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{{short description|Demon in German folklore}}
{{short description|Demon in German folklore}}
{{Other uses}}
{{Other uses}}
[[Image:Mephistopheles2.jpg|thumb|Mephistopheles flying over [[Wittenberg]], in a [[Lithography|lithograph]] by [[Eugène Delacroix]]]]
{{More citations needed|date=October 2025}}
'''Mephistopheles'''{{efn|Variants of the name include: '''Mephistophilus''', '''Mephostopheles''', '''Mephistophilis''', '''Mephastophilis''', '''Mephastophiles''' and others}} ({{IPAc-en|ˌ|m|ɛ|f|ɪ|ˈ|s|t|ɒ|f|ɪ|l|iː|z}} {{respell|MEF|ist|OF|il|eez}}, {{IPA|de|mefɪˈstoːfəlɛs|lang|de-Mephistopheles.ogg}}), also known as '''Mephostophilis'''<ref name=":3">{{Cite book |title=A companion to Goethe's Faust: parts I and II |date=2006 |publisher=Camden House |isbn=978-1-57113-162-1 |editor-last=Bishop |editor-first=Paul |edition=Repr. in paperback |series=Studies in German literature, linguistics, and culture |location=Rochester, NY}}</ref> or '''Mephisto''',<ref name=":1">{{Cite web|date=20 July 1998|title=Mephistopheles|url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/Mephistopheles|access-date=|website=[[Encyclopedia Britannica]]|language=en}}</ref> is a [[demon]] featured in [[German folklore]], originating as the chief devil in the Faust legend.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2025-02-17 |title=Definition of MEPHISTOPHELES |url=https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/Mephistopheles |access-date=2025-03-03 |website=www.merriam-webster.com |language=en}}</ref> He has since become a [[stock character]] appearing in [[Mephistopheles in the arts and popular culture|other works of arts and popular culture]]. Mephistopheles never became an integral part of traditional magic.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Mephistopheles {{!}} Faust, Demon, Devil {{!}} Britannica |url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/Mephistopheles |access-date=2025-03-03 |website=www.britannica.com |language=en}}</ref> He is also referred to as the Shadow of Lucifer and Prince of Trickery.
[[File:Paul Mathey (1844-1929) - Portrait of an Unidentified Man as Mephistopheles - PPHC000206 - Royal College of Music.jpg|thumb|''Mephistopheles'' by [[Paul Mathey]], 1888]]
 
'''Mephistopheles'''{{efn|Variants of the name include: '''Mephistophilus''', '''Mephostopheles''', '''Mephistophilis''', '''Mephastophilis''', '''Mephastophiles''' and others}} ({{IPAc-en|ˌ|m|ɛ|f|ɪ|ˈ|s|t|ɒ|f|ɪ|l|iː|z}} {{respell|MEF|ist|OF|il|eez}}, {{IPA|de|mefɪˈstoːfəlɛs|lang|de-Mephistopheles.ogg}}), also known as '''Mephostophilis'''<ref name=":3">{{Cite book |title=A companion to Goethe's Faust: parts I and II |date=2006 |publisher=Camden House |isbn=978-1-57113-162-1 |editor-last=Bishop |editor-first=Paul |edition=Repr. in paperback |series=Studies in German literature, linguistics, and culture |location=Rochester, NY}}</ref> or '''Mephisto''',<ref name=":1">{{Cite web|date=20 July 1998|title=Mephistopheles|url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/Mephistopheles|access-date=|website=[[Encyclopedia Britannica]]|language=en}}</ref> is a [[demon]] featured in [[German folklore]], originating as the chief devil in the [[Faust]] legend.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2025-02-17 |title=Definition of MEPHISTOPHELES |url=https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/Mephistopheles |access-date=2025-03-03 |website=www.merriam-webster.com |language=en}}</ref> He has since become a [[stock character]] appearing in [[Mephistopheles in the arts and popular culture|other works of arts and popular culture]]. Mephistopheles never became an integral part of traditional magic.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Mephistopheles {{!}} Faust, Demon, Devil {{!}} Britannica |url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/Mephistopheles |access-date=2025-03-03 |website=www.britannica.com |language=en}}</ref>
During the medieval and Renaissance times, Mephistopheles is equated with the devil due to his high position in the hellish hierarchy. He is one of the seven great princes of Hell, along with being one of the first four angels who rebelled against God and fell. In the popular fiction of [[Tenida]], mephistophilis is used as a humourous and satirical dialogue.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Mason |first=Asenath |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=UC01TgcqKzsC&dq=mephistopheles%20prince%20of%20trickery&pg=PA10 |title=The Book of Mephisto |date=2006 |publisher=Edition Roter Drache |isbn=978-3-939459-00-2 |language=en}}</ref>


== Origins ==
== Origins ==
Around the fifteenth to seventeenth centuries in Europe, the age of witchcraft waned, and the Devil became more of a fixture in literature until the later eighteenth century. Once the idea of Satan's "metaphysical existence" seemed less pressing, he became a symbol in literature representing evil characters, evil meanings, corruption, etc.<ref name="Easlea 105–106">{{Cite journal |last=Easlea |first=Brian |date=1989-02-01 |title=<scp>jeffrey burton russell</scp>. ''Mephistopheles: The Devil in the Modern World''. Ithaca: Cornell University Press. 1986. Pp. 333. $24.95 |url=https://doi.org/10.1086/ahr/94.1.105 |journal=The American Historical Review |volume=94 |issue=1 |pages=105–106 |doi=10.1086/ahr/94.1.105 |issn=1937-5239|url-access=subscription }}</ref> Sometimes, authors had a more sympathetic depiction of Satan, which would later be called the Romantic Devil. Those who believed in pantheistic mysticism<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Starr |first=Reginald H. |date=1901 |title=Christian Mysticism |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/27528139 |journal=The Sewanee Review |volume=9 |issue=1 |pages=30–40 |issn=0037-3052}}</ref>— the belief that an individual experiences a mystical union with the divine, believing that God and the universe are one—often held that the angels fell from Heaven because they loved beauty and wanted to have Heaven for themselves.<ref>{{Cite journal |title=Joseph, Mary, and baby Jesus in cage |url=https://doi.org/10.3998/mpub.9956530.cmp.24 |access-date=2025-04-29 |website=doi.org|doi=10.3998/mpub.9956530.cmp.24 |url-access=subscription }}</ref> This idea led to the work ''Faust''  by  [[Johann Wolfgang von Goethe]] (1749-1832), in which Goethe created his version of the Devil, Mephistopheles. Goethe's Mephistopheles has been highly influential.<ref name="Easlea 105–106"/> [[Image:Mephistophiles Passau 1527.jpg|thumb|right|''MEPHISTO_PHILES'' in the 1527 ''Praxis Magia Faustiana'', attributed to Faust]]
[[File:Mephistopheles2.jpg|thumb|Mephistopheles flying over [[Wittenberg]], in a [[Lithography|lithograph]] by [[Eugène Delacroix]]]]
Around the 15th to 17th centuries in Europe, the age of witchcraft waned, and the Devil became more of a fixture in literature until the later 18th century. Once the idea of Satan's "metaphysical existence" seemed less pressing, he became a symbol in literature representing evil characters, evil meanings, corruption, etc.<ref name="Easlea 105–106">{{Cite journal |last=Easlea |first=Brian |date=1989-02-01 |title=<scp>jeffrey burton russell</scp>. ''Mephistopheles: The Devil in the Modern World''. Ithaca: Cornell University Press. 1986. Pp. 333. $24.95 |url=https://doi.org/10.1086/ahr/94.1.105 |journal=The American Historical Review |volume=94 |issue=1 |pages=105–106 |doi=10.1086/ahr/94.1.105 |issn=1937-5239|url-access=subscription }}</ref> Sometimes, authors had a more sympathetic depiction of Satan, which would later be called the Romantic Devil. Those who believed in pantheistic mysticism<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Starr |first=Reginald H. |date=1901 |title=Christian Mysticism |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/27528139 |journal=The Sewanee Review |volume=9 |issue=1 |pages=30–40 |jstor=27528139 |issn=0037-3052}}</ref>— the belief that an individual experiences a mystical union with the divine, believing that God and the universe are one—often held that the angels fell from Heaven because they loved beauty and wanted to have Heaven for themselves.<ref>{{Cite journal |title=Joseph, Mary, and baby Jesus in cage |url=https://doi.org/10.3998/mpub.9956530.cmp.24 |access-date=2025-04-29 |website=doi.org|doi=10.3998/mpub.9956530.cmp.24 |url-access=subscription }}</ref> This idea led to the work ''Faust''  by  [[Johann Wolfgang von Goethe]] (1749-1832), in which Goethe created his version of the Devil, Mephistopheles. Goethe's Mephistopheles has been highly influential.<ref name="Easlea 105–106"/> [[Image:Mephistophiles Passau 1527.jpg|thumb|right|''MEPHISTO_PHILES'' in the 1527 ''Praxis Magia Faustiana'', attributed to Faust]]


=== Devil vs. Mephistopheles ===
=== Devil vs. Mephistopheles ===
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Mephistopheles is seen as Hell's messenger, making him the servant of the Devil. In the Faust legend, he plays the roles of trickster, liar, cheater, and negotiator, making deals for souls, although he can also be intelligent, ironic, and charming. Mephistopheles can shapeshift into any animal, person, knight, etc., through magic and illusion.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Russell |first=Jeffrey Burton |title=The Prince of Darkness: Radical Evil and the Power of Good in History |date=2016 |publisher=Cornell University Press |isbn=978-1-5017-0333-1 |location=Ithaca}}</ref> He is the opponent of beauty and freedom, and he causes the death of the individuals and works to ruin lives.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Easlea |first=Brian |date=1989-02-01 |title=jeffrey burton russell . Mephistopheles: The Devil in the Modern World . Ithaca: Cornell University Press. 1986. Pp. 333. $24.95 |url=https://academic.oup.com/ahr/article/94/1/105/147393 |journal=The American Historical Review |language=en |volume=94 |issue=1 |pages=105–106 |doi=10.1086/ahr/94.1.105 |issn=1937-5239|url-access=subscription }}</ref>
Mephistopheles is seen as Hell's messenger, making him the servant of the Devil. In the Faust legend, he plays the roles of trickster, liar, cheater, and negotiator, making deals for souls, although he can also be intelligent, ironic, and charming. Mephistopheles can shapeshift into any animal, person, knight, etc., through magic and illusion.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Russell |first=Jeffrey Burton |title=The Prince of Darkness: Radical Evil and the Power of Good in History |date=2016 |publisher=Cornell University Press |isbn=978-1-5017-0333-1 |location=Ithaca}}</ref> He is the opponent of beauty and freedom, and he causes the death of the individuals and works to ruin lives.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Easlea |first=Brian |date=1989-02-01 |title=jeffrey burton russell . Mephistopheles: The Devil in the Modern World . Ithaca: Cornell University Press. 1986. Pp. 333. $24.95 |url=https://academic.oup.com/ahr/article/94/1/105/147393 |journal=The American Historical Review |language=en |volume=94 |issue=1 |pages=105–106 |doi=10.1086/ahr/94.1.105 |issn=1937-5239|url-access=subscription }}</ref>


==== Etymology and Name Meaning ====
==== Etymology and name meaning ====
The name ''Mephistopheles'' is a corrupted [[Greek language|Greek]] [[Compound (linguistics)|compound]].<ref name=":0">
The name ''Mephistopheles'' is a corrupted [[Greek language|Greek]] [[Compound (linguistics)|compound]].<ref name=":0">
{{cite book
{{cite book
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Three possible meanings have been proposed, and three different etymologies have been offered:  
Three possible meanings have been proposed, and three different etymologies have been offered:  
*"not loving light" or "not a friend of light" <ref name=":3" />(φῶς, ''phōs''; the old form of the name being ''Mephostopheles'')
*"not loving light" or "not a friend of light"<ref name=":3" />(φῶς, ''phōs''; the old form of the name being ''Mephostopheles'')
*"not loving Faust" or "not a friend of Faust"<ref name=":3" />
*"not loving Faust" or "not a friend of Faust"<ref name=":3" />
*''[[wikt:mephitic|mephitic]],'' pertaining to poisonous vapors arising from pools, caverns, and springs.<ref name=":0" />
*''[[wikt:mephitic|mephitic]],'' pertaining to poisonous vapors arising from pools, caverns, and springs.<ref name=":0" />
Mephistopheles' name was possibly taken from the Hebrew words "mephiz", or destroyer, and "tophel", or slander. The name was invented for the historical [[alchemist]] [[Johann Georg Faust]] by the anonymous author of the first ''[[Faustbuch]]'' (published 1587).<ref name=":1" /> Mephistopheles was not previously part of the traditional magical or demonological lore. In the play, ''[[Doctor Faustus (play)|Doctor Faustus]]'' (1604)'','' created by Christopher Marlowe, Mephistopheles was written more as a fallen angel than as familiar demon. In the drama [[Faust]], written in two parts by J.W. von Goethe, Mephistopheles appears as cold-hearted, humorous, and ironic.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Lackland |first=Caroline Eliot |date=1882 |title=Mephistopheles |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/25667926 |journal=The Journal of Speculative Philosophy |volume=16 |issue=3 |pages=320–329 |issn=0891-625X}}</ref>
Mephistopheles' name was possibly taken from the Hebrew words "mephiz", or destroyer, and "tophel", or slander. The name was invented for the historical [[alchemist]] [[Johann Georg Faust]] by the anonymous author of the first ''[[Faustbuch]]'' (published 1587).<ref name=":1" /><ref name=":4">Russell, J. B. (1986). ''Mephistopheles: The devil in the modern world'' (1. publ.). Cornell Univ. Pr. p. 61. </ref> However, in the Faustbuch he was called ''Mephostophiles'', the name Mephistopheles was coined and popularised by Goethe.<ref name=":4" /> Shakespeare used the name in the form of ''Mephistophilus'', using the latin version ''philos'' instead of the Greek ''philês''.<ref name=":4" /> Mephistopheles was not previously part of the traditional magical or demonological lore, but is a new coinage by a Rennaissance humanist drawing upon Greek and Latin.<ref name=":4" /> In the play, ''[[Doctor Faustus (play)|Doctor Faustus]]'' (1604)'','' created by Christopher Marlowe, Mephistopheles was written more as a fallen angel than as familiar demon. In the drama [[Faust]], written in two parts by J.W. von Goethe, Mephistopheles appears as cold-hearted, humorous, and ironic.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Lackland |first=Caroline Eliot |date=1882 |title=Mephistopheles |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/25667926 |journal=The Journal of Speculative Philosophy |volume=16 |issue=3 |pages=320–329 |jstor=25667926 |issn=0891-625X}}</ref>


==In the Faust legend==
==In the Faust legend==
{{Further|Faust}}
{{Further|Faust}}
[[File:Teufelspakt Faust-Mephisto, Julius Nisle.jpg|thumb|Engraving of [[Faust]]'s pact with Mephisto, by Adolf Gnauth (circa 1840)]]Mephistopheles is associated with the Faust legend, based on the historical [[Johann Georg Faust]]. In the legend, Faust, an ambitious scholar, makes a [[deal with the Devil]] at the price of his soul, with Mephistopheles acting as the devil's agent. The legend has come to symbolize the consequences of what happens when the quest for empowerment and realization escape the "intellectual and moral restrictions of the Christian medieval order."<ref name=zapf>{{Cite journal |last=Zapf |first=Hubert |date=2012 |title=The Rewriting of the Faust Myth in Nathaniel Hawthorne's "Young Goodman Brown" |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/10.5325/nathhawtrevi.38.1.0019 |journal=Nathaniel Hawthorne Review |volume=38 |issue=1 |pages=19–40 |doi=10.5325/nathhawtrevi.38.1.0019 |issn=0890-4197}}</ref>
[[File:Teufelspakt Faust-Mephisto, Julius Nisle.jpg|thumb|Engraving of [[Faust]]'s pact with Mephisto, by Adolf Gnauth (circa 1840)]]Mephistopheles is associated with the Faust legend, based on the historical [[Johann Georg Faust]]. In the legend, Faust, an ambitious scholar, makes a [[deal with the Devil]] at the price of his soul, with Mephistopheles acting as the devil's agent. The legend has come to symbolize the consequences of what happens when the quest for empowerment and realization escape the "intellectual and moral restrictions of the Christian medieval order."<ref name=zapf>{{Cite journal |last=Zapf |first=Hubert |date=2012 |title=The Rewriting of the Faust Myth in Nathaniel Hawthorne's "Young Goodman Brown" |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/10.5325/nathhawtrevi.38.1.0019 |journal=Nathaniel Hawthorne Review |volume=38 |issue=1 |pages=19–40 |jstor=10.5325/nathhawtrevi.38.1.0019 |issn=0890-4197}}</ref><ref>Russell, J. B. (1986). ''Mephistopheles: The devil in the modern world'' (1. publ.). Cornell Univ. Pr. p. 65. </ref>


The name appears in the late-sixteenth-century [[Faust chapbooks]] – stories concerning the life of Johann Georg Faust, written by an anonymous German author. The first of these chapbooks, ''Historia von D. Johann Fausten'' (1587) is believed to be the first literary appearance of the Faust  and Mephistopheles character.<ref name=zapf/>
In the Faust legend written by [[Christopher Marlowe]] a psychological depth to the traditional view of the devil is added. Mephisto is not completely evil, because he laments the loss of his happiness, being shunned from God. He is introspective and clever and in this depiction very different from the comical ones in medieval times. He is aware of his role and regrets it, because he only perceives illusions instead of God.<ref>Russell, J. B. (1986). ''Mephistopheles: The devil in the modern world'' (1. publ.). Cornell Univ. Pr. p. 65-66. </ref>
In the 1725 version, which [[Johann Wolfgang von Goethe|Goethe]] read, ''Mephostophiles'' is a [[devil]] in the form of a [[Franciscans|greyfriar]] summoned by Faust in a wood outside [[Wittenberg]].
 
The name appears in the late-sixteenth-century [[Faust chapbooks]] – stories concerning the life of Johann Georg Faust, written by an anonymous German author. The first of these chapbooks, ''Historia von D. Johann Fausten'' (1587) is believed to be the first literary appearance of the Faust  and Mephistopheles character.<ref name="zapf" />
In the 1725 version, which [[Johann Wolfgang von Goethe|Goethe]] read, ''Mephostophiles'' is a [[devil]] in the form of a [[Franciscans|greyfriar]] summoned by Faust in a wood outside [[Wittenberg]].  


From the chapbooks, the name Mephistophilis entered Faustian literature. Many authors have used it, from Goethe to [[Christopher Marlowe]]. In the 1616 edition of Marlowe's ''[[The Tragical History of Doctor Faustus]]'', ''Mephostophiles'' became ''Mephistophilis''.
From the chapbooks, the name Mephistophilis entered Faustian literature. Many authors have used it, from Goethe to [[Christopher Marlowe]]. In the 1616 edition of Marlowe's ''[[The Tragical History of Doctor Faustus]]'', ''Mephostophiles'' became ''Mephistophilis''.
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web|url=</nowiki>https://warwick.ac.uk/fac/arts/english/currentstudents/undergraduate/modules/fulllist/special/interdisciplinaryandcreativecollaboration/faustbooks/doriangray/|title<nowiki> = The Picture of Dorian Gray by Oscar Wilde (1891)}}</nowiki></ref>
web|url=</nowiki>https://warwick.ac.uk/fac/arts/english/currentstudents/undergraduate/modules/fulllist/special/interdisciplinaryandcreativecollaboration/faustbooks/doriangray/|title<nowiki> = The Picture of Dorian Gray by Oscar Wilde (1891)}}</nowiki></ref>


== Mephistopheles in Performance ==
== Mephistopheles in performance ==


=== Goethe's ''Faust'' ===
=== Goethe's ''Faust'' ===
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=== Marlowe's Dr. Faustus ===
=== Marlowe's Dr. Faustus ===
In [[Christopher Marlowe|Marlowe's]] [[Doctor Faustus (play)|Doctor Faustus]], the roles of Dr. Faustus and Mephistopheles between the two actors, Sandy Grierson and Oliver Ryan, in 2016. While playing both roles, the Scottish actor, Sandy Grierson, expressed that Mephistopheles is more humane than what is portrayed in other plays and novels.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Sandy Grierson {{!}} Blog {{!}} Royal Shakespeare Company |url=https://www.rsc.org.uk/blogs/pathways-to-shakespeare/sandy-grierson |access-date=2025-04-29 |website=www.rsc.org.uk |language=en-GB}}</ref> The character correlates to the idea of humanity when Mephistopheles pleads with Faustus to reconsider his deal. "O Faustus, leave these frivolous demands" (Act  II, Scene 1). Mephistopheles portrays a sense of feeling to prevent Dr. Faustus from making the incorrect decision. Concluding that Mephistopheles is portrayed as less condescending and cold-hearted. [[Arthur Darvill]], who plays as Rory Williams, a companion of the Eleventh Doctor in the television series [[Doctor Who]], even played as Mephistopheles in the 2011 Shakespeare's Globe Theatre's production of Doctor Faustus, expressed how thrilling his experience was on Shakespeare's Globe Youtube Channel.<ref>{{Cite AV media |url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?si=F0HVnjFHvO5Xvfg-&v=29FyeKooCZY&feature=youtu.be |title=Shakespeare's Globe Theatre: Doctor Faustus interview with Arthur Darvill |date=2011-06-14 |last=Shakespeare's Globe |access-date=2025-04-29 |via=YouTube}}</ref>[[File:Paul Mathey (1844-1929) - Portrait of an Unidentified Man as Mephistopheles - PPHC000206 - Royal College of Music.jpg|thumb|Mephistopheles by [[Paul Mathey]]]]
In [[Christopher Marlowe|Marlowe's]] [[Doctor Faustus (play)|Doctor Faustus]], the roles of Dr. Faustus and Mephistopheles between the two actors, Sandy Grierson and Oliver Ryan, in 2016. While playing both roles, the Scottish actor, Sandy Grierson, expressed that Mephistopheles is more humane than what is portrayed in other plays and novels.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Sandy Grierson {{!}} Blog {{!}} Royal Shakespeare Company |url=https://www.rsc.org.uk/blogs/pathways-to-shakespeare/sandy-grierson |access-date=2025-04-29 |website=www.rsc.org.uk |language=en-GB}}</ref> The character correlates to the idea of humanity when Mephistopheles pleads with Faustus to reconsider his deal. "O Faustus, leave these frivolous demands" (Act  II, Scene 1). Mephistopheles portrays a sense of feeling to prevent Dr. Faustus from making the incorrect decision. Concluding that Mephistopheles is portrayed as less condescending and cold-hearted. [[Arthur Darvill]], while playing as Mephistopheles in the 2011 Shakespeare's Globe Theatre's production of Doctor Faustus, expressed how thrilling his experience was on Shakespeare's Globe Youtube Channel.<ref>{{Cite AV media |url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?si=F0HVnjFHvO5Xvfg-&v=29FyeKooCZY&feature=youtu.be |title=Shakespeare's Globe Theatre: Doctor Faustus interview with Arthur Darvill |date=2011-06-14 |last=Shakespeare's Globe |access-date=2025-04-29 |via=YouTube}}</ref>  
 
== Interpretations ==
== Interpretations ==
[[Image:Mephisto by Mark Antokolski, marble (GTG, after 1883) by shakko 09.jpg|thumb|''Mephistopheles'' by [[Mark Antokolsky]], 1884]]
=== Devil, damnation, and Hell ===
 
[[File:Mephisto by Mark Antokolski, marble (GTG, after 1883) by shakko 09.jpg|thumb|''Mephistopheles'' by [[Mark Antokolsky]], 1884]]
=== Devil, Damnation, and Hell ===
Although Mephistopheles appears to Faustus as a [[demon]] – a worker for [[Lucifer]] – critics claim that he does not search for men to corrupt, but comes to serve and ultimately collect the souls of those who are already damned. Willard Farnham explains, "Nor does Mephistophiles first appear to Faustus as a devil who walks up and down on earth to tempt and corrupt any man encountered. He appears because he senses in Faustus' magical summons that Faustus is already corrupt, that indeed he is already 'in danger to be damned'."<ref>{{cite book|first=Willard|last=Farnham|title=Twentieth Century Interpretations of Doctor Faustus|publisher=[[Prentice-Hall]]|location=Upper Saddle River, New Jersey|date=1969|isbn=978-0132163095}}</ref>
Although Mephistopheles appears to Faustus as a [[demon]] – a worker for [[Lucifer]] – critics claim that he does not search for men to corrupt, but comes to serve and ultimately collect the souls of those who are already damned. Willard Farnham explains, "Nor does Mephistophiles first appear to Faustus as a devil who walks up and down on earth to tempt and corrupt any man encountered. He appears because he senses in Faustus' magical summons that Faustus is already corrupt, that indeed he is already 'in danger to be damned'."<ref>{{cite book|first=Willard|last=Farnham|title=Twentieth Century Interpretations of Doctor Faustus|publisher=[[Prentice-Hall]]|location=Upper Saddle River, New Jersey|date=1969|isbn=978-0132163095}}</ref>


Mephistopheles is already trapped in his own Hell by serving the Devil. He warns Faustus of the choice he is making by "selling his soul" to the devil: "Mephistophilis, an agent of Lucifer, appears and at first advises Faust not to forego the promise of [[heaven]] to pursue his goals".<ref>{{cite journal|editor1-first=Jelena|editor1-last=Krstovic|editor2-first=Marie|editor2-last=Lazzardi|title=Plot and Major Themes|journal=Literature Criticism from 1400 to 1800|volume=47|publisher=[[The Gale Group]]|location=Detroit, Michigan|date=1999|page=202}}</ref> Farnham adds to his theory, "...[Faustus] enters an ever-present private hell like that of Mephistophiles".<ref>Krstovic & Lazzardi 1999, p. 8</ref>[[Image:Scuola francese, mefistofele e margaretta, dal faust, 1890 ca. 01.jpg|thumb|upright|''[[Mephistopheles and Margaretta]]'', wooden double sculpture, c. 1876]]
Mephistopheles is already trapped in his own Hell by serving the Devil. He warns Faustus of the choice he is making by "selling his soul" to the devil: "Mephistophilis, an agent of Lucifer, appears and at first advises Faust not to forego the promise of [[heaven]] to pursue his goals".<ref>{{cite journal|editor1-first=Jelena|editor1-last=Krstovic|editor2-first=Marie|editor2-last=Lazzardi|title=Plot and Major Themes|journal=Literature Criticism from 1400 to 1800|volume=47|publisher=[[The Gale Group]]|location=Detroit, Michigan|date=1999|page=202}}</ref> Farnham adds to his theory, "...[Faustus] enters an ever-present private hell like that of Mephistophiles".<ref>Krstovic & Lazzardi 1999, p. 8</ref> [[Image:Scuola francese, mefistofele e margaretta, dal faust, 1890 ca. 01.jpg|thumb|upright|''[[Mephistopheles and Margaretta]]'', wooden double sculpture, c. 1876]]


Though Mephistopheles can be interpreted as vile through his actions, he profoundly warns Faustus of God’s wrath if he does not repent. Osman Durrani describes the character as “simultaneously, an example of gross depravity and a morally aware theologian.” <ref name=":3" />
Though Mephistopheles can be interpreted as vile through his actions, he profoundly warns Faustus of God’s wrath if he does not repent. Osman Durrani describes the character as “simultaneously, an example of gross depravity and a morally aware theologian.” <ref name=":3" />
Line 69: Line 69:
This interpretation of Mephistopheles falls in line with the Protestant revisioning of magic, specifically conjuring. In the late 1580's, popular Protestant writers argued that conjurations were "theatrical spectacles", in which Satan allowed demons to appear as if they had been summoned and controlled by humans. This performance further damns the soul of the magician and allows for the demon to collect his soul for Lucifer. These revisions were widely circulated before Marlowe's ''Dr. Faustus'' premiered and were integrated into his work.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Guenther |first=Genevieve |date=August 2011 |title=Why Devils Came When Faustus Called Them |url=https://dx.doi.org/10.1086/662147 |journal=Modern Philology |volume=109 |issue=1 |pages=46–70 |doi=10.1086/662147 |issn=0026-8232|url-access=subscription }}</ref>
This interpretation of Mephistopheles falls in line with the Protestant revisioning of magic, specifically conjuring. In the late 1580's, popular Protestant writers argued that conjurations were "theatrical spectacles", in which Satan allowed demons to appear as if they had been summoned and controlled by humans. This performance further damns the soul of the magician and allows for the demon to collect his soul for Lucifer. These revisions were widely circulated before Marlowe's ''Dr. Faustus'' premiered and were integrated into his work.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Guenther |first=Genevieve |date=August 2011 |title=Why Devils Came When Faustus Called Them |url=https://dx.doi.org/10.1086/662147 |journal=Modern Philology |volume=109 |issue=1 |pages=46–70 |doi=10.1086/662147 |issn=0026-8232|url-access=subscription }}</ref>


=== Nature vs. Evil ===
=== Nature vs. evil ===
The nature between God and evil is complex amongst the theological issues. In Abrahamic religions, God is inherently deemed as good and not capable of being evil, though those religions also have to acknowledge the existence of evil in the world. Through the ideals of the Society of Jesuits, the Roman Catholic religious order expressed that nature is undistorted by original sin.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Russell |first=Jeffery |title=Mephistopheles |publisher=Cornell University Press |year=1986 |isbn=9780801418082 |edition=4th |language=English}}</ref> Mephistopheles also appears as a nature spirit, a Naturgeist.,<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Brown |first=Jane K. |date=1985 |title=Mephistopheles the Nature Spirit |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/25600562 |journal=Studies in Romanticism |language=en |volume=24 |issue=4 |pages=475–490 |doi=10.2307/25600562 |jstor=25600562|url-access=subscription }}</ref> though he is still deemed as evil or rather destructive amongst many scholars. However, Jane K. Brown suggests that Mephistopheles is Faust's "mediator to the world," that he is neither evil or destructive.<ref name="Brown 1985 475–490">{{Cite journal |last=Brown |first=Jane K. |date=1985 |title=Mephistopheles the Nature Spirit |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/25600562 |journal=Studies in Romanticism |volume=24 |issue=4 |pages=475–490 |doi=10.2307/25600562 |issn=0039-3762|url-access=subscription }}</ref> Brown suggests that nature is where God and the devil meet and this is where humans live. Mephistopheles, then, represents one of the two souls that humans naturally possess, Faust's struggle between the "divine principle (mind or spirit) and the world (physical nature)."<ref name="Brown 1985 475–490"/>  Mephistopheles is a nature spirit representing the unsegmented world through the human experience.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Easlea |first=Brian |date=1989-02-01 |title=jeffrey burton russell . Mephistopheles: The Devil in the Modern World. Ithaca: Cornell University Press. 1986. Pp. 333. $24.95 |url=https://academic.oup.com/ahr/article/94/1/105/147393 |journal=The American Historical Review |language=en |volume=94 |issue=1 |pages=105–106 |doi=10.1086/ahr/94.1.105 |issn=1937-5239|url-access=subscription }}</ref>
The nature between God and evil is complex amongst the theological issues. In Abrahamic religions, God is inherently deemed as good and not capable of being evil, though those religions also have to acknowledge the existence of evil in the world. Through the ideals of the Society of Jesuits, the Roman Catholic religious order expressed that nature is undistorted by original sin.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Russell |first=Jeffery |title=Mephistopheles |publisher=Cornell University Press |year=1986 |isbn=9780801418082 |edition=4th |language=English}}</ref> Mephistopheles also appears as a nature spirit, a Naturgeist.,<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Brown |first=Jane K. |date=1985 |title=Mephistopheles the Nature Spirit |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/25600562 |journal=Studies in Romanticism |language=en |volume=24 |issue=4 |pages=475–490 |doi=10.2307/25600562 |jstor=25600562|url-access=subscription }}</ref> though he is still deemed as evil or rather destructive amongst many scholars. However, Jane K. Brown suggests that Mephistopheles is Faust's "mediator to the world," that he is neither evil or destructive.<ref name="Brown 1985 475–490">{{Cite journal |last=Brown |first=Jane K. |date=1985 |title=Mephistopheles the Nature Spirit |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/25600562 |journal=Studies in Romanticism |volume=24 |issue=4 |pages=475–490 |doi=10.2307/25600562 |jstor=25600562 |issn=0039-3762|url-access=subscription }}</ref> Brown suggests that nature is where God and the devil meet and this is where humans live. Mephistopheles, then, represents one of the two souls that humans naturally possess, Faust's struggle between the "divine principle (mind or spirit) and the world (physical nature)."<ref name="Brown 1985 475–490"/>  Mephistopheles is a nature spirit representing the unsegmented world through the human experience.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Easlea |first=Brian |date=1989-02-01 |title=jeffrey burton russell . Mephistopheles: The Devil in the Modern World. Ithaca: Cornell University Press. 1986. Pp. 333. $24.95 |url=https://academic.oup.com/ahr/article/94/1/105/147393 |journal=The American Historical Review |language=en |volume=94 |issue=1 |pages=105–106 |doi=10.1086/ahr/94.1.105 |issn=1937-5239|url-access=subscription }}</ref>


=== Sexuality ===
=== Sexuality ===
Line 84: Line 84:
*[[Satan]]
*[[Satan]]
*[[Mephiskapheles]], Ska band whose name is a play on Mephistopheles
*[[Mephiskapheles]], Ska band whose name is a play on Mephistopheles
* In [[Blue Exorcist]], the character Mephistopheles (also named [[Samael]]) is the headmaster of True Cross Academy, is also the legal guardian of the Okumura twins.
*[[Mr. Mistoffelees]], a character from the musical Cats
*[[Mr. Mistoffelees]], a character from the musical Cats
*[[Servant (TV series)|''Servant'']], television series
*[[Servant (TV series)|''Servant'']], television series
*[[Mephisto (Marvel Comics)]] a character from Marvel Comics based on the Demon.
*[[Mephisto (Marvel Comics)]] a character from Marvel Comics based on the Demon.
*[[William Shakespeare]] mentions "Mephistophilus" in ''[[The Merry Wives of Windsor]]'' (Act I, Scene I, line 128), and by the 17th century the name became independent of the Faust legend.<ref name="Russell 1992, p. 61">Burton Russell 1992, p. 61
*[[William Shakespeare]] mentions "Mephistophilus" in ''[[The Merry Wives of Windsor]]'' (Act I, Scene I, line 128), and by the 17th century the name became independent of the Faust legend.<ref name="Russell 1992, p. 61">Burton Russell 1992, p. 61
8. "Call Me Little Sunshine" by heavy-metal band Ghost 2022</ref>
8. "Call Me Little Sunshine" by heavy-metal band Ghost 2022</ref>


Latest revision as of 18:33, 28 October 2025

Template:Short description Script error: No such module "other uses". Template:More citations needed

File:Paul Mathey (1844-1929) - Portrait of an Unidentified Man as Mephistopheles - PPHC000206 - Royal College of Music.jpg
Mephistopheles by Paul Mathey, 1888

MephistophelesTemplate:Efn (Template:IPAc-en Template:Respell, Script error: No such module "IPA".), also known as Mephostophilis[1] or Mephisto,[2] is a demon featured in German folklore, originating as the chief devil in the Faust legend.[3] He has since become a stock character appearing in other works of arts and popular culture. Mephistopheles never became an integral part of traditional magic.[4]

Origins

File:Mephistopheles2.jpg
Mephistopheles flying over Wittenberg, in a lithograph by Eugène Delacroix

Around the 15th to 17th centuries in Europe, the age of witchcraft waned, and the Devil became more of a fixture in literature until the later 18th century. Once the idea of Satan's "metaphysical existence" seemed less pressing, he became a symbol in literature representing evil characters, evil meanings, corruption, etc.[5] Sometimes, authors had a more sympathetic depiction of Satan, which would later be called the Romantic Devil. Those who believed in pantheistic mysticism[6]— the belief that an individual experiences a mystical union with the divine, believing that God and the universe are one—often held that the angels fell from Heaven because they loved beauty and wanted to have Heaven for themselves.[7] This idea led to the work Faust by Johann Wolfgang von Goethe (1749-1832), in which Goethe created his version of the Devil, Mephistopheles. Goethe's Mephistopheles has been highly influential.[5]

File:Mephistophiles Passau 1527.jpg
MEPHISTO_PHILES in the 1527 Praxis Magia Faustiana, attributed to Faust

Devil vs. Mephistopheles

The Enlightenment and Romantic eras in Europe increased the variety of views of the Devil.[8] The Devil, also known as Satan or Lucifer, is understood to be the chief adversary of God. He is the leader of the fallen angels and the chief source of evil and temptation. The Devil is the ruler of Hell and is the prince of evil spirits. In the Christian tradition, the Devil is a creation who was subject to the divine will and who misused the divine nature.[9]

Mephistopheles is seen as Hell's messenger, making him the servant of the Devil. In the Faust legend, he plays the roles of trickster, liar, cheater, and negotiator, making deals for souls, although he can also be intelligent, ironic, and charming. Mephistopheles can shapeshift into any animal, person, knight, etc., through magic and illusion.[10] He is the opponent of beauty and freedom, and he causes the death of the individuals and works to ruin lives.[11]

Etymology and name meaning

The name Mephistopheles is a corrupted Greek compound.[12] The Greek particle of negation (μή, mē) and the Greek word for "love" or "loving" (φίλος, philos) are the first and last terms of the compound, but the middle term is more doubtful.

Three possible meanings have been proposed, and three different etymologies have been offered:

  • "not loving light" or "not a friend of light"[1](φῶς, phōs; the old form of the name being Mephostopheles)
  • "not loving Faust" or "not a friend of Faust"[1]
  • mephitic, pertaining to poisonous vapors arising from pools, caverns, and springs.[12]

Mephistopheles' name was possibly taken from the Hebrew words "mephiz", or destroyer, and "tophel", or slander. The name was invented for the historical alchemist Johann Georg Faust by the anonymous author of the first Faustbuch (published 1587).[2][13] However, in the Faustbuch he was called Mephostophiles, the name Mephistopheles was coined and popularised by Goethe.[13] Shakespeare used the name in the form of Mephistophilus, using the latin version philos instead of the Greek philês.[13] Mephistopheles was not previously part of the traditional magical or demonological lore, but is a new coinage by a Rennaissance humanist drawing upon Greek and Latin.[13] In the play, Doctor Faustus (1604), created by Christopher Marlowe, Mephistopheles was written more as a fallen angel than as familiar demon. In the drama Faust, written in two parts by J.W. von Goethe, Mephistopheles appears as cold-hearted, humorous, and ironic.[14]

In the Faust legend

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File:Teufelspakt Faust-Mephisto, Julius Nisle.jpg
Engraving of Faust's pact with Mephisto, by Adolf Gnauth (circa 1840)

Mephistopheles is associated with the Faust legend, based on the historical Johann Georg Faust. In the legend, Faust, an ambitious scholar, makes a deal with the Devil at the price of his soul, with Mephistopheles acting as the devil's agent. The legend has come to symbolize the consequences of what happens when the quest for empowerment and realization escape the "intellectual and moral restrictions of the Christian medieval order."[15][16]

In the Faust legend written by Christopher Marlowe a psychological depth to the traditional view of the devil is added. Mephisto is not completely evil, because he laments the loss of his happiness, being shunned from God. He is introspective and clever and in this depiction very different from the comical ones in medieval times. He is aware of his role and regrets it, because he only perceives illusions instead of God.[17]

The name appears in the late-sixteenth-century Faust chapbooks – stories concerning the life of Johann Georg Faust, written by an anonymous German author. The first of these chapbooks, Historia von D. Johann Fausten (1587) is believed to be the first literary appearance of the Faust and Mephistopheles character.[15] In the 1725 version, which Goethe read, Mephostophiles is a devil in the form of a greyfriar summoned by Faust in a wood outside Wittenberg.

From the chapbooks, the name Mephistophilis entered Faustian literature. Many authors have used it, from Goethe to Christopher Marlowe. In the 1616 edition of Marlowe's The Tragical History of Doctor Faustus, Mephostophiles became Mephistophilis.

In later adaptations of the Faust material, Mephistopheles frequently figures as a title character: in Meyer Lutz's Mephistopheles, or Faust and Marguerite (1855), Arrigo Boito's Mefistofele (1868), Klaus Mann's Mephisto, and Franz Liszt's Mephisto Waltzes. There are also many parallels with the character of Mephistopheles and the character Lord Henry Wotton in The Picture of Dorian Gray by Oscar Wilde.[18]

Mephistopheles in performance

Goethe's Faust

File:Lewis-Morrison-Mephistopheles.jpg
Lewis Morrison as Mephistopheles in his own production of Goethe's Faust

In Goethe's Faust, the role of Mephistopheles is quite complex, and Josef Kainz describes the role as one of the most significant challenges for an actor in world theater. The character constantly changes in tone throughout the play, giving the character a feeling of minor to no consistency in performance on stage. When Mephisto first meets Faust, he describes how his spirit being “Nothing” conflicts with the world’s spirit of “Something” (Part I Scene III, 1362-1366). The devil is in constant conflict with the world he is placed into, which explains the fluctuation of roles Mephisto portrays on the stage or screen. For an actor to play Goethe's Mephisto, they are called upon to embody this “Nothing” and disconnect themselves from the “Something” that makes them earthly. To achieve this characterization, actors are encouraged to be dramatic and rough in tone and gestures, contradicting traditional elements of classical theater.[19]

Marlowe's Dr. Faustus

In Marlowe's Doctor Faustus, the roles of Dr. Faustus and Mephistopheles between the two actors, Sandy Grierson and Oliver Ryan, in 2016. While playing both roles, the Scottish actor, Sandy Grierson, expressed that Mephistopheles is more humane than what is portrayed in other plays and novels.[20] The character correlates to the idea of humanity when Mephistopheles pleads with Faustus to reconsider his deal. "O Faustus, leave these frivolous demands" (Act II, Scene 1). Mephistopheles portrays a sense of feeling to prevent Dr. Faustus from making the incorrect decision. Concluding that Mephistopheles is portrayed as less condescending and cold-hearted. Arthur Darvill, while playing as Mephistopheles in the 2011 Shakespeare's Globe Theatre's production of Doctor Faustus, expressed how thrilling his experience was on Shakespeare's Globe Youtube Channel.[21]

Interpretations

Devil, damnation, and Hell

File:Mephisto by Mark Antokolski, marble (GTG, after 1883) by shakko 09.jpg
Mephistopheles by Mark Antokolsky, 1884

Although Mephistopheles appears to Faustus as a demon – a worker for Lucifer – critics claim that he does not search for men to corrupt, but comes to serve and ultimately collect the souls of those who are already damned. Willard Farnham explains, "Nor does Mephistophiles first appear to Faustus as a devil who walks up and down on earth to tempt and corrupt any man encountered. He appears because he senses in Faustus' magical summons that Faustus is already corrupt, that indeed he is already 'in danger to be damned'."[22]

Mephistopheles is already trapped in his own Hell by serving the Devil. He warns Faustus of the choice he is making by "selling his soul" to the devil: "Mephistophilis, an agent of Lucifer, appears and at first advises Faust not to forego the promise of heaven to pursue his goals".[23] Farnham adds to his theory, "...[Faustus] enters an ever-present private hell like that of Mephistophiles".[24]

File:Scuola francese, mefistofele e margaretta, dal faust, 1890 ca. 01.jpg
Mephistopheles and Margaretta, wooden double sculpture, c. 1876

Though Mephistopheles can be interpreted as vile through his actions, he profoundly warns Faustus of God’s wrath if he does not repent. Osman Durrani describes the character as “simultaneously, an example of gross depravity and a morally aware theologian.” [1]

Dorothy L. Sayers' play, The Devil to Pay, published in 1939, portrays Mephistopheles as a familiar of the devil as well. Sayers created Mephistopheles to seem mischievous and daunting, while doing the devil's bidding. In this play, it appears as if Mephistopheles' actions were done willingly. Mephistopheles did not necessarily warn Dr. Faustus; rather, he persuaded him to believe that he was to be his servant instead. Once Dr. Faustus was gone, Mephistopheles called into the Hell-Mouth, "Lucifer, Lucifer! The bird is caught..."[Mephistopheles].[25]

This interpretation of Mephistopheles falls in line with the Protestant revisioning of magic, specifically conjuring. In the late 1580's, popular Protestant writers argued that conjurations were "theatrical spectacles", in which Satan allowed demons to appear as if they had been summoned and controlled by humans. This performance further damns the soul of the magician and allows for the demon to collect his soul for Lucifer. These revisions were widely circulated before Marlowe's Dr. Faustus premiered and were integrated into his work.[26]

Nature vs. evil

The nature between God and evil is complex amongst the theological issues. In Abrahamic religions, God is inherently deemed as good and not capable of being evil, though those religions also have to acknowledge the existence of evil in the world. Through the ideals of the Society of Jesuits, the Roman Catholic religious order expressed that nature is undistorted by original sin.[27] Mephistopheles also appears as a nature spirit, a Naturgeist.,[28] though he is still deemed as evil or rather destructive amongst many scholars. However, Jane K. Brown suggests that Mephistopheles is Faust's "mediator to the world," that he is neither evil or destructive.[29] Brown suggests that nature is where God and the devil meet and this is where humans live. Mephistopheles, then, represents one of the two souls that humans naturally possess, Faust's struggle between the "divine principle (mind or spirit) and the world (physical nature)."[29] Mephistopheles is a nature spirit representing the unsegmented world through the human experience.[30]

Sexuality

One interpretation of the character is that Mephistopheles presents himself as a sexual voyeur. This voyeurism can represent Faust’s sexual confusion and temptation. An example would be Faust’s interactions with Helen of Troy, in which, given temptation, Mephistopheles loosens his grip on Faust as he falls further from God and Heaven.[19]

Mephistopheles can also be perceived as a homoerotic character. When observing male angels during the burial scene in Goethe's Faust, he can be seen as becoming physically aroused. Later on, he becomes consumed by his feelings as he is engulfed in flames. This is believed to be the Lord's plan since the beginning in order to save Faust from damnation. By tempting Mephistopheles's homoerotic nature he is unable to focus on corrupting Faust, subsequently saving him.[1]

See also

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Notes

Template:Notelist

References

Template:Reflist

Bibliography

  • Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
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  • Andersson, Love. ““The Devil to Pay” : Temptation and Desire in Christopher Marlowe’s Doctor Faustus.” DIVA, 2021, www.diva-portal.org/smash/record.jsf?pid=diva2%3A1527786&dswid=197
  • Smith, Warren D. “The Nature of Evil in “Doctor Faustus.”” The Modern Language Review, vol. 60, no. 2, Apr. 1965, p. 171, https://doi.org/10.2307/3720056

External links

Template:Sister project

Template:Faust navbox Template:German folklore Template:Authority control

  1. ↑ a b c d e Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  2. ↑ a b Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  3. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  4. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  5. ↑ a b Script error: No such module "Citation/CS1".
  6. ↑ Script error: No such module "Citation/CS1".
  7. ↑ Script error: No such module "Citation/CS1".
  8. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  9. ↑ Script error: No such module "Citation/CS1".
  10. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  11. ↑ Script error: No such module "Citation/CS1".
  12. ↑ a b Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  13. ↑ a b c d Russell, J. B. (1986). Mephistopheles: The devil in the modern world (1. publ.). Cornell Univ. Pr. p. 61.
  14. ↑ Script error: No such module "Citation/CS1".
  15. ↑ a b Script error: No such module "Citation/CS1".
  16. ↑ Russell, J. B. (1986). Mephistopheles: The devil in the modern world (1. publ.). Cornell Univ. Pr. p. 65.
  17. ↑ Russell, J. B. (1986). Mephistopheles: The devil in the modern world (1. publ.). Cornell Univ. Pr. p. 65-66.
  18. ↑ {{Cite He is also interpreted as a mysterious figure in the movie Ghostrider. web|url=https://warwick.ac.uk/fac/arts/english/currentstudents/undergraduate/modules/fulllist/special/interdisciplinaryandcreativecollaboration/faustbooks/doriangray/%7Ctitle = The Picture of Dorian Gray by Oscar Wilde (1891)}}
  19. ↑ a b Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  20. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  21. ↑ Script error: No such module "Citation/CS1".
  22. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  23. ↑ Script error: No such module "Citation/CS1".
  24. ↑ Krstovic & Lazzardi 1999, p. 8
  25. ↑ Script error: No such module "Citation/CS1".
  26. ↑ Script error: No such module "Citation/CS1".
  27. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  28. ↑ Script error: No such module "Citation/CS1".
  29. ↑ a b Script error: No such module "Citation/CS1".
  30. ↑ Script error: No such module "Citation/CS1".
  31. ↑ Burton Russell 1992, p. 61 8. "Call Me Little Sunshine" by heavy-metal band Ghost 2022
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