anaglypticus'' [[Scarabaeidae|scarab beetle]]s (Scarabaeidae) were eaten far more often than even closely related species by many burrowing owls across central [[São Paulo (state)|São Paulo]] (Brazil). Similarly, it was noted that among scorpions [[Bothriuridae]] were much preferred, among spiders Lycosidae ([[wolf spider]]s), and among [[millipede]]s (Diplopoda) certain [[Diplocheta (millipedes)|Diplocheta]]. Small [[ground beetle]]s (Carabidae) are eaten in quantity, while larger ones are much less popular as burrowing owl food, perhaps due to the vigorous defense the large species can put up.<ref name=mottajunior2006 /> [[Earthworm]]s are also preyed upon.<ref name="animaldiversity.org"/> Burrowing owls are also known to place the fecal matter of large herbivorous mammals around the outside of their burrows to attract dung beetles, which are used to provide a steady source of food for the owls.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Levey |first1=Douglas J. |last2=Duncan |first2=R. Scot |last3=Levins |first3=Carrie F. |title=Use of dung as a tool by burrowing owls |journal=Nature |date=September 2004 |volume=431 |issue=7004 |page=39 |doi=10.1038/431039a |pmid=15343324 |s2cid=4351225 |doi-access=free }}</ref> Burrowing owls can also predate on invertebrates attracted to artificial night lighting.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Rodríguez |first1=Airam |last2=Orozco-Valor |first2=Paula Maiten |last3=Sarasola |first3=José Hernán |title=Artificial light at night as a driver of urban colonization by an avian predator |journal=Landscape Ecology |date=7 October 2020 |volume=36 |pages=17–27 |doi=10.1007/s10980-020-01132-3 |hdl=10261/221083 |s2cid=225167543 |hdl-access=free }}</ref>
 Unlike other owls, they also eat fruits and seeds, especially the fruit of tasajillo (''[[Cylindropuntia leptocaulis]]'') and other [[opuntia|prickly pear]] and [[cylindropuntia|cholla]] cacti. On [[Clarion Island]], where [[mammal]]ian prey is lacking, they feed essentially on [[cricket (insect)|cricket]]s and prickly pear fruit, adding [[Clarión wren]]s (''Troglodytes tanneri'') and young Clarion [[mourning dove]]s (''Zenaida macroura clarionensis'') on occasion.<ref name=Brattstrom/>
@@ Line 118: / Line 128: @@
 [[File:Burrowing Owl and burrow.jpg|thumb|right|A burrowing owl makes a home out of a buried piece of pipe.]]
 [[File:Burrowing Owl2 .flk (4).jpg|thumb|''A. c. floridana'' by its burrow in Florida]]
-The burrowing owl is [[endangered species|endangered]] in Canada<ref name=EnvCan/> and [[threatened species|threatened]] in Mexico. It is a state threatened species in Colorado and Florida<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://myfwc.com/wildlifehabitats/imperiled/profiles/birds/burrowing-owl/|title=Burrowing owl|website=myfwc.com|access-date=2017-09-02}}</ref> and a [[California species of special concern]]. It is common and widespread in open regions of many [[Neotropical realm|Neotropical]] countries, where they sometimes even inhabit fields and parks in cities. In regions bordering the [[Amazon Rainforest]] they are spreading with [[deforestation]].<ref name=Amazon/> It is therefore listed as [[Least Concern]] on the [[IUCN Red List]].<ref name=IUCN/> Burrowing owls are protected under the [[Migratory Bird Treaty Act of 1918|Migratory Bird Treaty Act]] in Canada, the United States, and Mexico. They are also included in [[CITES]] [[CITES#Appendix II|Appendix II]]. [[NatureServe]] lists the species as ''Apparently Secure''.<ref name="TNC">{{cite web |title=NatureServe Explorer 2.0 |url=https://explorer.natureserve.org/Taxon/ELEMENT_GLOBAL.2.106553/Athene_cunicularia |website=explorer.natureserve.org |access-date=16 November 2022}}</ref>
+The burrowing owl is [[endangered species|endangered]] in Canada<ref name=EnvCan/> and [[threatened species|threatened]] in Mexico. It is a state threatened species in Colorado and Florida<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://myfwc.com/wildlifehabitats/imperiled/profiles/birds/burrowing-owl/|title=Burrowing owl|website=myfwc.com|access-date=2017-09-02}}</ref> and a [[California species of special concern]]. It is common and widespread in open regions of many [[Neotropical realm|Neotropical]] countries, where they sometimes even inhabit fields and parks in cities. In regions bordering the [[Amazon rainforest]] they are spreading with [[deforestation]].<ref name=Amazon/> It is therefore listed as [[Least Concern]] on the [[IUCN Red List]].<ref name=IUCN/> Burrowing owls are protected under the [[Migratory Bird Treaty Act of 1918|Migratory Bird Treaty Act]] in Canada, the United States, and Mexico. They are also included in [[CITES]] [[CITES#Appendix II|Appendix II]]. [[NatureServe]] lists the species as ''Apparently Secure''.<ref name="TNC">{{cite web |title=NatureServe Explorer 2.0 |url=https://explorer.natureserve.org/Taxon/ELEMENT_GLOBAL.2.106553/Athene_cunicularia |website=explorer.natureserve.org |access-date=16 November 2022}}</ref>
 ===California Endangered Species Act Listing Petition===
-In March 2024, [[Center for Biological Diversity]], [[Urban Bird Foundation]], [[Defenders of Wildlife]], Burrowing Owl Preservation Society, Santa Clara Valley [[Audubon Society]], Central Valley Bird Club and San Bernardino Valley Audubon Society submitted a [[California Endangered Species Act]] listing petition to the [[California Department of Fish and Wildlife | Fish and Game Commission]] to get protections for five populations of the western burrowing owl.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Fish & Game Commission urged to protect "imperiled" western burrowing owls  |url=https://www.cbsnews.com/sanfrancisco/news/western-burrowing-owls-ca-fish-game-commission-urged-to-protect-imperiled-species/  |access-date=13 March 2024 |website=CBS News|date=6 March 2024 }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Burrowing owl faces 'death by a thousand cuts,' advocates say  |url=https://www.latimes.com/environment/story/2024-03-11/conservationists-call-for-burrowing-owl-on-the-endangered-species-list  |access-date=13 March 2024 |website=Los Angeles Times|date=11 March 2024 }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Environmental groups seek new protections for burrowing owls, teetering near extinction  |url=https://localnewsmatters.org/2024/03/08/environmental-groups-seek-new-protections-for-burrowing-owls-teetering-near-extinction/  |access-date=13 March 2024 |website=Bay City News|date=8 March 2024 }}</ref>
+In March 2024, [[Center for Biological Diversity]], [[Urban Bird Foundation]], [[Defenders of Wildlife]], Burrowing Owl Preservation Society, Santa Clara Valley [[Audubon Society]], Central Valley Bird Club and San Bernardino Valley Audubon Society submitted a [[California Endangered Species Act]] listing petition to the [[California Department of Fish and Wildlife|Fish and Game Commission]] to get protections for five populations of the western burrowing owl.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Fish & Game Commission urged to protect "imperiled" western burrowing owls  |url=https://www.cbsnews.com/sanfrancisco/news/western-burrowing-owls-ca-fish-game-commission-urged-to-protect-imperiled-species/  |access-date=13 March 2024 |website=CBS News|date=6 March 2024 }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Burrowing owl faces 'death by a thousand cuts,' advocates say  |url=https://www.latimes.com/environment/story/2024-03-11/conservationists-call-for-burrowing-owl-on-the-endangered-species-list  |access-date=13 March 2024 |website=Los Angeles Times|date=11 March 2024 }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Environmental groups seek new protections for burrowing owls, teetering near extinction  |url=https://localnewsmatters.org/2024/03/08/environmental-groups-seek-new-protections-for-burrowing-owls-teetering-near-extinction/  |access-date=13 March 2024 |website=Bay City News|date=8 March 2024 }}</ref>
-The petition requests [[endangered species | endangered]] status for burrowing owls in southwestern California, central-western California and the [[San Francisco Bay Area]], and [[threatened species | threatened]] status for burrowing owls in the [[Central Valley (California) | Central Valley]] and southern [[desert]] [[Species distribution | range]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=Petition Before the California Fish and Game Commission To List California Populations of theWestern Burrowing Owl (Athene cunicularia hypugaea) as Endangered or Threatened Under the California Endangered Species Act  |url=https://biologicaldiversity.org/species/birds/western_burrowing_owl/pdfs/CA-Burrowing-Owl-Petition-3-5-24.pdf  |access-date=13 March 2024 |website=Center for Biological Diversity}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |title=Environmentalists ask California to protect burrowing owls  |url=https://www.sfchronicle.com/bayarea/article/burrowing-owls-protect-18705393.php  |access-date=13 March 2024 |website=San Francisco Chronicle |last1=Cabanatuan |first1=Michael }}</ref>
+The petition requests [[endangered species|endangered]] status for burrowing owls in southwestern California, central-western California and the [[San Francisco Bay Area]], and [[threatened species|threatened]] status for burrowing owls in the [[Central Valley (California)|Central Valley]] and southern [[desert]] [[Species distribution|range]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=Petition Before the California Fish and Game Commission To List California Populations of theWestern Burrowing Owl (Athene cunicularia hypugaea) as Endangered or Threatened Under the California Endangered Species Act  |url=https://biologicaldiversity.org/species/birds/western_burrowing_owl/pdfs/CA-Burrowing-Owl-Petition-3-5-24.pdf  |access-date=13 March 2024 |website=Center for Biological Diversity}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |title=Environmentalists ask California to protect burrowing owls  |url=https://www.sfchronicle.com/bayarea/article/burrowing-owls-protect-18705393.php  |access-date=13 March 2024 |website=San Francisco Chronicle |last1=Cabanatuan |first1=Michael }}</ref>
 === Dependency on burrowing animals ===
-The major reasons for declining populations in North America are loss of habitat, and control programs for prairie dogs. While some species of burrowing owl can dig their own burrows, most species rely on burrowing animals to burrow holes that the owls can use as shelter and nesting space.<ref name=":0">{{Cite journal|last=Conway|first=Courtney J.|date=June 2018|title=Spatial and Temporal Patterns In Population Trends and Burrow Usage of Burrowing Owls In North America|journal=Journal of Raptor Research|volume=52|issue=2|pages=129–142|doi=10.3356/jrr-16-109.1|s2cid=90211031|doi-access=free|bibcode=2018JRapR..52..129C }}</ref> There is a high correlation between the location of burrowing animal colonies, like those of ground squirrels, with the presence of burrowing owls.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Lenihan, Colleen Marie.|url=http://worldcat.org/oclc/226971067|title=The ecological role of the California ground squirrel (Spermophilus beecheyi)|oclc=226971067}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Swaisgood|first1=R. R.|last2=Montagne|first2=J.-P.|last3=Lenihan|first3=C. M.|last4=Wisinski|first4=C. L.|last5=Nordstrom|first5=L. A.|last6=Shier|first6=D. M.|date=2019-04-29|title=Capturing pests and releasing ecosystem engineers: translocation of common but diminished species to re-establish ecological roles|journal=Animal Conservation|volume=22|issue=6|pages=600–610|doi=10.1111/acv.12509|doi-access=free|bibcode=2019AnCon..22..600S }}</ref> Rates of burrowing owl decline have also been shown to correlate with prairie dog decline.<ref name=":0" /><ref name=":1">{{Cite journal|last1=Desmond|first1=Martha J.|last2=Savidge|first2=Julie A.|last3=Eskridge|first3=Kent M.|date=October 2000|title=Correlations between Burrowing Owl and Black-Tailed Prairie Dog Declines: A 7-Year Analysis|journal=The Journal of Wildlife Management|volume=64|issue=4|pages=1067|doi=10.2307/3803217|jstor=3803217|s2cid=8359755 |url=https://digitalcommons.unl.edu/natrespapers/162|url-access=subscription}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Klute, David S. (David Scott)|url=http://worldcat.org/oclc/54884076|title=Status assessment and conservation plan for the Western burrowing owl in the United States|date=2003|publisher=U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service|oclc=54884076|journal=U.S. Fish and Wildlife|page=1 |bibcode=2003usgs.rept....1K }}</ref> Western burrowing owls, for example, nest in burrows made by black-tailed prairie dogs since they are unable to dig their own.<ref name=":0" /> However, prairie dog populations have experienced a decline, one of the causes of this being prairie dog eradication programs.<ref name=":1" /> When prairie dogs dig burrows, they can uproot plants in the process.<ref name=":2">Montana Department of Agriculture. 2019. “PRAIRIE  DOG  MANAGEMENT,” 11.</ref> This is most common in agricultural areas, where burrows cause damage to existing crops, creating a problem for local farmers.<ref name=":2" /> In Nebraska and Montana, eradication programs have already been put in place to manage the population of prairie dogs.<ref name=":1" /><ref name=":2" /> Eradication programs for ground squirrels have also been put in place.<ref name=":3">{{Cite book|last=Clark|first=J.P|title=Biology, legal status, control materials, and directions for use.|publisher=Vertebrate Pest Control Handbook.|year=1986}}</ref> In California, California ground squirrels have been known to feed on crop seedlings as well as grasses meant for cattle, which prevents crop growth and decreases food supply for cattle.<ref name=":3" /> However, as burrowing animal populations decrease, burrowing owls become more vulnerable to exposure to predators.<ref name=":4">{{Cite journal|last1=Green|first1=Gregory A.|last2=Anthony|first2=Robert G.|date=May 1989|title=Nesting Success and Habitat Relationships of Burrowing Owls in the Columbia Basin, Oregon|journal=The Condor|volume=91|issue=2|pages=347|doi=10.2307/1368313|jstor=1368313}}</ref> With fewer burrows available, burrowing owl populations will be more concentrated, with more owls occupying fewer burrows .<ref name=":1" /> As a result, predators will more easily detect owl populations and be capable of eliminating larger broods of owls at once.<ref name=":1" /> Prairie dogs and ground squirrels also act as a buffer between owls and their predators, since they become the target prey rather than the owls.<ref name=":1" /><ref name=":4" /> Another benefit prairie dogs in particular provide burrowing owls takes the form of their alarm calls, which alert burrowing owls if predators are nearby, therefore giving the owls ample time to hide or escape.<ref name=":1" /> Without burrowing animals, almost every aspect contributing to suitable and safe living for burrowing owls will no longer be available. Organizations have tried contributing to the conservation of burrowing owls by digging artificial burrows for these owls to occupy in areas with no active colony of burrowing animals.<ref name=":5">Pert, Heather and Shannon Lucas. 2016. "Burrowing owls dispersal and natural habitat expansion in Western Riverside County”. California Department of Fish and Wildlife.</ref> However, creating artificial burrows is not sustainable and is not effective as a long term solution.<ref name=":5" />
+The major reasons for declining populations in North America are loss of habitat, and control programs for prairie dogs. While some species of burrowing owl can dig their own burrows, most species rely on burrowing animals to burrow holes that the owls can use as shelter and nesting space.<ref name=":0">{{Cite journal|last=Conway|first=Courtney J.|date=June 2018|title=Spatial and Temporal Patterns In Population Trends and Burrow Usage of Burrowing Owls In North America|journal=Journal of Raptor Research|volume=52|issue=2|pages=129–142|doi=10.3356/jrr-16-109.1|s2cid=90211031|doi-access=free|bibcode=2018JRapR..52..129C }}</ref> There is a high correlation between the location of burrowing animal colonies, like those of ground squirrels, with the presence of burrowing owls.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Lenihan, Colleen Marie.|title=The ecological role of the California ground squirrel (Spermophilus beecheyi)|oclc=226971067}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Swaisgood|first1=R. R.|last2=Montagne|first2=J.-P.|last3=Lenihan|first3=C. M.|last4=Wisinski|first4=C. L.|last5=Nordstrom|first5=L. A.|last6=Shier|first6=D. M.|date=2019-04-29|title=Capturing pests and releasing ecosystem engineers: translocation of common but diminished species to re-establish ecological roles|journal=Animal Conservation|volume=22|issue=6|pages=600–610|doi=10.1111/acv.12509|doi-access=free|bibcode=2019AnCon..22..600S }}</ref> Rates of burrowing owl decline have also been shown to correlate with prairie dog decline.<ref name=":0" /><ref name=":1">{{Cite journal|last1=Desmond|first1=Martha J.|last2=Savidge|first2=Julie A.|last3=Eskridge|first3=Kent M.|date=October 2000|title=Correlations between Burrowing Owl and Black-Tailed Prairie Dog Declines: A 7-Year Analysis|journal=The Journal of Wildlife Management|volume=64|issue=4|page=1067|doi=10.2307/3803217|jstor=3803217|s2cid=8359755 |url=https://digitalcommons.unl.edu/natrespapers/162|url-access=subscription}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Klute, David S. (David Scott)|title=Status assessment and conservation plan for the Western burrowing owl in the United States|date=2003|publisher=U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service|oclc=54884076|journal=U.S. Fish and Wildlife|page=1 |bibcode=2003usgs.rept....1K }}</ref> Western burrowing owls, for example, nest in burrows made by black-tailed prairie dogs since they are unable to dig their own.<ref name=":0" /> However, prairie dog populations have experienced a decline, one of the causes of this being prairie dog eradication programs.<ref name=":1" /> When prairie dogs dig burrows, they can uproot plants in the process.<ref name=":2">Montana Department of Agriculture. 2019. "PRAIRIE  DOG  MANAGEMENT," 11.</ref> This is most common in agricultural areas, where burrows cause damage to existing crops, creating a problem for local farmers.<ref name=":2" /> In Nebraska and Montana, eradication programs have already been put in place to manage the population of prairie dogs.<ref name=":1" /><ref name=":2" /> Eradication programs for ground squirrels have also been put in place.<ref name=":3">{{Cite book|last=Clark|first=J.P|title=Biology, legal status, control materials, and directions for use.|publisher=Vertebrate Pest Control Handbook.|year=1986}}</ref> In California, California ground squirrels have been known to feed on crop seedlings as well as grasses meant for cattle, which prevents crop growth and decreases food supply for cattle.<ref name=":3" /> However, as burrowing animal populations decrease, burrowing owls become more vulnerable to exposure to predators.<ref name=":4">{{Cite journal|last1=Green|first1=Gregory A.|last2=Anthony|first2=Robert G.|date=May 1989|title=Nesting Success and Habitat Relationships of Burrowing Owls in the Columbia Basin, Oregon|journal=The Condor|volume=91|issue=2|page=347|doi=10.2307/1368313|jstor=1368313}}</ref> With fewer burrows available, burrowing owl populations will be more concentrated, with more owls occupying fewer burrows .<ref name=":1" /> As a result, predators will more easily detect owl populations and be capable of eliminating larger broods of owls at once.<ref name=":1" /> Prairie dogs and ground squirrels also act as a buffer between owls and their predators, since they become the target prey rather than the owls.<ref name=":1" /><ref name=":4" /> Another benefit prairie dogs in particular provide burrowing owls takes the form of their alarm calls, which alert burrowing owls if predators are nearby, therefore giving the owls ample time to hide or escape.<ref name=":1" /> Without burrowing animals, almost every aspect contributing to suitable and safe living for burrowing owls will no longer be available. Organizations have tried contributing to the conservation of burrowing owls by digging artificial burrows for these owls to occupy in areas with no active colony of burrowing animals.<ref name=":5">Pert, Heather and Shannon Lucas. 2016. "Burrowing owls dispersal and natural habitat expansion in Western Riverside County". California Department of Fish and Wildlife.</ref> However, creating artificial burrows is not sustainable and is not effective as a long term solution.<ref name=":5" />
 === Anthropogenic impacts ===
-[[File:Burrowing owls at a golf course in Plantation, FL.jpg|alt=Burrowing owls at a golf course in Plantation, FL|thumb|Burrowing owls at a golf course in [[Plantation, Florida|Plantation, FL]]]]
+[[File:Burrowing owls at a golf course in Plantation, FL (cropped).jpg|alt=Burrowing owls at a golf course in Plantation, FL|thumb|Burrowing owls at a golf course in [[Plantation, Florida|Plantation, FL]]]]
-Burrowing owls readily inhabit some [[human impact on the environment|anthropogenic]] landscapes, such as airport grasslands or [[golf course]]s, and are known to take advantage of artificial nest sites (plastic burrows with tubing for the entrance) and perches.<ref name="Nordstom2010" /><ref name="burrowingowlpreservation" /> Burrowing owls have demonstrated similar reproductive success in rural grasslands and urban settings.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Murray|first1=Leigh|last2=Desmond|first2=Martha J.|last3=Berardelli|first3=Daniele|date=March 2010|title=Reproductive Success of Burrowing Owls in Urban and Grassland Habitats in Southern New Mexico|journal=The Wilson Journal of Ornithology|volume=122|issue=1|pages=51–59|doi=10.1676/09-034.1|s2cid=84697992}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Conway|first1=Courtney J.|last2=Garcia|first2=Victoria|last3=Smith|first3=Matthew D.|last4=Ellis|first4=Lisa A.|last5=Whitney|first5=Joyce L.|date=2006-09-11|title=Comparative demography of Burrowing Owls in agricultural and urban landscapes in southeastern Washington: Burrowing Owl Demography|journal=Journal of Field Ornithology|volume=77|issue=3|pages=280–290|doi=10.1111/j.1557-9263.2006.00054.x}}</ref> The urban-residing burrowing owls have also developed the behavior of digging their own burrows<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Mueller Jakob C.|last2=Kuhl Heiner|last3=Boerno Stefan|last4=Tella Jose L.|last5=Carrete Martina|last6=Kempenaers Bart|date=2018-05-16|title=Evolution of genomic variation in the burrowing owl in response to recent colonization of urban areas|journal=Proceedings of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences|volume=285|issue=1878|pages=20180206|doi=10.1098/rspb.2018.0206|pmc=5966595|pmid=29769357}}</ref> and exhibit different fear responses to human and domestic dogs compared to their rural counterparts.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Cavalli|first1=Matilde|last2=Baladrón|first2=Alejandro V.|last3=Isacch|first3=Juan Pablo|last4=Biondi|first4=Laura M.|last5=Bó|first5=María Susana|date=March 2016|title=Differential risk perception of rural and urban Burrowing Owls exposed to humans and dogs|journal=Behavioural Processes|volume=124|pages=60–65|doi=10.1016/j.beproc.2015.12.006|pmid=26718884|s2cid=25323447|hdl=11336/62168|hdl-access=free}}</ref> Research has suggested that this species has made adaptations to the rapid urbanization of their usual habitat, and conservation efforts should be considered accordingly.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Scobie|first1=Corey A.|last2=Bayne|first2=Erin M.|last3=Wellicome|first3=Troy I.|date=2020|title=Evaluating cropland in the Canadian prairies as an ecological trap for the endangered Burrowing Owl Athene cunicularia|journal=Ibis|volume=162|issue=1|pages=162–174|doi=10.1111/ibi.12711|doi-access=free}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.bou.org.uk/blog-jo-are-burrowing-owls-stuck-in-an-ecological-trap/|title=Are Burrowing Owls stuck in an ecological trap?|date=2019-04-18|website=British Ornithologists' Union|access-date=2020-04-17}}</ref> Genetic analysis of the two North American subspecies indicates that [[inbreeding]] is not a problem within those populations.<ref name="korfantaetal2005" />
+[[File:Burrowing Owl, Costa del Este, Provincia de Buenos Aires, Argentina imported from iNaturalist photo 352308304.jpg|thumb|At [[Buenos Aires Province|Buenos Aires]], Argentina]]
+Burrowing owls readily inhabit some [[human impact on the environment|anthropogenic]] landscapes, such as airport grasslands or [[golf course]]s, and are known to take advantage of artificial nest sites (plastic burrows with tubing for the entrance) and perches.<ref name="Nordstom2010" /><ref name="burrowingowlpreservation" /> Burrowing owls have demonstrated similar reproductive success in rural grasslands and urban settings.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Murray|first1=Leigh|last2=Desmond|first2=Martha J.|last3=Berardelli|first3=Daniele|date=March 2010|title=Reproductive Success of Burrowing Owls in Urban and Grassland Habitats in Southern New Mexico|journal=The Wilson Journal of Ornithology|volume=122|issue=1|pages=51–59|doi=10.1676/09-034.1|s2cid=84697992}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Conway|first1=Courtney J.|last2=Garcia|first2=Victoria|last3=Smith|first3=Matthew D.|last4=Ellis|first4=Lisa A.|last5=Whitney|first5=Joyce L.|date=2006-09-11|title=Comparative demography of Burrowing Owls in agricultural and urban landscapes in southeastern Washington: Burrowing Owl Demography|journal=Journal of Field Ornithology|volume=77|issue=3|pages=280–290|doi=10.1111/j.1557-9263.2006.00054.x}}</ref> The urban-residing burrowing owls have also developed the behavior of digging their own burrows<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Mueller Jakob C.|last2=Kuhl Heiner|last3=Boerno Stefan|last4=Tella Jose L.|last5=Carrete Martina|last6=Kempenaers Bart|date=2018-05-16|title=Evolution of genomic variation in the burrowing owl in response to recent colonization of urban areas|journal=Proceedings of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences|volume=285|issue=1878|article-number=20180206|doi=10.1098/rspb.2018.0206|pmc=5966595|pmid=29769357}}</ref> and exhibit different fear responses to human and domestic dogs compared to their rural counterparts.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Cavalli|first1=Matilde|last2=Baladrón|first2=Alejandro V.|last3=Isacch|first3=Juan Pablo|last4=Biondi|first4=Laura M.|last5=Bó|first5=María Susana|date=March 2016|title=Differential risk perception of rural and urban Burrowing Owls exposed to humans and dogs|journal=Behavioural Processes|volume=124|pages=60–65|doi=10.1016/j.beproc.2015.12.006|pmid=26718884|s2cid=25323447|hdl=11336/62168|hdl-access=free}}</ref> Research has suggested that this species has made adaptations to the rapid urbanization of their usual habitat, and conservation efforts should be considered accordingly.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Scobie|first1=Corey A.|last2=Bayne|first2=Erin M.|last3=Wellicome|first3=Troy I.|date=2020|title=Evaluating cropland in the Canadian prairies as an ecological trap for the endangered Burrowing Owl Athene cunicularia|journal=Ibis|volume=162|issue=1|pages=162–174|doi=10.1111/ibi.12711|doi-access=free}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.bou.org.uk/blog-jo-are-burrowing-owls-stuck-in-an-ecological-trap/|title=Are Burrowing Owls stuck in an ecological trap?|date=2019-04-18|website=British Ornithologists' Union|access-date=2020-04-17}}</ref> Genetic analysis of the two North American subspecies indicates that [[inbreeding]] is not a problem within those populations.<ref name="korfantaetal2005" />
+In Florida specifically there is a rise of urban development which impacts the burrowing owl's populations. While burrowing owls can adapt to urban settings, the rapid change and construction causes issues including habitat destruction and car strikes.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Millsap |first=Brian |date=2024-01-10 |title=Survival of Florida Burrowing Owls Along an Urban-development Gradient |url=https://digitalcommons.usf.edu/jrr/vol36/iss1/2 |journal=Journal of Raptor Research |volume=36 |issue=1}}</ref> Studies have recently shown that in areas that have a lower adult survival rate, juvenile survival rates increase. This is due to increased nesting opportunities and is called compensatory demographic response.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=McGowan |first1=Conor P. |last2=Ryan |first2=Mark R. |last3=Runge |first3=Michael C. |last4=Millspaugh |first4=Joshua J. |last5=Cochrane |first5=Jean Fitts |date=2011 |title=The role of demographic compensation theory in incidental take assessments for endangered species |url=https://pubs.usgs.gov/publication/70003989#:~:text=Demographic%20compensation%20requires%20some%20density,be%20alleviated%20through%20incidental%20take. |journal=Biological Conservation |language=en |volume=144 |issue=2 |pages=730–737 |doi=10.1016/j.biocon.2010.10.020 |bibcode=2011BCons.144..730M }}</ref> However groups like FAU<ref>{{Cite web |date=2025-07-22 |title=Not just a mascot: The real owls of Florida Atlantic are underdogs too. |url=https://www.nationalgeographic.com/animals/article/burrowing-owls-of-florida-atlantic-basketball-ncaa |access-date=2025-07-22 |website=Animals |language=en}}</ref> and Project Perch<ref>{{Cite web |title=Project Perch - Protect and Nurture Florida Burrowing Owls |url=https://projectperch.org/ |access-date=2025-07-22 |website=Project Perch |language=en-US}}</ref> have helped preserve the habitats in place and relocating the burrowing owls nearby if necessary.
 === Relocation ===
@@ Line 137: / Line 150: @@
 Some organizations like Center for Biological Diversity and Urban Bird Foundation contend that the removal from their burrows, either through active or passive relocation, has been a factor in the extirpation of burrowing owl populations in California<ref>{{Cite web |title=Petition Before the California Fish and Game Commission To List California Populations of the Western Burrowing Owl (Athene cunicularia hypugaea) as Endangered or Threatened Under the California Endangered Species Act  |url=https://biologicaldiversity.org/species/birds/western_burrowing_owl/pdfs/CA-Burrowing-Owl-Petition-3-5-24.pdf |access-date=14 March 2024 |website=Center for Biological Diversity}}</ref> because of the species high site fidelity.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Strategies for Protecting Western Burrowing Owls (Speotyto cunicularia hypugaea) from Human Activities   |url=https://www.nrs.fs.usda.gov/pubs/gtr/other/gtr-nc190/TRULIO.PDF |access-date=14 March 2024 |website=Forest Service U.S. Department of Agriculture}}</ref>
+==Predation==
+In Florida, burrowing owls may be eaten by some growth stage of invasive snakes such as [[Burmese python]]s, [[reticulated python]]s, [[Southern African rock python]]s, [[Central African rock python]]s, [[boa constrictor]]s, [[yellow anaconda]]s, [[Bolivian anaconda]]s, [[dark-spotted anaconda]]s, and [[green anaconda]]s.<ref>{{Cite book|title=Final Environmental Assessment For The Large Constrictor Snakes Listed As Injurious Wildlife under the Lacey Act|date=January 2012|publisher=U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service}}</ref>
 ==References==
@@ Line 148: / Line 164: @@
 <ref name=Brattstrom>{{cite journal |last1=Brattstrom |first1=Bayard H. |last2=Howell |first2=Thomas R. |year=1956 |title=The Birds of the Revilla Gigedo Islands, Mexico |journal=[[Condor (journal)|Condor]] |volume=58 |issue=2 |pages=107–120 |doi=10.2307/1364977 |url=http://sora.unm.edu/sites/default/files/journals/condor/v058n02/p0107-p0120.pdf|jstor=1364977 }}</ref>
-<ref name=burrowingowlbc>{{cite web |url=http://www.burrowingowlbc.org/owlinfo.htm |title=All about Burrowing Owls |website=Burrowing Owl Conservation Society of BC |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150205230952/http://burrowingowlbc.org/owlinfo.htm |archive-date=2015-02-05 }}</ref>
+<ref name=burrowingowlbc>{{cite web |url=http://www.burrowingowlbc.org/owlinfo.htm |title=All about Burrowing Owls |website=Burrowing Owl Conservation Society of BC |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150205230952/http://burrowingowlbc.org/owlinfo.htm |archive-date=2015-02-05 }}</ref>
-<ref name=burrowingowlpreservation>{{cite web |title=Artificial Burrows |url=http://burrowingowlpreservation.org/html/artificial_burrows.htm |publisher=Burrowing Owl Preservation Society |access-date=3 April 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101130221507/http://burrowingowlpreservation.org/html/artificial_burrows.htm |archive-date=30 November 2010 |url-status=dead}}</ref>
+<ref name=burrowingowlpreservation>{{cite web |title=Artificial Burrows |url=http://burrowingowlpreservation.org/html/artificial_burrows.htm |publisher=Burrowing Owl Preservation Society |access-date=3 April 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101130221507/http://burrowingowlpreservation.org/html/artificial_burrows.htm |archive-date=30 November 2010 }}</ref>
 <ref name=Clark>{{cite journal |last1=Clark |first1=H.O. Jr. |last2=Plumpton |first2=D.L. |year=2005 |title=A simple one-way door design for passive relocation of Western Burrowing Owls |journal=California Fish and Game |volume=91 |issue=4 |pages=286–289 |url=https://www.academia.edu/6159730}}</ref>
-<ref name=EnvCan>{{cite web |publisher=[[Environment Canada]] |url=http://www.sararegistry.gc.ca/species/speciesDetails_e.cfm?sid=20 |title=Species Profile – Burrowing Owl |website=Species at Risk Public Registry |access-date=8 May 2006 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20041123114850/http://www.sararegistry.gc.ca/species/speciesDetails_e.cfm?sid=20 |archive-date=23 November 2004 |url-status=dead }}</ref>
+<ref name=EnvCan>{{cite web |publisher=[[Environment Canada]] |url=http://www.sararegistry.gc.ca/species/speciesDetails_e.cfm?sid=20 |title=Species Profile – Burrowing Owl |website=Species at Risk Public Registry |access-date=8 May 2006 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20041123114850/http://www.sararegistry.gc.ca/species/speciesDetails_e.cfm?sid=20 |archive-date=23 November 2004 }}</ref>
 <ref name = holtetal1999>{{cite book |last1=Holt |first1=D.W. |last2=Berkley |first2=R. |last3=Deppe |first3=C. |last4=Enríquez Rocha |first4=P.L. |last5=Petersen |first5=J.L. |last6=Rangel Salazar |first6=J.L. |last7=Segars |first7=K.P. |last8=Wood |first8=K.L. |year=1999 |chapter=155. Burrowing Owl |editor-last1=del Hoyo |editor-first1=J. |editor-last2=Elliott |editor-first2=A. |editor-last3=Sargatal |editor-first3=J. |title=[[Handbook of the Birds of the World]] |volume=5: Barn-owls to Hummingbirds |pages=[https://archive.org/details/handbookofbirdso0001unse/page/227 227–228, plate 17] |publisher=Lynx Edicions |location=Barcelona |isbn=84-87334-25-3}}</ref>
@@ Line 160: / Line 176: @@
 <ref name = korfantaetal2005>{{cite journal |last1=Korfanta |first1=N.M. |last2=McDonald |first2=D.B. |last3=Glenn |first3=T.C. |year=2005 |title=Burrowing owl (''Athene cunicularia'') population genetics: A comparison of North American forms and migratory habits |journal=[[Auk (journal)|Auk]] |volume=122 |issue=2 |pages=464–478 |doi=10.1642/0004-8038(2005)122[0464:BOACPG]2.0.CO;2 |jstor=4090439 |hdl=20.500.11919/2971 |s2cid=7402868 |url=http://www.uwyo.edu/dbmcd/abstracts/KorfantaBuOwGenetics.pdf|hdl-access=free }}</ref>
-<ref name=Levey>{{cite journal |last1=Levey |first1=D.J. |last2=Duncan |first2=R.S. |last3=Levins |first3=C.F. |year=2004 |title=Use of dung as a tool by burrowing owls |journal=[[Nature (journal)|Nature]] |volume=431 |issue=7004 |pages=39 |pmid=15343324 |doi=10.1038/431039a |s2cid=4351225 |url=http://www.umsl.edu/~biosrenn/PollenSlidingNature2Sep04.pdf}}</ref>
+<ref name=Levey>{{cite journal |last1=Levey |first1=D.J. |last2=Duncan |first2=R.S. |last3=Levins |first3=C.F. |year=2004 |title=Use of dung as a tool by burrowing owls |journal=[[Nature (journal)|Nature]] |volume=431 |issue=7004 |page=39 |pmid=15343324 |doi=10.1038/431039a |s2cid=4351225 |url=http://www.umsl.edu/~biosrenn/PollenSlidingNature2Sep04.pdf}}</ref>
 <ref name=lewis2005>{{cite web |last=Lewis |first=D.P. |year=2005 |url=http://www.owlpages.com/owls.php?genus=Athene&species=cunicularia |title=Burrowing Owl – ''Athene cunicularia'' |website=OwlPages.com |id=Owl Species ID: 220.040.000 |access-date=24 April 2005}}</ref>
@@ Line 166: / Line 182: @@
 <ref name=Lutz>{{cite journal |last1=Lutz |first1=R.S. |last2=Plumpton |first2=D.L. |year=1999 |title=Philopatry and nest site reuse by burrowing owls: implications for productivity |journal=Journal of Raptor Research |volume=33 |issue=2 |url=http://sora.unm.edu/node/53741 |pages=149–153}}</ref>
-<ref name = mottajunior2006>{{cite journal |last=Motta-Junior |first=José Carlos |year=2006 |title=Relações tróficas entre cinco Strigiformes simpátricas na região central do Estado de São Paulo, Brasil |trans-title=Comparative trophic ecology of five sympatric Strigiformes in central State of São Paulo, south-east Brazil |language=pt |journal=Revista Brasileira de Ornitologia |volume=14 |issue=4 |pages=359–377 |url=http://www4.museu-goeldi.br/revistabrornito/revista/index.php/BJO/article/view/2705 |access-date=2014-12-03 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304123133/http://www4.museu-goeldi.br/revistabrornito/revista/index.php/BJO/article/view/2705 |archive-date=2016-03-04 |url-status=dead }}</ref>
+<ref name = mottajunior2006>{{cite journal |last=Motta-Junior |first=José Carlos |year=2006 |title=Relações tróficas entre cinco Strigiformes simpátricas na região central do Estado de São Paulo, Brasil |trans-title=Comparative trophic ecology of five sympatric Strigiformes in central State of São Paulo, south-east Brazil |language=pt |journal=Revista Brasileira de Ornitologia |volume=14 |issue=4 |pages=359–377 |url=http://www4.museu-goeldi.br/revistabrornito/revista/index.php/BJO/article/view/2705 |access-date=2014-12-03 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304123133/http://www4.museu-goeldi.br/revistabrornito/revista/index.php/BJO/article/view/2705 |archive-date=2016-03-04 }}</ref>
-<ref name=Nordstom2010>{{cite book|date=May 2004|editor1=Larsen, Eric M. |editor2=Azerrad, Jeffrey M. |editor3=Nordstrom, Noelle |title=Priority Habitat and Species Management Recommendations, Volume IV: Birds: Burrowing Owl|url=http://www.wdfw.wa.gov/publications/00026/wdfw00026.pdf |publisher=Washington Department of Fish & Wildlife |access-date=3 April 2010 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100826090745/http://www.wdfw.wa.gov/publications/00026/wdfw00026.pdf |archive-date=August 26, 2010 }}</ref>
+<ref name=Nordstom2010>{{cite book|date=May 2004|editor1=Larsen, Eric M. |editor2=Azerrad, Jeffrey M. |editor3=Nordstrom, Noelle |title=Priority Habitat and Species Management Recommendations, Volume IV: Birds: Burrowing Owl|url=http://www.wdfw.wa.gov/publications/00026/wdfw00026.pdf |publisher=Washington Department of Fish & Wildlife |access-date=3 April 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100826090745/http://www.wdfw.wa.gov/publications/00026/wdfw00026.pdf |archive-date=August 26, 2010 }}</ref>
 <ref name=rowe>{{cite journal |last1=Rowe |first1=Matthew P. |first2=Richard G. |last2=Cross |first3=Donald H. |last3=Owings |year=1986 |title=Rattlesnake Rattles and Burrowing Owl Hisses: A Case of Acoustic Batesian Mimicry |journal=Ethology |volume=72 |issue=1 |pages=53–71 |doi=10.1111/j.1439-0310.1986.tb00605.x |bibcode=1986Ethol..72...53R }}</ref>
@@ Line 174: / Line 190: @@
 <ref name=Trulio>{{cite journal |last=Trulio |first=Lynne A. |year=1995 |title=Passive relocation: A method to preserve burrowing owls on disturbed sites |journal=Journal of Field Ornithology |volume=66 |issue=11 |pages=99–106 |url=http://sora.unm.edu/sites/default/files/journals/jfo/v066n01/p0099-p0106.pdf}}</ref>
-<ref name=USFWS2003>{{cite journal |last1=Klute |first1=David S. |first2=Loren W. |last2=Ayers |first3=Michael T. |last3=Green |first4=William H. |last4=Howe |first5=Stephanie L. |last5=Jones |first6=Jill A. |last6=Shaffer |first7=Steven R. |last7=Sheffield |first8=Tara S. |last8=Zimmerman |title=Status Assessment and Conservation Plan for the Western Burrowing Owl in the United States |location=Washington, D.C. |id=Biological Technical Publication FWS/BTP-R6001-2003 |publisher=U.S. Department of Interior, Fish and Wildlife Service |year=2003 |url=http://www.fws.gov/mountain-prairie/species/birds/WBO/Western%20Burrowing%20Owlrev73003a.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170705021124/http://www.fws.gov/mountain-prairie/species/birds/WBO/Western%20Burrowing%20Owlrev73003a.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-date=2017-07-05|journal=U.S. Department of Interior |page=1 |bibcode=2003usgs.rept....1K }}</ref>
+<ref name=USFWS2003>{{cite journal |last1=Klute |first1=David S. |first2=Loren W. |last2=Ayers |first3=Michael T. |last3=Green |first4=William H. |last4=Howe |first5=Stephanie L. |last5=Jones |first6=Jill A. |last6=Shaffer |first7=Steven R. |last7=Sheffield |first8=Tara S. |last8=Zimmerman |title=Status Assessment and Conservation Plan for the Western Burrowing Owl in the United States |location=Washington, D.C. |id=Biological Technical Publication FWS/BTP-R6001-2003 |publisher=U.S. Department of Interior, Fish and Wildlife Service |year=2003 |url=http://www.fws.gov/mountain-prairie/species/birds/WBO/Western%20Burrowing%20Owlrev73003a.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170705021124/http://www.fws.gov/mountain-prairie/species/birds/WBO/Western%20Burrowing%20Owlrev73003a.pdf |archive-date=2017-07-05|journal=U.S. Department of Interior |page=1 |bibcode=2003usgs.rept....1K }}</ref>
 }}
@@ Line 180: / Line 196: @@
 ==Further reading==
 * {{cite journal |last1=DeSante |first1=D.F. |last2=Ruhlen |first2=E.D. |last3=Rosenberg |first3=D.K. |year=2004 |title=Density and abundance of burrowing owls in the agricultural matrix of the Imperial Valley, California |url=http://oregonstate.edu/~rosenbed/articles/desante%20et%20al%20densitydis.pdf |journal=Studies in Avian Biology |volume=27 |pages=116–119 | ref=none }}
-* {{cite journal |last1=Haug |first1=E.A. |last2=Milsap |first2=B.A. |last3=Martell |first3=M.S. |year=1993 |title=Burrowing owl (''Athene cunicularia'') |editor-last1=Poole |editor-first1=A. |journal=The Birds of North America Online |location=Ithaca |publisher=Cornell Lab of Ornithology |access-date=26 December 2006 |doi=10.2173/bna.61 |url=http://bna.birds.cornell.edu/bna/species/061 | ref=none |url-access=subscription }} {{subscription required}}
+* {{cite journal |last1=Haug |first1=E.A. |last2=Milsap |first2=B.A. |last3=Martell |first3=M.S. |year=1993 |title=Burrowing owl (''Athene cunicularia'') |editor-last1=Poole |editor-first1=A. |journal=The Birds of North America Online |location=Ithaca |publisher=Cornell Lab of Ornithology |access-date=26 December 2006 |doi=10.2173/bna.61 |url=https://bna.birds.cornell.edu/bna/species/061 | ref=none |url-access=subscription }} {{subscription required}}
 * {{cite book |last1=Konig |first1=C. |last2=Weick |first2=F. |last3=Becking |first3=J.-H. |year=1999 |title=Owls: A guide to the owls of the world |publisher=Yale University Press |location=New Haven |isbn=0-300-07920-6 | ref=none }}
 * {{cite journal |last1=Moulton |first1=C.E. |last2=Brady |first2=R.S. |last3=Belthoff |first3=J.R. |year=2005 |url= https://sora.unm.edu/sites/default/files/journals/jrr/v039n04/p00429-p00438.pdf |title=A comparison of breeding season food habits of burrowing owls nesting in agricultural and nonagricultural habitat in Idaho |journal=Journal of Raptor Research |volume=39 |pages=429–438 | ref=none }}
@@ Line 190: / Line 206: @@
 * {{BirdLife|22689353|Athene cunicularia}}
 * [http://www.fws.gov/refuge/Rocky_Mountain_Arsenal/what_we_do/science.html Rocky Mountain Arsenal National Wildlife Refuge: Burrowing Owl Study]
-* [http://www.birds.cornell.edu/AllAboutBirds/BirdGuide/Burrowing_Owl.html Burrowing Owl Species Account] – Cornell Lab of Ornithology
+* [https://www.birds.cornell.edu/AllAboutBirds/BirdGuide/Burrowing_Owl.html Burrowing Owl Species Account] – Cornell Lab of Ornithology
 * {{InternetBirdCollection|burrowing-owl-athene-cunicularia}}
 * [http://burrowingowlconservation.org Burrowing Owl Conservation Network]

Burrowing owl: Difference between revisions

Latest revision as of 18:07, 26 December 2025

Contents

Taxonomy

Description

Distribution and habitat

Behaviour and ecology

Breeding

Food and feeding

Status and conservation

California Endangered Species Act Listing Petition

Dependency on burrowing animals

Anthropogenic impacts

Relocation

Predation

References

Further reading

External links

Navigation menu

Burrowing owl: Difference between revisions

Latest revision as of 18:07, 26 December 2025

Taxonomy

Description

Distribution and habitat

Behaviour and ecology

Breeding

Food and feeding

Status and conservation

California Endangered Species Act Listing Petition

Dependency on burrowing animals

Anthropogenic impacts

Relocation

Predation

References

Further reading

External links

Navigation menu

Search