Beech: Difference between revisions

Latest revision as of 17:01, 30 October 2025

Template:Short description Template:Good article Script error: No such module "about". Script error: No such module "Distinguish". Template:Use British English Template:Use dmy dates Template:Automatic taxobox Beech (genus Fagus) is a genus of deciduous trees in the family Fagaceae, native to subtropical (accessory forest element) and temperate (as dominant element of mesophytic forests) Eurasia and North America. There are 14 accepted species in two distinct subgenera, Englerianae Denk & G.W.GrimmScript error: No such module "Check for unknown parameters". and Fagus.^[1] The subgenus Englerianae is found only in East Asia, distinctive for its low branches, often made up of several major trunks with yellowish bark. The better known species of subgenus Fagus are native to Europe, western and eastern Asia and eastern North America.

The European beech Fagus sylvatica is the most commonly cultivated species, with several ornamental varieties, and forest trees yielding a timber used for furniture, flooring and construction, plywood, and household items. The timber can be used to build homes. Beechwood makes excellent firewood. Slats of washed beech wood are spread around the bottom of fermentation tanks for some beers. Beech logs are burned to dry the malt used in some German smoked beers. Beech is also used to smoke Westphalian ham, andouille sausage, and some cheeses.

Description

Beeches are monoecious, bearing both male and female flowers on the same plant. The small flowers are unisexual, the female flowers borne in pairs, the male flowers wind-pollinating catkins. The fruit is a three-angled nut, with two in a spiny dehiscent cupule. The bark is smooth. The leaves have a central vein with side-veins parallel to each other and ending in a tooth on the thin leaf-blade. The tree is deciduous, dropping its leaves in autumn.^[2]

Botanical illustration

Botanical illustration
Leaf of Fagus sylvatica

Leaf of Fagus sylvatica
F. sylvatica flowers

F. sylvatica flowers
Beechnuts in autumn

Beechnuts in autumn

Evolution

Evolutionary history

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File:Fagus sylvatica pliocenica MHNT.PAL.VEG.2002.31 (cropped).jpg

Fagus sylvatica pliocenica, Piacenzian, 3.6 to 2.6 mya

Numerous species have been named globally from the fossil record spanning from the Cretaceous to the Pleistocene.^[3] Some fossil species formerly placed in Fagus have been moved to other genera, namely Alnus, Castanea, Fagopsis, Fagoxylon, Fagus-pollenites, Juglans, Nothofagaphyllites, Nothofagus, and Trigonobalanus.^[3]

Fagus is the first diverging lineage in the evolution of the Fagaceae family,^[4]^[5] which includes oaks and chestnuts.^[6] The oldest fossils that can be assigned to the beech lineage are 81–82 million years old pollen from the Late Cretaceous of Wyoming, United States.^[4]

The first representatives of the modern-day genus were likely already present in the Paleocene of Arctic North America (western Greenland^[4]) and quickly radiated across the high latitudes of the Northern Hemisphere, with a first diversity peak in the Miocene of northeastern Asia.^[7]^[8] The contemporary species are the product of past, repeated reticulate evolutionary processes (outbreeding, introgression, hybridization).^[9] As far as studied, heterozygosity and intragenomic variation are common in beech species,^[9]^[10]^[11] and their chloroplast genomes are nonspecific with the exception of the Western Eurasian and North American species.^[1]

Phylogeny

A cladogram of 11 extant beech species is shown below. The subgenera Engleriana and Fagus diverged from each other in the Early Oligocene era, 32.1 to 33.4 million years ago.^[12]

Template:Clade

Taxonomy

The most recent classification system of the genus recognizes 14 species in two distinct subgenera, subgenus Englerianae and Fagus.^[1] Beech species can be diagnosed by phenotypical and/or genotypical traits. Species of subgenus Engleriana are found only in East Asia, and are notably distinct from species of subgenus Fagus in that these beeches are low-branching trees, often made up of several major trunks with yellowish bark and a substantially different nucleome (nuclear DNA), especially in noncoding, highly variable gene regions such as the spacers of the nuclear-encoded ribosomal RNA genes (ribosomal DNA).^[9]^[10] Further differentiating characteristics include the whitish bloom on the underside of the leaves, the visible tertiary leaf veins, and a long, smooth cupule-peduncle. Originally proposed but not formalized by botanist Chung-Fu Shen in 1992, this group comprised two Japanese species, F. japonica and F. okamotoi, and one Chinese species, F. engleriana.^[13] While the status of F. okamotoi remains uncertain, the most recent systematic treatment based on morphological and genetic data confirmed a third species, F. multinervis, endemic to Ulleungdo, a South Korean island in the Sea of Japan.^[1] The beeches of Ulleungdo have been traditionally treated as a subspecies of F. engleriana, to which they are phenotypically identical,^[13]^[14] or as a variety of F. japonica.^[15] The differ from their siblings by their unique nuclear and plastid genotypes.^[1]^[11]^[9]

The better known subgenus Fagus beeches are high-branching with tall, stout trunks and smooth silver-grey bark. This group includes five extant species in continental and insular East Asia (F. crenata, F. longipetiolata, F. lucida, and the cryptic sister species F. hayatae and F. pashanica), two pseudo-cryptic species in eastern North America (F. grandifolia, F. mexicana), and a species complex of at least four species (F. caspica, F. hohenackeriana, F. orientalis, F. sylvatica) in Western Eurasia. Their genetics are highly complex and include both species-unique alleles as well as alleles and ribosomal DNA spacers that are shared between two or more species.^[1] The western Eurasian species are characterised by morphological and genetical gradients.^[1]

Species

Species treated in Denk et al. (2024) and listed in Plants of the World Online (POWO):^[1]

Image	Name	Subgenus	Status, systematic affinity	Distribution	Accepted in POWO, Sept. 2025^[16]
	Fagus caspica Denk & G.W.GrimmScript error: No such module "Check for unknown parameters". – Caspian beech	Fagus	New species described in 2024;^[1] first-diverging lineage within the Western Eurasian group	Talysch and Elburz Mountains, southeastern Azerbaijan and northern Iran	No mention
	Fagus chienii W.C.ChengScript error: No such module "Check for unknown parameters".	Fagus	Possibly conspecific with F. lucida^[14]	Probably extinct, described from a single location in China (Sichuan). Individuals collected there were morphologically and genetically indistinguishable from F. pashanica.^[17]	Yes
File:Fagus crenata in Ogasayama 2010-10-17.jpg	Fagus crenata BlumeScript error: No such module "Check for unknown parameters". – Siebold's beech or Japanese beech	Fagus	Widespread species; complex history connecting it to both the Western Eurasian group and the other East Asian species of subgenus Fagus^[9]	Japan; in the mountains of Kyushu, Shikoku and Honshu, down to sea-level in southern Hokkaido.	Yes
File:Fagus engleriana - Morris Arboretum - DSC00475.JPG	Fagus engleriana Seemen ex DielsScript error: No such module "Check for unknown parameters". – Chinese beech	Englerianae	Widespread species; continental sister species of F. japonica^[10]^[11]^[9]	China; south of the Yellow River	Yes
File:Fagus grandifolia JPG1Ms.jpg	Fagus grandifolia Ehrh.Script error: No such module "Check for unknown parameters". – American beech	Fagus	Widespread species; sister species of F. mexicana^[11]^[9]	Eastern North America; from E. Texas and N. Florida, United States, to the St. Lawrence River, Canada at low to mid altitudes	Yes
File:Fagus hayatae 98412.jpg	Fagus hayatae Palib. ex HayataScript error: No such module "Check for unknown parameters".	Fagus	Narrow endemic species; forming a cryptic sister species pair with F. pashanica^[9]^[1]	Taiwan; restricted to the mountains of northern Taiwan	Yes
File:Fagus hohenackeriana near Fioletovo village, Armenia S-N 04.jpg	Fagus hohenackeriana Palib.Script error: No such module "Check for unknown parameters". – Caucasian or Hohenacker's beech	Fagus	Dominant tree species of the Pontic and Caucasus Mountains; intermediate between F. caspica and F. orientalis.^[18]^[19]^[20] Its genetic heterogeneity^[1]^[21] may be indicative for ongoing speciation processes.	Northeastern Anatolia (Pontic Mountains, Kaçkar Mountains) and Caucasus region (Lesser and Greater Caucasus, Georgia, Armenia, Ciscaucasia; down to sea-level in southwestern Georgia)	Yes
File:Forest in Tanzawa 08.jpg	Fagus japonica Maxim.Script error: No such module "Check for unknown parameters".File:Fagus mexicana, Zacualtipán de Ángeles, Hidalgo, Mexico 5737290.jpg	Englerianae	Widespread species; insular sister species of F. engleriana^[9]^[10]^[11]	Japan; Kyushu, Shikoku and Honshu from sea-level up to c. 1500 m a.s.l.	Yes
	Fagus longipetiolata SeemenScript error: No such module "Check for unknown parameters".	Fagus	Sym- to parapatric with F. lucida and F. pashanica, and sharing alleles with both species in addition to alleles indicating a sister relationship with the Japanese F. crenata.^[9]^[11]	China, south of the Yellow River, into N. Vietnam; in montane areas up to 2400 m a.s.l.^[22]	Replaced by F. sinensis
File:Fagus lucida Buk 2020-07-18 01.jpg	Fagus lucida Rehder & E.H.WilsonScript error: No such module "Check for unknown parameters".	Fagus	Rare species; closest relatives are F. crenata^[9]^[10]^[14] and F. longipetiolata^[9]^[11]	China; south of the Yellow River in montane areas between 800 and 2000 m a.s.l.^[23]	Yes
File:Fagus mexicana, Zacualtipán de Ángeles, Hidalgo, Mexico 5737290.jpg	Fagus mexicana MartínezScript error: No such module "Check for unknown parameters".	Fagus	Narrow endemic sister species of F. grandifolia. F. mexicana differs from F. grandifolia by its slender leaves and less-evolved but more polymorphic set of alleles (higher level of heterozygosity)^[9]^[11]	Hidalgo, Mexico; at 1400–2000 m a.s.l. as an element of the subtropical montane mesophilic forest (bosque mesófilo de montaña) superimposing the tropical lowland rainforests.	Yes
	Fagus multinervis NakaiScript error: No such module "Check for unknown parameters".	Englerianae	Narrow endemic species, first diverging lineage within subgenus Englerianae^[9]^[11]	South Korea (Ulleungdo)	Yes
File:TR Yedigöller asv2021-10 img13.jpg	Fagus orientalis LipskyScript error: No such module "Check for unknown parameters". – Oriental beech (in a narrow sense)	Fagus	Sister species of F. sylvatica^[19]^[20]	Southeastern Europe (SE Bulgaria, NE Greece, East Thrace (European Turkey) and adjacent northwestern Asia (NW and N Anatolia)	Yes
	Fagus pashanica C.C.YangScript error: No such module "Check for unknown parameters".	Fagus	Continental sister species of F. hayatae, with a set of alleles that puts it closer to F. longipetiolata and F. crenata than its insular sister.	China (Hubei, Hunan, Shaanxi, Sichuan, Zhejiang), at 1300–2300 m a.s.l.(eFlora of China, as F. hayatae^[24])	Yes
	Fagus sinensis Oliv.Script error: No such module "Check for unknown parameters".	Fagus	Invalid; the original material included material from two much different species: F. engleriana and F. longipetiolata^[1]^[14]	China (Hubei), Vietnam	Yes, erroneously used as older synonym of F. longipetiolata
File:Fagus sylvatica TK 2023-05-06 5.jpg	Fagus sylvatica L.Script error: No such module "Check for unknown parameters". – European beech	Fagus	Sister species of and closely related to F. orientalis^[19]^[20]	Europe	Yes

Natural and potential hybrids

Name	Parentage	Status	Distribution
Fagus (×) moesiaca (K. Malý) CzeczottScript error: No such module "Check for unknown parameters".	F. sylvatica × F. orientalis	No evidence so far for hybrid origin. All individuals addressed as F. moesiaca included in genetic studies fell within the variation of F. sylvatica.^[10]^[25] They may represent a lowland ecotype of F. sylvatica.^[1]^[26]	Southeastern Balkans
Fagus × taurica Popl.Script error: No such module "Check for unknown parameters". – Crimean beech	F. sylvatica × F. orientalis s.l.	Hybrid status not yet tested by genetic data; according to isoenzyme profiles a less-evolved, relict population of F. sylvatica or intermediate between F. sylvatica and the species complex historically addressed as Oriental beech (F. orientalis in a broad sense)^[18]	Crimean peninsula

Etymology

The name of the tree in Latin, fagus (whence the generic epithet), is cognate with English "beech" and of Indo-European origin. It played a role in early debates on the geographical origins of the Indo-European people, the beech argument. Greek φηγός (figós) is from the same root, but the word was transferred to the oak tree (e.g. Iliad 16.767) as a result of the absence of beech trees in southern Greece.^[27]

The common name of "beech" is from the Anglo-Saxon boc, bece or beoce, the German buche, the Swedish box - all meaning "book" as well as beech and derived from the Sanskrit boko or letter and bokos or writings. This connection to "beech" seems to have derived from the fact that the old Runic tablets were of beech wood.^[28]

Ecology

Habitat and distribution

Beech requires a deep soil with good drainage and a neutral or slightly acidic soil, pH 6 to 7.5. It is vulnerable to drought as its root system is relatively shallow. It does not live in waterlogged areas, but it can grow in windy places, shade from other trees, and cold. In northern Europe it is a lowland species, while further south it is montane, growing at an altitude of up to Template:Convert.^[29]

The English Lowlands beech forests is an ecoregion of high-canopy forest dominated by European beech in southeastern England, surviving as remnants such as the Template:Convert New Forest.^[30] The species arrived in Britain after the last glaciation, and may have been restricted to basic soils in the south of England. It could have been introduced by Neolithic tribes who planted the trees for their edible nuts.^[31] In southeast Wales, the Cwm Clydach National Nature Reserve holds beech woodlands on the western edge of their natural range in a steep limestone gorge.^[32] The primeval beech forests of the Carpathians have been dominated since the last ice age by the beech.^[33] In North America, beech can form Beech-maple forest, seen by some ecologists as a climax community, by partnering with the sugar maple.^[34]

Lowland beech forest in the New Forest, England

Lowland beech forest in the New Forest, England
Montane beech forest in the Mátra mountains, Hungary

Montane beech forest in the Mátra mountains, Hungary
Beech–maple forest, Ohio, United States

Beech–maple forest, Ohio, United States

Pests and diseases

The beech blight aphid, Grylloprociphilus imbricator, is a common pest of American beech trees.^[35]

Beech bark disease is a fungal infection of trees in the Eastern US, Canada, and Europe. Following damage caused by the scale insects Xylococculus betulae and Cryptococcus fagisuga, the fungi Neonectria faginata and Neonectria ditissima produce cankers each year; these may eventually girdle and kill the tree.^[36]

Beech leaf disease is a disease that affects beeches spread by the nematode Litylenchus crenatae mccannii. The disease was discovered in Ohio in 2012.^[37] It has spread through the Eastern United States and Canada.^[38]

Beech bark disease indicated by white wax marks caused by scale insects

Beech bark disease indicated by white wax marks caused by scale insects
Fruiting bodies of Neonectria faginata, agent of beech bark disease

Fruiting bodies of Neonectria faginata, agent of beech bark disease
Beech leaf disease, leaf infected by Litylenchus crenatae mccannii

Beech leaf disease, leaf infected by Litylenchus crenatae mccannii

Uses

Furniture and construction

The European beech Fagus sylvatica yields a tough timber. It weighs about 720 kg per cubic metre and is widely used for furniture construction, flooring, plywood, and household items. The timber can be used to build chalets, houses, and log cabins.^[39]

English carved and japanned beechwood chair, c. 1675

English carved and japanned beechwood chair, c. 1675
French desk chair, beechwood with leather upholstery, c. 1740–50

French desk chair, beechwood with leather upholstery, c. 1740–50
Italian bent beechwood rocking chair, Antonio Volpe S.A., c. 1905

Italian bent beechwood rocking chair, Antonio Volpe S.A., c. 1905
Hans J Wegner Wishbone Chair of turned and waxed beech, Denmark, 1949

Hans J Wegner Wishbone Chair of turned and waxed beech, Denmark, 1949

Ornamental tree

The European beech, Fagus sylvatica, is widely cultivated in most regions that have a suitable climate, including North and South America, Europe, South Africa, Australia, and New Zealand.^[40] Many varieties are in cultivation, including the weeping beech F. sylvatica 'Pendula', several varieties of copper or purple beech, the fern-leaved beech F. sylvatica 'Asplenifolia',^[41] and the tricolour beech F. sylvatica 'Roseomarginata'.^[42] The columnar Dawyck beech (F. sylvatica 'Dawyck') is named after Dawyck Botanic Garden in the Scottish Borders.^[43]

The tallest beech hedge in the world, and the longest hedge in Britain, is the Meikleour Beech Hedge in Perth and Kinross, Scotland.^[44]

F. sylvatica var Purpurea

F. sylvatica var Purpurea
F. sylvatica var Asplenifolia

F. sylvatica var Asplenifolia
F. sylvatica var Roseomarginata

F. sylvatica var Roseomarginata

Food and food preparation

The fruit of the beech tree is an edible nut, known as beech mast.^[45]^[46] According to the Roman statesman Pliny the Elder in his Natural History, the fruit: "of the beech is the sweetest of all; so much so, that, according to Cornelius Alexander, the people of the city of Chios, when besieged, supported themselves wholly on mast".^[47] They can also be roasted and pulverized into a coffee substitute.^[48]

Slats of beech wood, its flavour removed with caustic soda, are spread inside fermentation tanks for beers such as Budweiser to prevent the yeast from piling up on the bottom and possibly spoiling the beer's flavour.^[49] Beech logs are burned to dry the malt used in German smoked beers.^[50] Beech is also used to smoke Westphalian ham,^[51] traditional andouille (an offal sausage) from Normandy,^[52] and some smoked cheeses.^[53]

Other

File:Venus with a Mirror (study) (cropped).jpg

Painting Venus with a Mirror. Oil and plaster on beech wood. Titian, 1511

In antiquity, Indo-European people used beech bark as a writing material, especially in a religious context.^[54] Beech wood tablets were a common writing material in Germanic societies before the development of paper. The Old English bōc^[55] has the primary sense of "beech" with a secondary sense of "book".^[56]

The pigment bistre was made from beech wood soot. Beech litter raking was used as a replacement for straw in animal husbandry in Switzerland in the 17th century.^[57]^[58]^[59]^[60] Beech is one of the 38 plants whose flowers are used to prepare Bach flower remedies.^[61] Beech makes an excellent firewood.^[62] Some drum shells are made from beech.^[63] The textile modal is a kind of rayon often made wholly from cellulose extracted from pulped beech wood.^[64]^[65]^[66]

In Gallo-Roman religion, Fagus (Latin for "beech") was a god known from four inscriptions found in the Hautes-Pyrénées.^[67]

References

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External links

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Traditional and Modern Use of Beech

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↑ Nicole Jufer & Thierry Luginbühl (2001). Les dieux gaulois : répertoire des noms de divinités celtiques connus par l'épigraphie, les textes antiques et la toponymie. Paris: Editions Errance. Template:ISBN.

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Beech: Difference between revisions

Latest revision as of 17:01, 30 October 2025

Contents

Description

Evolution

Evolutionary history

Phylogeny

Taxonomy

Species

Natural and potential hybrids

Etymology

Ecology

Habitat and distribution

Pests and diseases

Uses

Furniture and construction

Ornamental tree

Food and food preparation

Other

See also

References

External links

Navigation menu

@@ Line 1: / Line 1: @@
-{{Short description|Genus of flowering plants in the family Fagaceae}}
+{{Short description|Genus of trees in the family Fagaceae}}
+{{good article}}
 {{About|the genus of trees|other uses|Beech (disambiguation)|and|Beechwood (disambiguation)}}
 {{Distinguish|Beach|Birch|Fagus (disambiguation)}}
+{{Use British English|date=September 2025}}
 {{Use dmy dates|date=December 2024}}
 {{Automatic taxobox
 | name = Beech
-| image = Fagus sylvatica Purpurea JPG4a.jpg
+| image = Beech-tree.JPG
+| image_alt = European beech tree
 | image_caption = European beech (''[[Fagus sylvatica]]'')
 | parent_authority = [[Karl Koch (botanist)|K.Koch]]
@@ Line 15: / Line 18: @@
 | subdivision = See [[#Species|text]]
 }}
-'''Beech''' (genus '''''Fagus''''') is a [[genus]] of [[deciduous]] trees in the family [[Fagaceae]], native to subtropical (accessory forest element) and temperate (as dominant element of [[Mesophyte|mesophytic]] forests) [[Eurasia]] and North America. There are 14 accepted species in two distinct subgenera, ''Englerianae'' {{Small|Denk & G.W.Grimm}} and ''Fagus''.<ref name="Denk-2024">{{Cite journal |last1=Denk |first1=Thomas |last2=Grimm |first2=Guido W. |last3=Cardoni |first3=Simone |last4=Csilléry |first4=Katalin |last5=Kurz |first5=Mirjam |last6=Schulze |first6=Ernst-Detlef |last7=Simeone |first7=Marco Cosimo |last8=Worth |first8=James R. P. |date=2024 |title=A subgeneric classification of Fagus (Fagaceae) and revised taxonomy of western Eurasian beeches |journal=Willdenowia |volume=54 |issue=2–3 |doi=10.3372/wi.54.54301 |issn=0511-9618|doi-access=free }}</ref> The subgenus ''Englerianae'' is found only in East Asia, distinctive for its low branches, often made up of several major trunks with yellowish bark. The better known species of subgenus ''Fagus'' are native to Europe, western and eastern Asia and eastern North America. They are high-branching trees with tall, stout trunks and smooth silver-grey bark.
+'''Beech''' (genus '''''Fagus''''') is a [[genus]] of [[deciduous]] trees in the family [[Fagaceae]], native to subtropical (accessory forest element) and temperate (as dominant element of [[Mesophyte|mesophytic]] forests) [[Eurasia]] and North America. There are 14 accepted species in two distinct subgenera, ''Englerianae'' {{Small|Denk & G.W.Grimm}} and ''Fagus''.<ref name="Denk-2024">{{Cite journal |last1=Denk |first1=Thomas |last2=Grimm |first2=Guido W. |last3=Cardoni |first3=Simone |last4=Csilléry |first4=Katalin |last5=Kurz |first5=Mirjam |last6=Schulze |first6=Ernst-Detlef |last7=Simeone |first7=Marco Cosimo |last8=Worth |first8=James R. P. |date=2024 |title=A subgeneric classification of Fagus (Fagaceae) and revised taxonomy of western Eurasian beeches |journal=Willdenowia |volume=54 |issue=2–3|pages=151-181 |doi=10.3372/wi.54.54301 |bibcode=2024Willd..5454301D |issn=0511-9618|doi-access=free }}</ref> The subgenus ''Englerianae'' is found only in East Asia, distinctive for its low branches, often made up of several major trunks with yellowish bark. The better known species of subgenus ''Fagus'' are native to Europe, western and eastern Asia and eastern North America.
-The European beech ''[[Fagus sylvatica]]'' is the most commonly cultivated species, yielding a utility timber used for furniture construction, flooring and engineering purposes, in plywood, and household items. The timber can be used to build homes. Beechwood makes excellent [[firewood]]. Slats of washed beech wood are spread around the bottom of fermentation tanks for [[Budweiser]] beer. Beech logs are burned to dry the [[malt]] used in some German [[smoked beer]]s. Beech is also used to smoke [[Westphalian ham]], [[andouille]] sausage, and some cheeses.
+The European beech ''[[Fagus sylvatica]]'' is the most commonly cultivated species, with several ornamental varieties, and forest trees yielding a timber used for furniture, flooring and construction, plywood, and household items. The timber can be used to build homes. Beechwood makes excellent [[firewood]]. Slats of washed beech wood are spread around the bottom of fermentation tanks for some beers. Beech logs are burned to dry the [[malt]] used in some German [[smoked beer]]s. Beech is also used to smoke [[Westphalian ham]], [[andouille]] sausage, and some cheeses.
 == Description ==
-[[File:Fagus sylvatica leaf 001.jpg|thumb|Leaf of ''[[Fagus sylvatica]]'']]
-[[File:Beechnuts during autumn.jpg|thumb|Beechnuts in autumn]]
-Beeches are [[monoecious]], bearing both male and female flowers on the same plant. The small flowers are unisexual, the female flowers borne in pairs, the male flowers wind-pollinating [[catkin]]s. They are produced in spring shortly after the new leaves appear. The fruit of the beech tree, known as beechnuts or mast, is found in small [[bur]]rs that drop from the tree in autumn. They are small, roughly triangular, and edible, with a bitter, astringent, or mild and nut-like taste.
-The European beech (''Fagus sylvatica'') is the most commonly cultivated, although few important differences are seen between species aside from detail elements such as [[leaf]] shape. The leaves of beech trees are entire or sparsely toothed, from {{convert|5|–|15|cm|in|0|abbr=off}} long and {{convert|4|–|10|cm|in|0|abbr=on}} broad.
+Beeches are [[monoecious]], bearing both male and female flowers on the same plant. The small flowers are unisexual, the female flowers borne in pairs, the male flowers wind-pollinating [[catkin]]s. The fruit is a three-angled [[Nut (fruit)|nut]], with two in a spiny [[dehiscent]] cupule. The bark is smooth. The leaves have a central vein with side-veins parallel to each other and ending in a tooth on the thin leaf-blade. The tree is [[deciduous]], dropping its leaves in autumn.<ref name="IDS (genus)">{{cite web |title=Trees and Shrubs Online: Fagus L. |url=https://www.treesandshrubsonline.org/articles/fagus/ |publisher=[[International Dendrology Society]] |access-date=7 October 2025}}</ref>
-The bark is smooth and light gray. The fruit is a small, sharply three-angled [[nut (fruit)|nut]] {{convert|10|–|15|mm|in|frac=8|abbr=on}} long, borne singly or in pairs in soft-spined husks {{convert|1.5|–|2.5|cm|in|frac=8|abbr=on}} long, known as cupules. The husk can have a variety of spine- to scale-like appendages, the character of which is, in addition to leaf shape, one of the primary ways beeches are differentiated.<ref name="Shen-1992">{{cite thesis |last=Shen |first=Chung-Fu |title=A Monograph of the Genus ''Fagus'' Tourn. Ex L. (Fagaceae) |date=1992 |type=PhD |publisher=City University of New York |oclc=28329966}}</ref> The nuts are called beechnuts<ref name="Lyle-2010">{{Cite book |last=Lyle |first=Katie Letcher |title=The Complete Guide to Edible Wild Plants, Mushrooms, Fruits, and Nuts: How to Find, Identify, and Cook Them |publisher=[[FalconGuides]] |year=2010 |isbn=978-1-59921-887-8 |edition=2nd |location=Guilford, CN |pages=138 |oclc=560560606 |orig-year=2004}}</ref> or beech mast and have a bitter taste (though not nearly as bitter as [[acorn]]s) and a high [[tannin]] content.
+<gallery class=center mode=nolines widths=180 heights=180>
+File:367 Fagus silvatica.jpg|Botanical illustration
+File:Fagus sylvatica leaf 001.jpg|Leaf of ''[[Fagus sylvatica]]''
+File:Beech flowers.jpg|''F. sylvatica'' flowers
+File:Beechnuts during autumn.jpg|Beechnuts in autumn
+</gallery>
-== Taxonomy and systematics ==
+== Evolution ==
-The most recent classification system of the genus recognizes 14 species in two distinct subgenera, subgenus ''Englerianae'' and ''Fagus''.<ref name="Denk-2024" /> Beech species can be diagnosed by [[Phenotype|phenotypical]] and/or [[Genotype|genotypical]] traits. Species of subgenus ''Engleriana'' are found only in East Asia, and are notably distinct from species of subgenus ''Fagus'' in that these beeches are low-branching trees, often made up of several major trunks with yellowish bark and a substantially different [[Nuclear DNA|nucleome (nuclear DNA)]], especially in noncoding, highly variable gene regions such as the [[Spacer DNA|spacers]] of the nuclear-encoded [[Ribosomal DNA|ribosomal RNA genes (ribosomal DNA)]].<ref name="Cardoni-2021">{{Citation |last1=Cardoni |first1=Simone |title=5S-IGS rDNA in wind-pollinated trees (Fagus L.) encapsulates 55 million years of reticulate evolution and hybrid origins of modern species |date=2021-10-19 |url=https://www.biorxiv.org/content/10.1101/2021.02.26.433057v2 |access-date=2024-10-24 |language=en |doi=10.1111/tpj.15601|biorxiv=10.1101/2021.02.26.433057 |last2=Piredda |first2=Roberta |last3=Denk |first3=Thomas |last4=Grimm |first4=Guido W. |last5=Papageorgiou |first5=Aristotelis C. |last6=Schulze |first6=Ernst-Detlef |last7=Scoppola |first7=Anna |last8=Shanjani |first8=Parvin Salehi |last9=Suyama |first9=Yoshihisa|journal=The Plant Journal |volume=109 |issue=4 |pages=909–926 |pmid=34808015 |pmc=9299691 }}</ref><ref name="Denk-2005">{{Cite journal |last1=Denk |first1=Thomas |last2=Grimm |first2=Guido W. |last3=Hemleben |first3=Vera |date=June 2005 |title=Patterns of molecular and morphological differentiation in Fagus (Fagaceae): phylogenetic implications |url=https://bsapubs.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.3732/ajb.92.6.1006 |journal=American Journal of Botany |language=en |volume=92 |issue=6 |pages=1006–1016 |doi=10.3732/ajb.92.6.1006 |pmid=21652485 |issn=0002-9122}}</ref> Further differentiating characteristics include the whitish bloom on the underside of the leaves, the visible tertiary leaf veins, and a long, smooth cupule-peduncle. Originally proposed but not formalized by botanist Chung-Fu Shen in 1992, this group comprised two Japanese species, ''[[Fagus japonica|F.&nbsp;japonica]]'' and ''[[Fagus okamotoi|F.&nbsp;okamotoi]],'' and one Chinese species, ''[[Fagus engleriana|F.&nbsp;engleriana]]''.<ref name="Shen-1992" /> While the status of ''F. okamotoi'' remains uncertain, the most recent systematic treatment based on morphological and genetic data confirmed a third species, ''F. multinervis,'' endemic to [[Ulleungdo]], a South Korean island in the [[Sea of Japan]].<ref name="Denk-2024" /> The beeches of Ulleungdo have been traditionally treated as a subspecies of ''F. engleriana,'' to which they are phenotypically identical,<ref name="Shen-1992" /><ref name="Denk-2003">{{Cite journal |last=Denk |first=T. |date=2003-09-01 |title=Phylogeny of Fagus L. (Fagaceae) based on morphological data |url=https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s00606-003-0018-x |journal=Plant Systematics and Evolution |language=en |volume=240 |issue=1 |pages=55–81 |doi=10.1007/s00606-003-0018-x |bibcode=2003PSyEv.240...55D |issn=1615-6110|url-access=subscription }}</ref> or as a variety of ''F. japonica.''<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Oh |first1=Sang-Hun |last2=Youm |first2=Jung-Won |last3=Kim |first3=Yong-In |last4=Kim |first4=Young-Dong |date=2016-09-01 |title=Phylogeny and Evolution of Endemic Species on Ulleungdo Island, Korea: The Case of Fagus multinervis (Fagaceae) |url=http://openurl.ingenta.com/content/xref?genre=article&issn=0363-6445&volume=41&issue=3&spage=617 |journal=Systematic Botany |language=en |volume=41 |issue=3 |pages=617–625 |doi=10.1600/036364416X692271|url-access=subscription }}</ref> The differ from their siblings by their unique [[Nuclear DNA|nuclear]] and [[Chloroplast DNA|plastid]] genotypes.<ref name="Denk-2024" /><ref name="Jiang-2022">{{Cite journal |last1=Jiang |first1=Lu |last2=Bao |first2=Qin |last3=He |first3=Wei |last4=Fan |first4=Deng-Mei |last5=Cheng |first5=Shan-Mei |last6=López-Pujol |first6=Jordi |last7=Chung |first7=Myong Gi |last8=Sakaguchi |first8=Shota |last9=Sánchez-González |first9=Arturo |last10=Gedik |first10=Aysun |last11=Li |first11=De-Zhu |last12=Kou |first12=Yi-Xuan |last13=Zhang |first13=Zhi-Yong |date=July 2022 |title=Phylogeny and biogeography of Fagus (Fagaceae) based on 28 nuclear single/low-copy loci |url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/jse.12695 |journal=Journal of Systematics and Evolution |language=en |volume=60 |issue=4 |pages=759–772 |doi=10.1111/jse.12695 |issn=1674-4918|url-access=subscription }}</ref><ref name="Cardoni-2021" />
-The better known subgenus ''Fagus'' beeches are high-branching with tall, stout trunks and smooth silver-gray bark. This group includes five extant species in continental and insular East Asia (''[[Fagus crenata|F. crenata]], [[Fagus longipetiolata|F. longipetiolata]], [[Fagus lucida|F. lucida]]'', and the [[Cryptic speciation|cryptic]] sister species ''[[Fagus hayatae|F. hayatae]]'' and ''[[Fagus pashanica|F. pashanica]]'')'','' two pseudo-cryptic species in [[eastern North America]] ([[Fagus grandifolia|''F.&nbsp;grandifolia'']]'', [[Fagus mexicana|F. mexicana]]''), and a [[species complex]] of at least four species (''[[Fagus caspica|F. caspica]], [[Fagus hohenackeriana|F. hohenackeriana]], [[Fagus orientalis|F. orientalis]], [[Fagus sylvatica|F. sylvatica]]'') in [[Western Eurasia]]. Their genetics are highly complex and include both species-unique [[allele]]s as well as alleles and ribosomal DNA spacers that are shared between two or more species.<ref name="Denk-2024" /> The western Eurasian species are characterized by morphological and genetical gradients.
+=== Evolutionary history ===
-Research suggests that the first representatives of the modern-day genus were already present in the [[Paleocene]] of [[Arctic]] North America (western [[Greenland]]<ref name="Grímsson-2016">{{Cite journal |last1=Grímsson |first1=Friðgeir |last2=Grimm |first2=Guido W. |last3=Zetter |first3=Reinhard |last4=Denk |first4=Thomas |date=2016-12-01 |title=Cretaceous and Paleogene Fagaceae from North America and Greenland: evidence for a Late Cretaceous split between Fagus and the remaining Fagaceae |url=https://acpa.botany.pl/Cretaceous-and-Paleogene-Fagaceae-nfrom-North-America-and-Greenland-evidence-nfor,118915,0,2.html |journal=Acta Palaeobotanica |volume=56 |issue=2 |pages=247–305 |doi=10.1515/acpa-2016-0016 |issn=2082-0259|doi-access=free }}</ref>) and quickly radiated across the high latitudes of the [[Northern Hemisphere]], with a first [[Biodiversity|diversity]] peak in the [[Miocene]] of northeastern Asia.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Denk |first1=Thomas |last2=Grimm |first2=Guido W. |date=2009 |title=The biogeographic history of beech trees |url=https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0034666709001353 |journal=Review of Palaeobotany and Palynology |language=en |volume=158 |issue=1–2 |pages=83–100 |doi=10.1016/j.revpalbo.2009.08.007|bibcode=2009RPaPa.158...83D |url-access=subscription }}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Renner |first1=S. S. |last2=Grimm |first2=Guido W. |last3=Kapli |first3=Paschalia |last4=Denk |first4=Thomas |date=2016-07-19 |title=Species relationships and divergence times in beeches: new insights from the inclusion of 53 young and old fossils in a birth–death clock model |journal=Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences |language=en |volume=371 |issue=1699 |pages=20150135 |doi=10.1098/rstb.2015.0135 |issn=0962-8436 |pmc=4920336 |pmid=27325832}}</ref> The contemporary species are the product of past, repeated [[Reticulate evolution|reticulate evolutionary processes]] ([[Outcrossing|outbreeding]], [[introgression]], [[Hybrid (biology)|hybridization]]).<ref name="Cardoni-2021" /> As far as studied, heterozygosity and intragenomic variation are common in beech species,<ref name="Cardoni-2021" /><ref name="Denk-2005" /><ref name="Jiang-2022" /> and their chloroplast genomes are nonspecific with the exception of the Western Eurasian and North American species.<ref name="Denk-2024" />
+{{see also|List of fossil beech species}}
-''Fagus'' is the first [[Divergent evolution|diverging]] lineage in the evolution of the [[Fagaceae]] family,<ref name="Grímsson-2016" /><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Zhou |first1=Biao-Feng |last2=Yuan |first2=Shuai |last3=Crowl |first3=Andrew A. |last4=Liang |first4=Yi-Ye |last5=Shi |first5=Yong |last6=Chen |first6=Xue-Yan |last7=An |first7=Qing-Qing |last8=Kang |first8=Ming |last9=Manos |first9=Paul S. |last10=Wang |first10=Baosheng |date=2022-03-14 |title=Phylogenomic analyses highlight innovation and introgression in the continental radiations of Fagaceae across the Northern Hemisphere |journal=Nature Communications |language=en |volume=13 |issue=1 |pages=1320 |doi=10.1038/s41467-022-28917-1 |issn=2041-1723 |pmc=8921187 |pmid=35288565|bibcode=2022NatCo..13.1320Z }}</ref> which also includes [[oak]]s and [[chestnut]]s.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Manos |first1=Paul S. |first2=Kelly P. |last2=Steele |title=Phylogenetic analysis of "Higher" Hamamelididae based on Plasid Sequence Data |journal=American Journal of Botany |volume=84 |issue=10 |pages=1407–19 |date=1997 |doi=10.2307/2446139 |jstor=2446139 |pmid=21708548 |url=|doi-access=free }}</ref> The oldest fossils that can be assigned to the beech lineage are 81–82 million years old [[pollen]] from the [[Late Cretaceous]] of [[Wyoming]], United States.<ref name="Grímsson-2016" /> The '''southern beeches''' (genus ''[[Nothofagus]]'') historically thought closely related to beeches, are treated as members of a separate family, the [[Nothofagaceae]] (which remains a member of the order [[Fagales]]). They are found throughout the [[Southern Hemisphere]] in Australia, New Zealand, [[New Guinea]], [[New Caledonia]], as well as [[Argentina]] and Chile (principally [[Patagonia]] and [[Tierra del Fuego]]).
+[[File:Fagus sylvatica pliocenica MHNT.PAL.VEG.2002.31 (cropped).jpg|thumb|''Fagus sylvatica pliocenica'', [[Piacenzian]], 3.6 to 2.6 mya ]]
-===Species===
+Numerous species have been named globally from the fossil record spanning from the [[Cretaceous]] to the [[Pleistocene]].<ref name="IFPNI-2023">{{cite web |url=http://ifpni.org/genus.htm?id=3EE9EA96-C4DC-4621-B6EB-697227CF797B |website=The International Fossil Plant Names Index |title=''Fagus'' |access-date=6 Feb 2023}}</ref> Some fossil species formerly placed in ''Fagus'' have been moved to other genera, namely ''[[Alnus]]'', ''[[Castanea]]'', ''[[Fagopsis]]'', ''[[Fagoxylon]]'', ''[[Fagus-pollenites]]'', ''[[Juglans]]'', ''[[Nothofagaphyllites]]'', ''[[Nothofagus]]'', and ''[[Trigonobalanus]]''.<ref name="IFPNI-2023"/>
-Species treated in Denk et al. (2024) and listed in [[Plants of the World Online|Plants of the World Online (POWO)]]:<ref name="Denk-2024" />
+''Fagus'' is the first [[Divergent evolution|diverging]] lineage in the evolution of the [[Fagaceae]] family,<ref name="Grímsson-2016"/><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Zhou |first1=Biao-Feng |last2=Yuan |first2=Shuai |last3=Crowl |first3=Andrew A. |last4=Liang |first4=Yi-Ye |last5=Shi |first5=Yong |last6=Chen |first6=Xue-Yan |last7=An |first7=Qing-Qing |last8=Kang |first8=Ming |last9=Manos |first9=Paul S. |last10=Wang |first10=Baosheng |date=2022-03-14 |title=Phylogenomic analyses highlight innovation and introgression in the continental radiations of Fagaceae across the Northern Hemisphere |journal=Nature Communications |language=en |volume=13 |issue=1 |page=1320 |doi=10.1038/s41467-022-28917-1 |issn=2041-1723 |pmc=8921187 |pmid=35288565|bibcode=2022NatCo..13.1320Z }}</ref> which includes [[oak]]s and [[chestnut]]s.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Manos |first1=Paul S. |first2=Kelly P. |last2=Steele |title=Phylogenetic analysis of "Higher" Hamamelididae based on Plasid Sequence Data |journal=American Journal of Botany |volume=84 |issue=10 |pages=1407–19 |date=1997 |doi=10.2307/2446139 |jstor=2446139 |pmid=21708548 |url=|doi-access=free }}</ref> The oldest fossils that can be assigned to the beech lineage are 81–82 million years old [[pollen]] from the [[Late Cretaceous]] of [[Wyoming]], United States.<ref name="Grímsson-2016"/>
+The first representatives of the modern-day genus were likely already present in the [[Paleocene]] of [[Arctic]] North America (western [[Greenland]]<ref name="Grímsson-2016">{{Cite journal |last1=Grímsson |first1=Friðgeir |last2=Grimm |first2=Guido W. |last3=Zetter |first3=Reinhard |last4=Denk |first4=Thomas |date=2016-12-01 |title=Cretaceous and Paleogene Fagaceae from North America and Greenland: evidence for a Late Cretaceous split between Fagus and the remaining Fagaceae |url=https://acpa.botany.pl/Cretaceous-and-Paleogene-Fagaceae-nfrom-North-America-and-Greenland-evidence-nfor,118915,0,2.html |journal=Acta Palaeobotanica |volume=56 |issue=2 |pages=247–305 |doi=10.1515/acpa-2016-0016 |issn=2082-0259|doi-access=free }}</ref>) and quickly radiated across the high latitudes of the [[Northern Hemisphere]], with a first [[Biodiversity|diversity]] peak in the [[Miocene]] of northeastern Asia.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Denk |first1=Thomas |last2=Grimm |first2=Guido W. |date=2009 |title=The biogeographic history of beech trees |url=https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0034666709001353 |journal=Review of Palaeobotany and Palynology |language=en |volume=158 |issue=1–2 |pages=83–100 |doi=10.1016/j.revpalbo.2009.08.007|bibcode=2009RPaPa.158...83D |url-access=subscription }}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Renner |first1=S. S. |last2=Grimm |first2=Guido W. |last3=Kapli |first3=Paschalia |last4=Denk |first4=Thomas |date=2016-07-19 |title=Species relationships and divergence times in beeches: new insights from the inclusion of 53 young and old fossils in a birth–death clock model |journal=Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences |language=en |volume=371 |issue=1699 |article-number=20150135 |doi=10.1098/rstb.2015.0135 |issn=0962-8436 |pmc=4920336 |pmid=27325832}}</ref> The contemporary species are the product of past, repeated [[Reticulate evolution|reticulate evolutionary processes]] ([[Outcrossing|outbreeding]], [[introgression]], [[Hybrid (biology)|hybridization]]).<ref name="Cardoni-2021"/> As far as studied, heterozygosity and intragenomic variation are common in beech species,<ref name="Cardoni-2021"/><ref name="Denk-2005"/><ref name="Jiang-2022"/> and their chloroplast genomes are nonspecific with the exception of the Western Eurasian and North American species.<ref name="Denk-2024"/>
+=== Phylogeny ===
+A cladogram of 11 extant beech species is shown below. The subgenera ''Engleriana'' and ''Fagus'' diverged from each other in the [[Early Oligocene]] era, 32.1 to 33.4 million years ago.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Jiang |first1=Lu |display-authors=etal |title=Phylogeny and biogeography of Fagus (Fagaceae) based on 28 nuclear single/low-copy loci |journal=Journal of Systematics and Evolution |date=10 October 2020 |volume=60 |issue=4 |pages=759–772 |doi=10.1111/jse.12695 |bibcode=2022JSyEv..60..759J |url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1111/jse.12695 |url-access=subscription }}</ref>
+{{clade
+|label1='''''Fagus'''''
+|1={{clade
+   |label1=subg. ''Engleriana'' |sublabel1=Japan, Korea
+   |1={{clade
+      |1=''[[Fagus multinervis|F. multinervis]]''
+      |2={{clade
+         |1=''[[Fagus engleriana|F. engleriana]]''
+         |2=''[[Fagus japonica|F. japonica]]''
+         }}
+      }}
+   |label2=subg. ''Fagus'' |sublabel2=
+   |2={{clade
+      |label1=sect. ''Grandifolia'' |sublabel1=Eastern US
+      |1={{clade
+         |1=''[[Fagus grandifolia|F. grandifolia]]''
+         |2=''[[Fagus mexicana|F. mexicana]]''
+         }}
+      |2={{clade
+         |label1=sect. ''Fagus'' |sublabel1=Europe
+         |1={{clade
+            |1=''[[Fagus orientalis|F. orientalis]]''
+            |2=''[[Fagus sylvatica|F. sylvatica]]''
+            }}
+         |label2=sect. ''Lucida'' |sublabel2=Southeast Asia
+         |2={{clade
+            |1=''[[Fagus hayatae|F. hayatae]]''
+            |2={{clade
+               |1=''[[Fagus crenata|F. crenata]]''
+               |2={{clade
+                  |1=''[[Fagus longipetiolata|F. longipetiolata]]''
+                  |2=''[[Fagus lucida|F. lucida]]''
+                  }}
+               }}
+            }}
+         }}
+      }}
+   }}
+}}
+=== Taxonomy ===
+The most recent classification system of the genus recognizes 14 species in two distinct subgenera, subgenus ''Englerianae'' and ''Fagus''.<ref name="Denk-2024"/> Beech species can be diagnosed by [[Phenotype|phenotypical]] and/or [[Genotype|genotypical]] traits. Species of subgenus ''Engleriana'' are found only in East Asia, and are notably distinct from species of subgenus ''Fagus'' in that these beeches are low-branching trees, often made up of several major trunks with yellowish bark and a substantially different [[Nuclear DNA|nucleome (nuclear DNA)]], especially in noncoding, highly variable gene regions such as the [[Spacer DNA|spacers]] of the nuclear-encoded [[Ribosomal DNA|ribosomal RNA genes (ribosomal DNA)]].<ref name="Cardoni-2021">{{cite journal|last1=Cardoni |first1=Simone |title=5S-IGS rDNA in wind-pollinated trees (Fagus L.) encapsulates 55 million years of reticulate evolution and hybrid origins of modern species |date=2021-10-19 |url=https://www.biorxiv.org/content/10.1101/2021.02.26.433057v2 |access-date=2024-10-24 |doi=10.1111/tpj.15601|biorxiv=10.1101/2021.02.26.433057 |last2=Piredda |first2=Roberta |last3=Denk |first3=Thomas |last4=Grimm |first4=Guido W. |last5=Papageorgiou |first5=Aristotelis C. |last6=Schulze |first6=Ernst-Detlef |last7=Scoppola |first7=Anna |last8=Shanjani |first8=Parvin Salehi |last9=Suyama |first9=Yoshihisa|journal=The Plant Journal |volume=109 |issue=4 |pages=909–926 |pmid=34808015 |pmc=9299691 }}</ref><ref name="Denk-2005">{{Cite journal |last1=Denk |first1=Thomas |last2=Grimm |first2=Guido W. |last3=Hemleben |first3=Vera |date=June 2005 |title=Patterns of molecular and morphological differentiation in Fagus (Fagaceae): phylogenetic implications |url=https://bsapubs.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.3732/ajb.92.6.1006 |journal=American Journal of Botany |language=en |volume=92 |issue=6 |pages=1006–1016 |doi=10.3732/ajb.92.6.1006 |pmid=21652485 |issn=0002-9122}}</ref> Further differentiating characteristics include the whitish bloom on the underside of the leaves, the visible tertiary leaf veins, and a long, smooth [[Calybium and cupule|cupule]]-[[Peduncle (botany)|peduncle]]. Originally proposed but not formalized by botanist Chung-Fu Shen in 1992, this group comprised two Japanese species, ''[[Fagus japonica|F.&nbsp;japonica]]'' and ''[[Fagus okamotoi|F.&nbsp;okamotoi]],'' and one Chinese species, ''[[Fagus engleriana|F.&nbsp;engleriana]]''.<ref name="Shen-1992">{{cite thesis |last=Shen |first=Chung-Fu |title=A Monograph of the Genus ''Fagus'' Tourn. Ex L. (Fagaceae) |date=1992 |type=PhD |publisher=City University of New York |oclc=28329966}}</ref> While the status of ''F. okamotoi'' remains uncertain, the most recent systematic treatment based on morphological and genetic data confirmed a third species, ''F. multinervis,'' endemic to [[Ulleungdo]], a South Korean island in the [[Sea of Japan]].<ref name="Denk-2024"/> The beeches of Ulleungdo have been traditionally treated as a subspecies of ''F. engleriana,'' to which they are phenotypically identical,<ref name="Shen-1992"/><ref name="Denk-2003">{{Cite journal |last=Denk |first=T. |date=2003-09-01 |title=Phylogeny of Fagus L. (Fagaceae) based on morphological data |url=https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s00606-003-0018-x |journal=Plant Systematics and Evolution |volume=240 |issue=1 |pages=55–81 |doi=10.1007/s00606-003-0018-x |bibcode=2003PSyEv.240...55D |url-access=subscription }}</ref> or as a variety of ''F. japonica.''<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Oh |first1=Sang-Hun |last2=Youm |first2=Jung-Won |last3=Kim |first3=Yong-In |last4=Kim |first4=Young-Dong |date=2016-09-01 |title=Phylogeny and Evolution of Endemic Species on Ulleungdo Island, Korea: The Case of Fagus multinervis (Fagaceae) |url=http://openurl.ingenta.com/content/xref?genre=article&issn=0363-6445&volume=41&issue=3&spage=617 |journal=Systematic Botany |volume=41 |issue=3 |pages=617–625 |doi=10.1600/036364416X692271|bibcode=2016SysBo..41..617O |url-access=subscription }}</ref> The differ from their siblings by their unique [[Nuclear DNA|nuclear]] and [[Chloroplast DNA|plastid]] genotypes.<ref name="Denk-2024"/><ref name="Jiang-2022">{{Cite journal |last1=Jiang |first1=Lu |last2=Bao |first2=Qin |last3=He |first3=Wei |last4=Fan |first4=Deng-Mei |last5=Cheng |first5=Shan-Mei |last6=López-Pujol |first6=Jordi |last7=Chung |first7=Myong Gi |last8=Sakaguchi |first8=Shota |last9=Sánchez-González |first9=Arturo |last10=Gedik |first10=Aysun |last11=Li |first11=De-Zhu |last12=Kou |first12=Yi-Xuan |last13=Zhang |first13=Zhi-Yong |display-authors=5 |date=July 2022 |title=Phylogeny and biogeography of Fagus (Fagaceae) based on 28 nuclear single/low-copy loci |url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/jse.12695 |journal=Journal of Systematics and Evolution |volume=60 |issue=4 |pages=759–772 |doi=10.1111/jse.12695 |bibcode=2022JSyEv..60..759J |issn=1674-4918|url-access=subscription }}</ref><ref name="Cardoni-2021"/>
+The better known subgenus ''Fagus'' beeches are high-branching with tall, stout trunks and smooth silver-grey bark. This group includes five extant species in continental and insular East Asia (''[[Fagus crenata|F. crenata]], [[Fagus longipetiolata|F. longipetiolata]], [[Fagus lucida|F. lucida]]'', and the [[Cryptic speciation|cryptic]] sister species ''[[Fagus hayatae|F. hayatae]]'' and ''[[Fagus pashanica|F. pashanica]]''), two pseudo-cryptic species in [[eastern North America]] (''[[Fagus grandifolia|F.&nbsp;grandifolia]]'', ''[[Fagus mexicana|F. mexicana]]''), and a [[species complex]] of at least four species (''[[Fagus caspica|F. caspica]]'', ''[[Fagus hohenackeriana|F. hohenackeriana]]'', ''[[Fagus orientalis|F. orientalis]]'', ''[[Fagus sylvatica|F. sylvatica]]'') in [[Western Eurasia]]. Their genetics are highly complex and include both species-unique [[allele]]s as well as alleles and ribosomal DNA spacers that are shared between two or more species.<ref name="Denk-2024"/> The western Eurasian species are characterised by morphological and genetical gradients.<ref name="Denk-2024"/>
+=== Species ===
+Species treated in Denk et al. (2024) and listed in [[Plants of the World Online|Plants of the World Online (POWO)]]:<ref name="Denk-2024"/>
 {| class="wikitable collapsible"
 |-
@@ Line 44: / Line 105: @@
 !Subgenus
 !Status, systematic affinity!! Distribution
-!Accepted as species in POWO as of April 2023<ref name="POWO-2022">{{cite web |date=2022-05-07 |title=Fagus L. - Plants of the World Online |url=http://powo.science.kew.org/taxon/urn:lsid:ipni.org:names:30048723-2 |access-date=2023-04-24 |website=Plants of the World Online}}</ref>
+!Accepted in POWO, Sept. 2025<ref name="POWO-2025">{{cite web |date=2025 |title=Fagus L. - Plants of the World Online |url=http://powo.science.kew.org/taxon/urn:lsid:ipni.org:names:30048723-2 |access-date=2025-09-07 |website=Plants of the World Online}}</ref>
 |-
 |
 |''[[Fagus caspica]]'' {{Small|Denk & G.W.Grimm}} – Caspian beech
 |''Fagus''
-|New species described in 2024;<ref name="Denk-2024" /> first-diverging lineage within the Western Eurasian group
+|New species described in 2024;<ref name="Denk-2024"/> first-diverging lineage within the Western Eurasian group
-|[[Talysh Mountains|Talysch]] and [[Alborz|Elburz Mountains]], southeastern [[Azerbaijan]] and northern [[Iran]]
+|[[Talysh Mountains|Talysch]] and [[Alborz|Elburz Mountains]], southeastern Azerbaijan and northern Iran
-|Populations included in ''F. sylvatica'' subsp. ''orientalis''
+|No mention<!-- (not even as a synonym)-->
 |-
 | ||''[[Fagus chienii]]'' {{small|[[Wan Chun Cheng|W.C.Cheng]]}}
 |''Fagus''
-|Possibly conspecific with ''F. lucida''<ref name="Denk-2003" />|| Probably extinct, described from a single location in China (Sichuan). Individuals recently collected at the type locality were morphologically and genetically indistinguishable from ''F. pashanica''.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Li |first1=Dan-Qi |last2=Jiang |first2=Lu |last3=Liang |first3=Hua |last4=Zhu |first4=Da-Hai |last5=Fan |first5=Deng-Mei |last6=Kou |first6=Yi-Xuan |last7=Yang |first7=Yi |last8=Zhang |first8=Zhi-Yong |date=2023-09-01 |title=Resolving a nearly 90-year-old enigma: The rare Fagus chienii is conspecific with F. hayatae based on molecular and morphological evidence |journal=Plant Diversity |volume=45 |issue=5 |pages=544–551 |doi=10.1016/j.pld.2023.01.003 |issn=2468-2659 |pmc=10625896 |pmid=37936819|bibcode=2023PlDiv..45..544L }}</ref>
+|Possibly conspecific with ''F. lucida''<ref name="Denk-2003"/>|| Probably extinct, described from a single location in China (Sichuan). Individuals collected there were morphologically and genetically indistinguishable from ''F. pashanica''.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Li |first1=Dan-Qi |last2=Jiang |first2=Lu |last3=Liang |first3=Hua |last4=Zhu |first4=Da-Hai |last5=Fan |first5=Deng-Mei |last6=Kou |first6=Yi-Xuan |last7=Yang |first7=Yi |last8=Zhang |first8=Zhi-Yong |date=2023-09-01 |title=Resolving a nearly 90-year-old enigma: The rare Fagus chienii is conspecific with F. hayatae based on molecular and morphological evidence |journal=Plant Diversity |volume=45 |issue=5 |pages=544–551 |doi=10.1016/j.pld.2023.01.003 |pmc=10625896 |pmid=37936819 |bibcode=2023PlDiv..45..544L }}</ref>
 |Yes
 |-
-|[[File:Fagus crenata leave in Mount Mominuka.jpg|120px]]||''[[Fagus crenata]]'' {{small|[[Carl Ludwig Blume|Blume]]}} – Siebold's beech or Japanese beech
+|[[File:Fagus crenata in Ogasayama 2010-10-17.jpg|120px]]||''[[Fagus crenata]]'' {{small|[[Carl Ludwig Blume|Blume]]}} – Siebold's beech or Japanese beech
 |''Fagus''
-|Widespread species; complex history connecting it to both the Western Eurasian group and the other East Asian species of subgenus ''Fagus''<ref name="Cardoni-2021" />||Japan; in the mountains of [[Kyushu]], [[Shikoku]] and [[Honshu]], down to sea-level in southern [[Hokkaido]].
+|Widespread species; complex history connecting it to both the Western Eurasian group and the other East Asian species of subgenus ''Fagus''<ref name="Cardoni-2021"/>||Japan; in the mountains of [[Kyushu]], [[Shikoku]] and [[Honshu]], down to sea-level in southern [[Hokkaido]].
 |Yes
 |-
 |[[File:Fagus engleriana - Morris Arboretum - DSC00475.JPG|120px]]||''[[Fagus engleriana]]'' {{small|[[Karl Otto von Seemen|Seemen]] ex Diels}} – Chinese beech
 |''Englerianae''
-|Widespread species; continental sister species of ''F. japonica''<ref name="Denk-2005" /><ref name="Jiang-2022" /><ref name="Cardoni-2021" />||China; south of the [[Yellow River]]
+|Widespread species; continental sister species of ''F. japonica''<ref name="Denk-2005"/><ref name="Jiang-2022"/><ref name="Cardoni-2021"/>||China; south of the [[Yellow River]]
 |Yes
 |-
-|[[File:Fagus grandifolia JPG1Ms.jpg|120px]]||''[[Fagus grandifolia]]'' {{small|[[Ehrh.]]}} – American beech
+|[[File:Fagus grandifolia JPG1Ms.jpg|80px]]||''[[Fagus grandifolia]]'' {{small|[[Ehrh.]]}} – American beech
 |''Fagus''
-|Widespread species; sister species of ''F. mexicana''<ref name="Jiang-2022" /><ref name="Cardoni-2021" />||Eastern North America; from E. Texas and N. Florida, United States, to the [[St. Lawrence River]], Canada at low to mid altitudes
+|Widespread species; sister species of ''F. mexicana''<ref name="Jiang-2022"/><ref name="Cardoni-2021"/>||Eastern North America; from E. Texas and N. Florida, United States, to the [[St. Lawrence River]], Canada at low to mid altitudes
-|Yes, including Mexican beeches, ''F. mexicana''
+|Yes
 |-
 |[[File:Fagus hayatae 98412.jpg|120px]]||''[[Fagus hayatae]]'' {{small|Palib. ex Hayata}}
 |''Fagus''
-|Narrow [[Endemism|endemic]] species; forming a cryptic sister species pair with ''F. pashanica''<ref name="Cardoni-2021" /><ref name="Denk-2024" />||[[Taiwan]]; restricted to the mountains of northern Taiwan
+|Narrow [[Endemism|endemic]] species; forming a cryptic sister species pair with ''F. pashanica''<ref name="Cardoni-2021"/><ref name="Denk-2024"/>||Taiwan; restricted to the mountains of northern Taiwan
 |Yes
 |-
-|
+|[[File:Fagus hohenackeriana near Fioletovo village, Armenia S-N 04.jpg|80px]]||''[[Fagus hohenackeriana]]'' {{Small|Palib.}} – Caucasian or [[Rudolph Friedrich Hohenacker|Hohenacker]]'s beech
-|''Fagus hohenackeriana'' {{Small|Palib.}} – [[Rudolph Friedrich Hohenacker|Hohenacker]]'s or Caucasian beech
 |''Fagus''
-|Dominant tree species of the Pontic and [[Caucasus]] Mountains; intermediate between ''F. caspica'' and ''F. orientalis.''<ref name="Gömöry-2010">{{Cite journal |last1=Gömöry |first1=Dušan |last2=Paule |first2=Ladislav |date=2010-07-01 |title=Reticulate evolution patterns in western-Eurasian beeches |url=https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s00035-010-0068-y |journal=Botanica Helvetica |language=en |volume=120 |issue=1 |pages=63–74 |doi=10.1007/s00035-010-0068-y |bibcode=2010BotHe.120...63G |issn=1420-9063|url-access=subscription }}</ref><ref name="Gömöry-2018">{{Cite journal |last1=Gömöry |first1=Dušan |last2=Paule |first2=Ladislav |last3=Mačejovský |first3=Vladimír |date=2018-06-29 |title=Phylogeny of beech in western Eurasia as inferred by approximate Bayesian computation |url=https://pbsociety.org.pl/journals/index.php/asbp/article/view/asbp.3582 |journal=Acta Societatis Botanicorum Poloniae |language=en |volume=87 |issue=2 |page=3582 |doi=10.5586/asbp.3582 |bibcode=2018AcSBP..87.3582G |issn=2083-9480}}</ref><ref name="Kurz-2023">{{Cite journal |last1=Kurz |first1=Mirjam |last2=Kölz |first2=Adrian |last3=Gorges |first3=Jonas |last4=Pablo Carmona |first4=Beatriz |last5=Brang |first5=Peter |last6=Vitasse |first6=Yann |last7=Kohler |first7=Martin |last8=Rezzonico |first8=Fabio |last9=Smits |first9=Theo H. M. |last10=Bauhus |first10=Jürgen |last11=Rudow |first11=Andreas |last12=Kim Hansen |first12=Ole |last13=Vatanparast |first13=Mohammad |last14=Sevik |first14=Hakan |last15=Zhelev |first15=Petar |date=2023-03-01 |title=Tracing the origin of Oriental beech stands across Western Europe and reporting hybridization with European beech – Implications for assisted gene flow |url=https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0378112723000348 |journal=Forest Ecology and Management |volume=531 |pages=120801 |doi=10.1016/j.foreco.2023.120801 |bibcode=2023ForEM.53120801K |issn=0378-1127|hdl=20.500.11850/597076 |hdl-access=free }}</ref> Its genetic heterogeneity<ref name="Denk-2024" /><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Sękiewicz |first1=Katarzyna |last2=Danelia |first2=Irina |last3=Farzaliyev |first3=Vahid |last4=Gholizadeh |first4=Hamid |last5=Iszkuło |first5=Grzegorz |last6=Naqinezhad |first6=Alireza |last7=Ramezani |first7=Elias |last8=Thomas |first8=Peter A. |last9=Tomaszewski |first9=Dominik |last10=Walas |first10=Łukasz |last11=Dering |first11=Monika |date=2022 |title=Past climatic refugia and landscape resistance explain spatial genetic structure in Oriental beech in the South Caucasus |journal=Ecology and Evolution |language=en |volume=12 |issue=9 |pages=e9320 |doi=10.1002/ece3.9320 |issn=2045-7758 |pmc=9490144 |pmid=36188519|bibcode=2022EcoEv..12E9320S }}</ref> may be indicative for ongoing speciation processes.
+|Dominant tree species of the Pontic and [[Caucasus]] Mountains; intermediate between ''F. caspica'' and ''F. orientalis.''<ref name="Gömöry-2010">{{Cite journal |last1=Gömöry |first1=Dušan |last2=Paule |first2=Ladislav |date=2010-07-01 |title=Reticulate evolution patterns in western-Eurasian beeches |url=https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s00035-010-0068-y |journal=Botanica Helvetica |language=en |volume=120 |issue=1 |pages=63–74 |doi=10.1007/s00035-010-0068-y |bibcode=2010BotHe.120...63G |issn=1420-9063|url-access=subscription }}</ref><ref name="Gömöry-2018">{{Cite journal |last1=Gömöry |first1=Dušan |last2=Paule |first2=Ladislav |last3=Mačejovský |first3=Vladimír |date=2018-06-29 |title=Phylogeny of beech in western Eurasia as inferred by approximate Bayesian computation |url=https://pbsociety.org.pl/journals/index.php/asbp/article/view/asbp.3582 |journal=Acta Societatis Botanicorum Poloniae |language=en |volume=87 |issue=2 |page=3582 |doi=10.5586/asbp.3582 |bibcode=2018AcSBP..87.3582G |issn=2083-9480}}</ref><ref name="Kurz-2023">{{Cite journal |last1=Kurz |first1=Mirjam |last2=Kölz |first2=Adrian |last3=Gorges |first3=Jonas |last4=Pablo Carmona |first4=Beatriz |last5=Brang |first5=Peter |last6=Vitasse |first6=Yann |last7=Kohler |first7=Martin |last8=Rezzonico |first8=Fabio |last9=Smits |first9=Theo H. M. |last10=Bauhus |first10=Jürgen |last11=Rudow |first11=Andreas |last12=Kim Hansen |first12=Ole |last13=Vatanparast |first13=Mohammad |last14=Sevik |first14=Hakan |last15=Zhelev |first15=Petar |display-authors=5 |date=2023-03-01 |title=Tracing the origin of Oriental beech stands across Western Europe and reporting hybridization with European beech – Implications for assisted gene flow |url=https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0378112723000348 |journal=Forest Ecology and Management |volume=531 |article-number=120801 |doi=10.1016/j.foreco.2023.120801 |bibcode=2023ForEM.53120801K |hdl=20.500.11850/597076 |hdl-access=free }}</ref> Its genetic heterogeneity<ref name="Denk-2024"/><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Sękiewicz |first1=Katarzyna |last2=Danelia |first2=Irina |last3=Farzaliyev |first3=Vahid |last4=Gholizadeh |first4=Hamid |last5=Iszkuło |first5=Grzegorz |last6=Naqinezhad |first6=Alireza |last7=Ramezani |first7=Elias |last8=Thomas |first8=Peter A. |last9=Tomaszewski |first9=Dominik |last10=Walas |first10=Łukasz |last11=Dering |first11=Monika |display-authors=5 |date=2022 |title=Past climatic refugia and landscape resistance explain spatial genetic structure in Oriental beech in the South Caucasus |journal=Ecology and Evolution |volume=12 |issue=9 |article-number=e9320 |doi=10.1002/ece3.9320 |issn=2045-7758 |pmc=9490144 |pmid=36188519|bibcode=2022EcoEv..12E9320S }}</ref> may be indicative for ongoing speciation processes.
-|Northeastern Anatolia ([[Pontic Mountains]], [[Kaçkar Mountains]]) and Caucasus region ([[Lesser Caucasus|Lesser]] and [[Greater Caucasus]], Georgia, [[Armenia]], [[North Caucasus|Ciscaucasia]]; down to sea-level in southwestern Georgia)
+|Northeastern Anatolia ([[Pontic Mountains]], [[Kaçkar Mountains]]) and Caucasus region ([[Lesser Caucasus|Lesser]] and [[Greater Caucasus]], Georgia, Armenia, [[North Caucasus|Ciscaucasia]]; down to sea-level in southwestern Georgia)
-|No, populations included in ''F. sylvatica'' subsp. ''orientalis''
+|Yes
 |-
-|[[File:Forest in Tanzawa 08.jpg|120px]]||''[[Fagus japonica]]'' {{small|[[Maxim.]]}}
+|[[File:Forest in Tanzawa 08.jpg|80px]]||''[[Fagus japonica]]'' {{small|[[Maxim.]]}}File:Fagus mexicana, Zacualtipán de Ángeles, Hidalgo, Mexico 5737290.jpg
 |''Englerianae''
-|Widespread species; insular sister species of ''F. engleriana''<ref name="Cardoni-2021" />''<ref name="Denk-2005" /><ref name="Jiang-2022" />''||Japan; Kyushu, Shikoku and Honshu from sea-level up to c. 1500 m [[Height above mean sea level|a.s.l.]]
+|Widespread species; insular sister species of ''F. engleriana''<ref name="Cardoni-2021"/>''<ref name="Denk-2005"/><ref name="Jiang-2022"/>''||Japan; Kyushu, Shikoku and Honshu from sea-level up to c. 1500 m [[Height above mean sea level|a.s.l.]]
 |Yes
 |-
 |
-|[[Fagus longipetiolata]] {{Small|Seemen}}
+|''[[Fagus longipetiolata]]'' {{Small|Seemen}}
 |''Fagus''
-|[[Sympatry|Sym-]] to [[Parapatry|parapatric]] with ''F. lucida'' and ''F. pashanica'', and sharing alleles with both species in addition to alleles indicating a sister relationship with the Japanese ''F. crenata''.<ref name="Cardoni-2021" /><ref name="Jiang-2022" />
+|[[Sympatry|Sym-]] to [[Parapatry|parapatric]] with ''F. lucida'' and ''F. pashanica'', and sharing alleles with both species in addition to alleles indicating a sister relationship with the Japanese ''F. crenata''.<ref name="Cardoni-2021"/><ref name="Jiang-2022"/>
-|China, south of the Yellow River, into N. [[Vietnam]]; in montane areas up to 2400 m a.s.l.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Fagus longipetiolata in Flora of China @ efloras.org |url=http://www.efloras.org/florataxon.aspx?flora_id=2&taxon_id=200006255 |access-date=2024-10-24 |website=www.efloras.org}}</ref>
+|China, south of the Yellow River, into N. Vietnam; in montane areas up to 2400 m a.s.l.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Fagus longipetiolata in Flora of China @ efloras.org |url=http://www.efloras.org/florataxon.aspx?flora_id=2&taxon_id=200006255 |access-date=2024-10-24 |website=www.efloras.org}}</ref>
 |Replaced by ''F. sinensis''
 |-
 |[[File:Fagus lucida Buk 2020-07-18 01.jpg|120px]]||''[[Fagus lucida]]'' {{small|Rehder & [[E.H.Wilson]]}}
 |''Fagus''
-|Rare species; closest relatives are ''F. crenata''<ref name="Cardoni-2021" /><ref name="Denk-2005" /><ref name="Denk-2003" /> and ''F. longipetiolata''<ref name="Cardoni-2021" /><ref name="Jiang-2022" />||China; south of the Yellow River in montane areas between 800 and 2000 m a.s.l.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Fagus lucida in Flora of China @ efloras.org |url=http://www.efloras.org/florataxon.aspx?flora_id=2&taxon_id=200006256 |access-date=2024-10-24 |website=www.efloras.org}}</ref>
+|Rare species; closest relatives are ''F. crenata''<ref name="Cardoni-2021"/><ref name="Denk-2005"/><ref name="Denk-2003"/> and ''F. longipetiolata''<ref name="Cardoni-2021"/><ref name="Jiang-2022"/>||China; south of the Yellow River in montane areas between 800 and 2000 m a.s.l.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Fagus lucida in Flora of China @ efloras.org |url=http://www.efloras.org/florataxon.aspx?flora_id=2&taxon_id=200006256 |access-date=2024-10-24 |website=www.efloras.org}}</ref>
 |Yes
 |-
-|
+|[[File:Fagus mexicana, Zacualtipán de Ángeles, Hidalgo, Mexico 5737290.jpg|120px]]
 |''Fagus mexicana'' {{Small|Martínez}}
 |''Fagus''
-|Narrow endemic sister species of ''F. grandifolia. F. mexicana'' differs from ''F. grandifolia'' by its slender leaves and less-evolved but more polymorphic set of alleles (higher level of [[Zygosity|heterozygosity]])<ref name="Cardoni-2021" /><ref name="Jiang-2022" />
+|Narrow endemic sister species of ''F. grandifolia. F. mexicana'' differs from ''F. grandifolia'' by its slender leaves and less-evolved but more polymorphic set of alleles (higher level of [[Zygosity|heterozygosity]])<ref name="Cardoni-2021"/><ref name="Jiang-2022"/>
-|[[Hidalgo (state)|Hidalgo]], Mexico; at 1400–2000 m a.s.l. as an element of the subtropical montane mesophilic forest"([https://www.gob.mx/conabio/prensa/bosques-mesofilos-de-montana-de-mexico?idiom=es bosque mesófilo de montaña]) superimposing the tropical lowland rainforests.
+|[[Hidalgo (state)|Hidalgo]], Mexico; at 1400–2000 m a.s.l. as an element of the subtropical montane mesophilic forest ([https://www.gob.mx/conabio/prensa/bosques-mesofilos-de-montana-de-mexico?idiom=es bosque mesófilo de montaña]) superimposing the tropical lowland rainforests.
-|No, populations included in ''F. grandifolia''
+|Yes
 |-
 | ||''[[Fagus multinervis]]'' {{small|Nakai}}
 |''Englerianae''
-|Narrow endemic species, first diverging lineage within subgenus ''Englerianae''<ref name="Cardoni-2021" /><ref name="Jiang-2022" />|| South Korea ([[Ulleungdo]])
+|Narrow endemic species, first diverging lineage within subgenus ''Englerianae''<ref name="Cardoni-2021"/><ref name="Jiang-2022"/>|| South Korea ([[Ulleungdo]])
 |Yes
 |-
-|[[File:Fagus orientalis near Fioletovo village, Armenia S-N 04.jpg|120px]] ||''[[Fagus orientalis]]'' {{small|[[Vladimir Ippolitovich Lipsky|Lipsky]]}} – Oriental beech (in a narrow sense)
+|[[File:TR Yedigöller asv2021-10 img13.jpg|120px]] ||''[[Fagus orientalis]]'' {{small|[[Vladimir Ippolitovich Lipsky|Lipsky]]}} – Oriental beech (in a narrow sense)
 |''Fagus''
-|Sister species of ''F. sylvatica''<ref name="Gömöry-2018" /><ref name="Kurz-2023" />||Southeastern Europe (SE [[Bulgaria]], NE [[Greece]], [[East Thrace|European Turkey]]) and adjacent northwestern Asia (NW and N [[Anatolia]])
+|Sister species of ''F. sylvatica''<ref name="Gömöry-2018"/><ref name="Kurz-2023"/>||Southeastern Europe (SE Bulgaria, NE Greece, [[East Thrace]] (European Turkey) and adjacent northwestern Asia (NW and N [[Anatolia]])
-|No, treated as subspecies of ''F. sylvatica''
+|Yes
 |-
 | ||''[[Fagus pashanica]]'' {{small|C.C.Yang}}
@@ Line 126: / Line 186: @@
 | ||''[[Fagus sinensis]]'' {{small|Oliv.}}
 |''Fagus''
-|Invalid; the original material included material from two much different species: ''F. engleriana'' and ''F. longipetiolata''<ref name="Denk-2024" /><ref name="Denk-2003" />|| China (Hubei), Vietnam
+|Invalid; the original material included material from two much different species: ''F. engleriana'' and ''F. longipetiolata''<ref name="Denk-2024"/><ref name="Denk-2003"/>|| China (Hubei), Vietnam
 |Yes, erroneously used as older synonym of ''F. longipetiolata''
 |-
-|[[File:Fagus sylvatica 019.jpg|120px]] ||''[[Fagus sylvatica]]'' {{small|[[L.]]}} – European beech
+|[[File:Fagus sylvatica TK 2023-05-06 5.jpg|80px]] ||''[[Fagus sylvatica]]'' {{small|[[L.]]}} – European beech
 |''Fagus''
-|Sister species of and closely related to ''F. orientalis''<ref name="Gömöry-2018" /><ref name="Kurz-2023" />|| Europe
+|Sister species of and closely related to ''F. orientalis''<ref name="Gömöry-2018"/><ref name="Kurz-2023"/>|| Europe
 |Yes
-|-
 |}
-===Natural and potential hybrids===
+=== Natural and potential hybrids ===
 {| class="wikitable collapsible"
 |-
-! Image !! Name !! Parentage
+! Name !! Parentage !! Status !! Distribution
-!Status!!Distribution
 |-
-|
+|[[Fagus × moesiaca|''Fagus'' (×) ''moesiaca'']] {{Small|(K. Malý) Czeczott}}
-|[[Fagus × moesiaca|''Fagus'' (''×'') ''moesiaca'']] {{Small|(K. Malý) Czeczott}}
 |''F. sylvatica'' × ''F. orientalis''
-|No evidence so far for hybrid origin. All individuals addressed as ''F. moesiaca'' included in genetic studies fell within the variation of ''F. sylvatica.''<ref name="Denk-2005" /><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Ulaszewski |first1=Bartosz |last2=Meger |first2=Joanna |last3=Mishra |first3=Bagdevi |last4=Thines |first4=Marco |last5=Burczyk |first5=Jarosław |date=2021 |title=Complete Chloroplast Genomes of Fagus sylvatica L. Reveal Sequence Conservation in the Inverted Repeat and the Presence of Allelic Variation in NUPTs |journal=Genes |language=en |volume=12 |issue=9 |pages=1357 |doi=10.3390/genes12091357 |doi-access=free |issn=2073-4425 |pmc=8468245 |pmid=34573338}}</ref> They may represent a lowland ecotype of ''F. sylvatica.''<ref name="Denk-2024" /><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Denk |first=Th. |date=January 1999 |title=The taxonomy of Fagus in western Eurasia. 2: Fagus sylvatica subsp. sylvatica |url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/fedr.19991100510 |journal=Feddes Repertorium |language=en |volume=110 |issue=5–6 |pages=381–412 |doi=10.1002/fedr.19991100510 |issn=0014-8962|url-access=subscription }}</ref>
+|No evidence so far for hybrid origin. All individuals addressed as ''F. moesiaca'' included in genetic studies fell within the variation of ''F. sylvatica.''<ref name="Denk-2005"/><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Ulaszewski |first1=Bartosz |last2=Meger |first2=Joanna |last3=Mishra |first3=Bagdevi |last4=Thines |first4=Marco |last5=Burczyk |first5=Jarosław |date=2021 |title=Complete Chloroplast Genomes of Fagus sylvatica L. Reveal Sequence Conservation in the Inverted Repeat and the Presence of Allelic Variation in NUPTs |journal=Genes |volume=12 |issue=9 |page=1357 |doi=10.3390/genes12091357 |doi-access=free |issn=2073-4425 |pmc=8468245 |pmid=34573338}}</ref> They may represent a lowland ecotype of ''F. sylvatica.''<ref name="Denk-2024"/><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Denk |first=Th. |date=January 1999 |title=The taxonomy of Fagus in western Eurasia. 2: Fagus sylvatica subsp. sylvatica |url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/fedr.19991100510 |journal=Feddes Repertorium |volume=110 |issue=5–6 |pages=381–412 |doi=10.1002/fedr.19991100510 |url-access=subscription }}</ref>
-Erroneously synonymized by some authors (e.g. POWO) with the Crimean ''F. × taurica,'' from which it differs morphologically and genetically.
 |Southeastern [[Balkans]]
-|-
+<!--|-
-|
 |''Fagus okamotoi'' {{Small|Shen}}
 |''F. crenata'' × ''F. japonica'' ?
 |Unique phenotype, described from an area in which ''F. crenata'' and ''F. japonica'' are sympatric. So far, there is no genetic evidence for ongoing gene flow between the two Japanese species, which belong to different subgeneric lineages.
-|[[Kantō region|Kanto]], eastern Honshu
+|[[Kantō region|Kanto]], eastern Honshu-->
-|-
-|[[File:Bukva 2.jpg|120px]] ||''[[Fagus × taurica]]'' {{small|[[Popl.]]}} – Crimean beech|| ''F. sylvatica'' × ''F. orientalis'' s.l.
-|Hybrid status not yet tested by genetic data; according to [[Isozyme|isoenzyme]] profiles a less-evolved, relict population of ''F. sylvatica'' or intermediate between ''F. sylvatica'' and the species complex historically addressed as Oriental beech (''F. orientalis'' in a broad sense)<ref name="Gömöry-2010" />||Crimean peninsula
 |-
+|''[[Fagus × taurica]]'' {{small|Popl.}} – Crimean beech|| ''F. sylvatica'' × ''F. orientalis'' s.l.
+|Hybrid status not yet tested by genetic data; according to [[Isozyme|isoenzyme]] profiles a less-evolved, relict population of ''F. sylvatica'' or intermediate between ''F. sylvatica'' and the species complex historically addressed as Oriental beech (''F. orientalis'' in a broad sense)<ref name="Gömöry-2010"/>||Crimean peninsula
 |}
-===Phylogeny===
-A cladogram of 11 beech species is shown below.<ref>{{cite journal |author1=Jiang, Lu |display-authors=etal |title=Phylogeny and biogeography of Fagus (Fagaceae) based on 28 nuclear single/low-copy loci |journal=Journal of Systematics and Evolution |date=10 October 2020 |volume=60 |issue=4 |pages=759–772 |doi=10.1111/jse.12695 |url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1111/jse.12695|url-access=subscription }}</ref>
-{{clade
-|label1='''''Fagus'''''
-|1={{clade
-   |label1=subg. ''Engleriana''
-   |1={{clade
-      |1=''F. multinervis''
-      |2={{clade
-         |1=''F. engleriana''
-         |2=''F. japonica''
-         }}
-      }}
-   |label2=subg. ''Fagus''
-   |2={{clade
-      |label1=sect. ''Grandifolia''
-      |1={{clade
-         |1=''F. grandifolia''
-         |2=''F. mexicana''
-         }}
-      |2={{clade
-         |label1=sect. ''Fagus''
-         |1={{clade
-            |1=''F. orientalis''
-            |2=''F. sylvatica''
-            }}
-         |label2=sect. ''Lucida''
-         |2={{clade
-            |1=''F. hayatae''
-            |2={{clade
-               |1=''F. crenata''
-               |2={{clade
-                  |1=''F. longipetiolata''
-                  |2=''F. lucida''
-                  }}
-               }}
-            }}
-         }}
-      }}
-   }}
-}}
-===Fossil species===
-Numerous species have been named globally from the fossil record spanning from the [[Cretaceous]] to the [[Pleistocene]].<ref name="IFPNI-2023">{{cite web |url=http://ifpni.org/genus.htm?id=3EE9EA96-C4DC-4621-B6EB-697227CF797B |website=The International Fossil Plant Names Index |title=''Fagus'' |accessdate=6 Feb 2023}}</ref>
-{{div col}}
-*†''[[Fagus aburatoensis]]'' {{small|Tanai, 1951}}<ref name="Tanai-1952">{{cite journal |last1=Tanai |first1=T. |title=Des fossiles végétaux dans le bassin houiller de Nishitagawa, Préfecture de Yamagata, Japon |journal=Japanese Journal of Geology and Geography |volume=22 |pages=119–135}}</ref>
-*†''[[Fagus alnitifolia]]'' {{small|[[Arthur Hollick|Hollick]]}}<ref name="Brown-1937">{{cite report |last1=Brown |first1=R. W. |year=1937 |title=Additions to some fossil floras of the Western United States |series=Professional Paper |publisher=United States Geological Survey |volume=186 |pages=163–206 |doi=10.3133/pp186J |url=https://pubs.usgs.gov/pp/0186j/report.pdf}}</ref>
-*†''[[Fagus altaensis]]'' {{small|Kornilova & Rajushkina, 1979}}
-*†''[[Fagus ambigua]]'' {{small|(Massalongo) Massalongo, 1853}}
-*†''[[Fagus angusta]]'' {{small|Andreánszky, 1959}}
-*†''[[Fagus antipofii]]'' {{small|Heer, 1858}}
-*†''[[Fagus aperta]]'' {{small|Andreánszky, 1959}}
-*†''[[Fagus arduinorum]]'' {{small|Massalongo, 1858}}
-*†''[[Fagus aspera (Berry) Brown|Fagus aspera]]'' {{small|(Berry) Brown, 1944}}
-*†''[[Fagus aspera (Chelebaeva)|Fagus aspera]]'' {{small|Chelebaeva, 2005}} (jr homonym)
-*†''[[Fagus atlantica]]'' {{small|Unger, 1847}}
-*†''[[Fagus attenuata]]'' {{small|Göppert, 1855}}
-*†''[[Fagus aurelianii]]'' {{small|Marion & Laurent, 1895}}
-*†''[[Fagus australis]]'' {{small|Oliver, 1936}}
-*†''[[Fagus betulifolia]]'' {{small|Massalongo, 1858}}
-*†''[[Fagus bonnevillensis]]'' {{small|Chaney, 1920}}
-*†''[[Fagus castaneifolia]]'' {{small|Unger, 1847}}
-*†''[[Fagus celastrifolia]]'' {{small|Ettingshausen, 1887}}
-*†''[[Fagus ceretana]]'' {{small|(Rérolle) Saporta, 1892}}
-*†''[[Fagus chamaephegos]]'' {{small|Unger, 1861}}
-*†''[[Fagus chankaica]]'' {{small|Alexeenko, 1977}}
-*†''[[Fagus chiericii]]'' {{small|Massalongo, 1858}}
-*†''[[Fagus chinensis]]'' {{small|Li, 1978}}
-*†''[[Fagus coalita]]'' {{small|Rylova, 1996}}
-*†''[[Fagus cordifolia]]'' {{small|Heer, 1883}}
-*†''[[Fagus cretacea]]'' {{small|Newberry, 1868}}
-*†''[[Fagus decurrens]]'' {{small|Reid & Reid, 1915}}
-*†''[[Fagus dentata]]'' {{small|Göppert, 1855}}
-*†''[[Fagus deucalionis]]'' {{small|Unger, 1847}}
-*†''[[Fagus dubia (Mirb)|Fagus dubia]]'' {{small|Mirb, 1822}}
-*†''[[Fagus dubia (Watelet)|Fagus dubia]]'' {{small|Watelet, 1866}} (jr homonym)
-*†''[[Fagus echinata]]'' {{small|Chelebaeva, 2005}}
-*†''[[Fagus eocenica]]'' {{small|Watelet, 1866}}
-*†''[[Fagus etheridgei]]'' {{small|Ettingshausen, 1891}}
-*†''[[Fagus ettingshausenii]]'' {{small|Velenovský, 1881}}
-*†''[[Fagus europaea]]'' {{small|Schwarewa, 1960}}
-*†''[[Fagus evenensis]]'' {{small|Chelebaeva, 1980}}
-*†''[[Fagus faujasii]]'' {{small|Unger, 1850}}
-*†''[[Fagus feroniae]]'' {{small|Unger, 1845}}
-*†''[[Fagus florinii]]'' {{small|Huzioka & Takahashi, 1973}}
-*†''[[Fagus forumlivii]]'' {{small|Massalongo, 1853}}
-*†''[[Fagus friedrichii]]'' {{small|Grímsson & Denk, 2005}}
-*†''[[Fagus gortanii]]'' {{small|Fiori, 1940}}
-*†''[[Fagus grandifoliiformis]]'' {{small|Panova, 1966}}
-*†''[[Fagus gussonii]]'' {{small|Massalongo, 1858}}
-*†''[[Fagus haidingeri]]'' {{small|Kováts, 1856}}
-*†''[[Fagus herthae]]'' {{small|(Unger) Iljinskaja, 1964}}
-*†''[[Fagus hitchcockii]]'' {{small|Lesquereux, 1861}}
-*†''[[Fagus hondoensis]]'' {{small|(Watari) Watari, 1952}}
-*†''[[Fagus hookeri]]'' {{small|Ettingshausen, 1887}}
-*†''[[Fagus horrida]]'' {{small|Ludwig, 1858}}
-*†''[[Fagus humata]]'' {{small|Menge & Göppert, 1886}}
-*†''[[Fagus idahoensis]]'' {{small|Chaney & Axelrod, 1959}}
-*†''[[Fagus inaequalis]]'' {{small|Göppert, 1855}}
-*†''[[Fagus incerta]]'' {{small|(Massalongo) Massalongo, 1858}}
-*†''[[Fagus integrifolia]]'' {{small|Dusén, 1899}}
-*†''[[Fagus intermedia]]'' {{small|Nathorst, 1888}}
-*†''[[Fagus irvajamensis]]'' {{small|Chelebaeva, 1980}}
-*†''[[Fagus japoniciformis]]'' {{small|Ananova, 1974}}
-*†''[[Fagus japonicoides]]'' {{small|Miki, 1963}}
-*†''[[Fagus jobanensis]]'' {{small|Suzuki, 1961}}
-*†''[[Fagus jonesii]]'' {{small|Johnston, 1892}}
-*†''[[Fagus juliae]]'' {{small|Jakubovskaya, 1975}}
-*†''[[Fagus kitamiensis]]'' {{small|Tanai, 1995}}
-*†''[[Fagus koraica]]'' {{small|Huzioka, 1951}}
-*†''[[Fagus kraeuselii]]'' {{small|Kvaček & Walther, 1991}}
-*†''[[Fagus kuprianoviae]]'' {{small|Rylova, 1996}}
-*†''[[Fagus lancifolia]]'' {{small|Heer, 1868}} (nomen nudum)
-*†''[[Fagus langevinii]]'' {{small|Manchester & Dillhoff, 2004}}<ref name="Manchester-2004">{{cite journal |last1=Manchester |first1=S. R. |last2=Dillhoff |first2=R. M. |title=''Fagus'' (Fagaceae) fruits, foliage, and pollen from the Middle Eocene of Pacific Northwestern North America |journal=Canadian Journal of Botany |volume=82 |issue=10 |pages=1509–1517 |doi=10.1139/b04-112|year=2004 |bibcode=2004CaJB...82.1509M }}</ref>
-*†''[[Fagus laptoneura]]'' {{small|Ettingshausen, 1895}}
-*†''[[Fagus latissima]]'' {{small|Andreánszky, 1959}}
-*†''[[Fagus leptoneuron]]'' {{small|Ettingshausen, 1893}}
-*†''[[Fagus macrophylla]]'' {{small|Unger, 1854}}
-*†''[[Fagus maorica]]'' {{small|Oliver, 1936}}
-*†''[[Fagus marsillii]]'' {{small|Massalongo, 1858}}
-*†''[[Fagus menzelii]]'' {{small|Kvaček & Walther, 1991}}
-*†''[[Fagus microcarpa]]'' {{small|Miki, 1933}}
-*†''[[Fagus miocenica]]'' {{small|Ananova, 1974}}
-*†''[[Fagus napanensis]]'' {{small|Iljinskaja, 1982}}
-*†''[[Fagus nelsonica]]'' {{small|Ettingshausen, 1887}}
-*†''[[Fagus oblonga (Suzuki)|Fagus oblonga]]'' {{small|Suzuki, 1959}}
-*†''[[Fagus oblonga (Andreánszky)|Fagus oblonga]]'' {{small|Andreánszky, 1959}}
-*†''[[Fagus obscura]]'' {{small|Dusén, 1908}}
-*†''[[Fagus olejnikovii]]'' {{small|Pavlyutkin, 2015}}
-*†''[[Fagus orbiculatum]]'' {{small|Lesquereux, 1892}}
-*†''[[Fagus orientaliformis]]'' {{small|Kul'kova}}
-*†[[Fagus orientalis|''Fagus orientalis'' var ''fossilis'']] {{small|Kryshtofovich & Baikovskaja, 1951}}
-*†[[Fagus orientalis|''Fagus orientalis'' var ''palibinii'']] {{small|Iljinskaja, 1982}}
-*†''[[Fagus pacifica]]'' {{small|Chaney, 1927}}
-*†''[[Fagus palaeococcus]]'' {{small|Unger, 1847}}
-*†''[[Fagus palaeocrenata]]'' {{small|Okutsu, 1955}}
-*†''[[Fagus palaeograndifolia]]'' {{small|Pavlyutkin, 2002}}
-*†''[[Fagus palaeojaponica]]'' {{small|Tanai & Onoe, 1961}}
-*†''[[Fagus pittmanii]]'' {{small|Deane, 1902}}
-*†''[[Fagus pliocaenica]]'' {{small|Geyler & Kinkelin, 1887}} (jr homonym)
-*†''[[Fagus pliocenica]]'' {{small|Saporta, 1882}}
-*†''[[Fagus polycladus]]'' {{small|Lesquereux, 1868}}
-*†''[[Fagus praelucida]]'' {{small|Li, 1982}}
-*†''[[Fagus praeninnisiana]]'' {{small|Ettingshausen, 1893}}
-*†''[[Fagus praeulmifolia]]'' {{small|Ettingshausen, 1893}}
-*†''[[Fagus prisca]]'' {{small|Ettingshausen, 1867}}
-*†''[[Fagus pristina]]'' {{small|Saporta, 1867}}
-*†''[[Fagus producta]]'' {{small|Ettingshausen, 1887}}
-*†''[[Fagus protojaponica]]'' {{small|Suzuki, 1959}}
-*†''[[Fagus protolongipetiolata]]'' {{small|Huzioka, 1951}}
-*†''[[Fagus protonucifera]]'' {{small|Dawson, 1884}}
-*†''[[Fagus pseudoferruginea]]'' {{small|Lesquereux, 1878}}
-*†''[[Fagus pygmaea]]'' {{small|Unger, 1861}}
-*†''[[Fagus pyrrhae]]'' {{small|Unger, 1854}}
-*†''[[Fagus salnikovii]]'' {{small|Fotjanova, 1988}}
-*†''[[Fagus sanctieugeniensis]]'' {{small|Hollick, 1927}}
-*†''[[Fagus saxonica]]'' {{small|Kvaček & Walther, 1991}}
-*†''[[Fagus schofieldii]]'' {{small|Mindell, Stockey, & Beard, 2009}}
-*†''[[Fagus septembris]]'' {{small|Chelebaeva, 1991}}
-*†''[[Fagus shagiana]]'' {{small|Ettingshausen, 1891}}
-*†''[[Fagus stuxbergii]]'' {{small|Tanai, 1976}}
-*†''[[Fagus subferruginea]]'' {{small|Wilf ''et al.'', 2005}}<ref name="Wilf-2005">{{cite journal |last1=Wilf |first1=P. |last2=Johnson |first2=K.R. |last3=Cúneo |first3=N.R. |last4=Smith |first4=M.E. |last5=Singer |first5=B.S. |last6=Gandolfo |first6=M.A. |year=2005 |title=Eocene Plant Diversity at Laguna del Hunco and Río Pichileufú, Patagonia, Argentina |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/312253100 |journal=[[The American Naturalist]] |volume=165 |issue=6 |pages=634–650 |access-date=2019-02-22|doi=10.1086/430055 |pmid=15937744 |bibcode=2005ANat..165..634W |s2cid=3209281 }}</ref>
-*†''[[Fagus succinea]]'' {{small|Göppert & Menge, 1853}}
-*†[[Fagus sylvatica|''Fagus sylvatica'' var ''diluviana'']] {{small|Saporta, 1892}}
-*†[[Fagus sylvatica|''Fagus sylvatica'' var ''pliocenica'']] {{small|Saporta, 1873}}
-*†''[[Fagus tenella]]'' {{small|Panova, 1966}}
-*†''[[Fagus uemurae]]'' {{small|Tanai, 1995}}
-*†''[[Fagus uotanii]]'' {{small|Huzioka, 1951}}
-*†''[[Fagus vivianii]]'' {{small|Unger, 1850}}
-*†''[[Fagus washoensis]]'' {{small|LaMotte, 1936}}
-{{div col end}}
-Fossil species formerly placed in ''Fagus'' include:<ref name="IFPNI-2023"/>
-{{div col}}
-*†''[[Alnus paucinervis]]'' {{small|(Borsuk) Iljinskaja}}
-*†''[[Castanea abnormalis]]'' {{small|(Fotjanova) Iljinskaja}}
-*†''[[Fagopsis longifolia]]'' {{small|(Lesquereux) Hollick}}
-*†''[[Fagopsis undulata]]'' {{small|(Knowlton) Wolfe & Wehr}}
-*†''[[Fagoxylon grandiporosum]]'' {{small|(Beyer) Süss}}
-*†''[[Fagus-pollenites parvifossilis]]'' {{small|(Traverse) Potonié}}
-*†''[[Juglans ginannii]]'' {{small|Massalongo}} (new name for ''F. ginannii'')
-*†''[[Nothofagaphyllites novae-zealandiae]]'' {{small|(Oliver) Campbell}}
-*†''[[Nothofagus benthamii]]'' {{small|(Ettingshausen) Paterson}}
-*†''[[Nothofagus dicksonii]]'' {{small|(Dusén) Tanai}}
-*†''[[Nothofagus lendenfeldii]]'' {{small|(Ettingshausen) Oliver}}
-*†''[[Nothofagus luehmannii]]'' {{small|(Deane) Paterson}}
-*†''[[Nothofagus magelhaenica]]'' {{small|(Ettingshausen) Dusén}}
-*†''[[Nothofagus maidenii]]'' {{small|(Deane) Chapman}}
-*†''[[Nothofagus muelleri]]'' {{small|(Ettingshausen) Paterson}}
-*†''[[Nothofagus ninnisiana]]'' {{small|(Unger) Oliver}}
-*†''[[Nothofagus risdoniana]]'' {{small|(Ettingshausen) Paterson}}
-*†''[[Nothofagus ulmifolia]]'' {{small|(Ettingshausen) Oliver}}
-*†''[[Nothofagus wilkinsonii]]'' {{small|(Ettingshausen) Paterson}}
-*†''[[Trigonobalanus minima]]'' {{small|(M. Chandler) Mai}}
-{{div col end}}
 === Etymology ===
-The name of the tree in Latin, ''fagus'' (from whence the [[generic epithet]]), is cognate with English "beech" and of [[Indo-European language|Indo-European]] origin, and played an important role in early debates on the geographical origins of the [[Proto-Indo-Europeans|Indo-European people]], the [[beech argument]]. [[Greek language|Greek]] φηγός (figós) is from the same root, but the word was transferred to the oak tree (e.g. Iliad 16.767) as a result of the absence of beech trees in southern [[Greece]].<ref>Robert Beekes, Etymological Dictionary of Greek, Leiden and Boston 2010, pp. 1565–6</ref>
-== Distribution and habitat ==
+The name of the tree in Latin, ''fagus'' (whence the [[generic epithet]]), is cognate with English "beech" and of [[Indo-European language|Indo-European]] origin. It played a role in early debates on the geographical origins of the [[Proto-Indo-Europeans|Indo-European people]], the [[beech argument]]. [[Greek language|Greek]] φηγός (figós) is from the same root, but the word was transferred to the oak tree (e.g. ''[[Iliad]]'' 16.767) as a result of the absence of beech trees in southern Greece.<ref>{{cite book |last=Beekes |first=Robert |title=Etymological Dictionary of Greek |publisher=Brill |location=Leiden and Boston |year=2010 |pages=1565–1566 |url=https://archive.org/details/etymological-dictionary-of-greek_202306/page/n807/mode/2up?q=fagus |isbn=978-9004174184 |access-date=23 October 2025}}</ref>
-[[File:Grib skov.jpg|thumb|European beech (''[[Fagus sylvatica]]'')]]
-[[File:Beeches, Ehrenbach.jpg|thumb|Beeches in [[Ehrenbach]], Germany]]
-[[File:Beech with Branches.jpg|thumb|upright|[[North American beech]], seen in autumn]]
-[[File:Fagus engleriana - Morris Arboretum - DSC00475.JPG|thumb|Chinese beech (''[[Fagus engleriana]]'')]]
-=== Britain and Ireland ===
+The common name of "beech" is from the Anglo-Saxon ''boc'', ''bece'' or ''beoce'', the German ''buche'', the Swedish ''box'' - all meaning "book" as well as beech and derived from the [[Sanskrit]]
-''[[Fagus sylvatica]]'' was a late entrant to Great Britain after the last glaciation, and may have been restricted to basic soils in the south of England. Some suggest that it was introduced by Neolithic tribes who planted the trees for their edible nuts.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://linnaeus.nrm.se/flora/di/faga/fagus/fagusylv.jpg |title= Map|website=linnaeus.nrm.se |format=JPG|access-date=2019-08-07}}</ref> The beech is classified as a native in the south of England and as a non-native in the north where it is often removed from 'native' woods.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.forestry.gov.uk/newsrele.nsf/WebPressReleases/1A301105A92950FE80257012002508A0 |title=International Foresters Study Lake District's greener, friendlier forests |publisher=Forestry Commission |access-date=4 August 2010 |archive-date=28 January 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100128215333/http://www.forestry.gov.uk/newsrele.nsf/WebPressReleases/1A301105A92950FE80257012002508A0 |url-status=dead }}</ref> Large areas of the [[Chilterns]] are covered with beech woods, which are habitat to the [[common bluebell]] and other flora. The [[Cwm Clydach National Nature Reserve]] in southeast Wales was designated for its beech woodlands, which are believed to be on the western edge of their natural range in this steep limestone gorge.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.ccw.gov.uk/landscape--wildlife/protecting-our-landscape/special-landscapes--sites/protected-landscapes/national-nature-reserves/cwm-clydach.aspx |title=Cwm Clydach |publisher=Countryside Council for Wales Landscape & wildlife |access-date=4 August 2010 |url-status = dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100925090500/http://www.ccw.gov.uk/landscape--wildlife/protecting-our-landscape/special-landscapes--sites/protected-landscapes/national-nature-reserves/cwm-clydach.aspx |archive-date=25 September 2010 }}</ref>
+''boko'' or letter and ''bokos'' or writings. This connection to "beech" seems to have derived from the fact that the old [[Runes|Runic]] tablets were of beech wood.<ref name="berry">{{cite journal|journal=The Plant World|title=Notes on the Ancestry of the Beech|last=Berry|first=Edward W.|volume=19|issue=3|date=March 1916|pages=66-67|jstor=43477503}}</ref>
-Beech is not native to Ireland; however, it was widely planted in the 18th century and can become a problem shading out the native woodland understory.
+== Ecology ==
-Beech is widely planted for hedging and in deciduous woodlands, and mature, regenerating stands occur throughout mainland Britain at elevations below about {{convert|650|m|ft|-2|abbr=on}}.<ref>{{cite book |first1=C.D. |last1=Preston |first2=D. |last2=Pearman |first3=T.D. |last3=Dines |title=New Atlas of the British Flora |publisher=Oxford University Press |location= |date=2002 |isbn=978-0-19-851067-3 |pages= |url=}}</ref> The tallest and longest hedge in the world (according to ''[[Guinness World Records]]'') is the [[Meikleour Beech Hedges|Meikleour Beech Hedge]] in [[Meikleour]], [[Perth and Kinross]], Scotland.
+=== Habitat and distribution ===
-=== Continental Europe ===
+Beech requires a deep soil with good drainage and a neutral or slightly acidic soil, [[pH]] 6 to 7.5. It is vulnerable to drought as its root system is relatively shallow. It does not live in waterlogged areas, but it can grow in windy places, shade from other trees, and cold. In northern Europe it is a lowland species, while further south it is [[Montane ecosystem|montane]], growing at an altitude of up to {{convert|1800|m|ft}}.<ref name="Forest Research">{{cite web |title=Beech (BE) Fagus sylvatica (L.) |url=https://www.forestresearch.gov.uk/tools-and-resources/tree-species-database/beech-be/ |publisher=[[Forest Research]] |access-date=7 October 2025}}</ref>
-''Fagus sylvatica'' is one of the most common hardwood trees in north-central Europe, in France constituting alone about 15% of all nonconifers. [[Balkans|The Balkans]] are also home to the lesser-known oriental beech (''F.&nbsp;orientalis'') and Crimean beech (''F.&nbsp;taurica'').
-As a naturally growing forest tree, beech marks the important border between the European deciduous forest zone and the northern pine forest zone. This border is important for wildlife and fauna.
+The [[English Lowlands beech forests]] is an [[ecoregion]] of high-canopy forest dominated by European beech in southeastern England, surviving as remnants such as the {{convert|150|sqmi|sqkm}} [[New Forest]].<ref>{{WWF ecoregion|name=English Lowlands beech forests|id=pa0421}}</ref> The species arrived in Britain after the last glaciation, and may have been restricted to basic soils in the south of England. It could have been introduced by Neolithic tribes who planted the trees for their edible nuts.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://linnaeus.nrm.se/flora/di/faga/fagus/fagusylv.jpg |title= Map|website=linnaeus.nrm.se |access-date=2019-08-07}}</ref> In southeast Wales, the [[Cwm Clydach National Nature Reserve]] holds beech woodlands on the western edge of their natural range in a steep limestone gorge.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.ccw.gov.uk/landscape--wildlife/protecting-our-landscape/special-landscapes--sites/protected-landscapes/national-nature-reserves/cwm-clydach.aspx |title=Cwm Clydach |publisher=Countryside Council for Wales Landscape & wildlife |access-date=4 August 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100925090500/http://www.ccw.gov.uk/landscape--wildlife/protecting-our-landscape/special-landscapes--sites/protected-landscapes/national-nature-reserves/cwm-clydach.aspx |archive-date=25 September 2010 }}</ref>
+The [[Ancient and Primeval Beech Forests of the Carpathians and Other Regions of Europe|primeval beech forests of the Carpathians]] have been dominated since the last ice age by the beech.<ref name = "unesco">{{cite web |url = https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/1133 |title=Ancient and Primeval Beech Forests of the Carpathians and Other Regions of Europe |website=UNESCO World Heritage Centre |publisher=United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization |access-date=13 November 2021}}</ref>
+In North America, beech can form [[Beech-maple forest]], seen by some ecologists as a [[climax community]], by partnering with the [[sugar maple]].<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.michigandnr.com/publications/pdfs/wildlife/viewingguide/eco_succession.htm |title=Eco Succession |access-date=2008-12-10 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081226141759/http://www.michigandnr.com/publications/pdfs/wildlife/viewingguide/eco_succession.htm |archive-date=2008-12-26 |url-status=dead }}</ref>
-In [[Denmark]] and Scania at the southernmost peak of the Scandinavian peninsula, southwest of the natural [[spruce]] boundary, it is the most common forest tree.  It grows naturally in Denmark and southern [[Norway]] and Sweden up to about 57–59°N. The most northern known naturally growing (not planted) beech trees are found in a small grove north of [[Bergen]] on the west coast of Norway. Near the city of [[Larvik]] is the largest naturally occurring beech forest in Norway, [[Bøkeskogen]].
+<gallery class="center" mode="nolines" widths="180" heights="180">
+File:Beech trees in Mallard Wood, New Forest - geograph.org.uk - 779513.jpg|Lowland beech forest in the [[New Forest]], England
+File:Beech forest Mátra in winter.jpg|Montane beech forest in the [[Mátra]] mountains, Hungary
+File:Beech-maple forest with details of leaves.jpg|[[Beech–maple forest]], Ohio, United States
+</gallery>
-Some research suggests that early agriculture patterns supported the spread of beech in continental Europe. Research has linked the establishment of beech stands in Scandinavia and Germany with cultivation and fire disturbance, i.e. early agricultural practices. Other areas which have a long history of cultivation, [[Bulgaria]] for example, do not exhibit this pattern, so how much human activity has influenced the spread of beech trees is as yet unclear.<ref name="Bradshaw-2010">{{cite journal |last1=Bradshaw |first1=R.H.W. |first2=N. |last2=Kito and |first3=T. |last3=Giesecke |title=Factors influencing the Holocene history of Fagus |journal=Forest Ecology and Management |volume=259 |issue=11 |pages=2204–12 |date=2010 |doi=10.1016/j.foreco.2009.11.035 |bibcode=2010ForEM.259.2204B |url=}}</ref>
+=== Pests and diseases ===
-The [[Ancient and Primeval Beech Forests of the Carpathians and Other Regions of Europe|primeval beech forests of the Carpathians]] are also an example of a singular, complete, and comprehensive forest dominated by a single tree species - the beech tree. Forest dynamics here were allowed to proceed without interruption or interference since the last ice age. Nowadays, they are amongst the last pure beech forests in Europe to document the undisturbed postglacial repopulation of the species, which also includes the unbroken existence of typical animals and plants. These virgin beech forests and similar forests across 12 countries in continental Europe were inscribed on the [[World Heritage Site|UNESCO World Heritage List]] in 2007.<ref name = "unesco">{{cite web |url = https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/1133 |title = Ancient and Primeval Beech Forests of the Carpathians and Other Regions of Europe |website = UNESCO World Heritage Centre |publisher = United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization |access-date = 13 November 2021}}</ref>
+The [[beech blight aphid]], ''Grylloprociphilus imbricator'', is a common pest of American beech trees.<ref>{{cite web |title=Beech Blight Aphid |url=https://www.umass.edu/agriculture-food-environment/landscape/fact-sheets/beech-blight-aphid |publisher=[[University of Massachusetts Amherst]] |access-date=7 October 2025}}</ref>
-=== North America ===
+[[Beech bark disease]] is a fungal infection of trees in the Eastern US, Canada, and Europe. Following damage caused by the [[scale insect]]s ''[[Xylococculus betulae]]'' and ''[[Cryptococcus fagisuga]]'', the fungi ''Neonectria faginata'' and ''[[Neonectria ditissima]]'' produce cankers each year; these may eventually girdle and kill the tree.<ref name="Cale 2017">{{cite journal |last1=Cale |first1=Jonathan A. |last2=Garrison-Johnston |first2=Mariann T. |last3=Teale |first3=Stephen A. |last4=Castello |first4=John D. |title=Beech bark disease in North America: Over a century of research revisited |journal=Forest Ecology and Management |volume=394 |date=2017 |doi=10.1016/j.foreco.2017.03.031 |doi-access=free |pages=86–103 |bibcode=2017ForEM.394...86C }}</ref>
-The American beech (''Fagus grandifolia'') occurs across much of the eastern United States and southeastern Canada, with a disjunct sister species in Mexico (''F. mexicana''). It is the only extant (surviving) ''Fagus'' species in the Western Hemisphere. Before the [[Pleistocene]] Ice Age, it is believed to have spanned the entire width of the continent from the Atlantic Ocean to the Pacific but now is confined to the east of the Great Plains. ''F. grandifolia'' tolerates hotter climates than European species but is not planted much as an ornamental due to slower growth and less resistance to urban pollution. It most commonly occurs as an overstory component in the northern part of its range with sugar maple, transitioning to other forest types further south such as beech-magnolia. American beech is rarely encountered in developed areas except as a remnant of a forest that was cut down for land development.
-The dead brown leaves of the American beech remain on the branches until well into the following spring, when the new buds finally push them off.
+[[Beech leaf disease]] is a disease that affects beeches spread by the nematode ''[[Litylenchus crenatae mccannii]]''. The disease was discovered in Ohio in 2012.<ref>{{cite news |last=Crowley |first=Brendan |date=2020-09-28 |title=Deadly 'Beech Leaf Disease' Identified Across Connecticut and Rhode Island |work=The Connecticut Examiner |url=https://ctexaminer.com/2020/09/28/deadly-beech-leaf-disease-identified-across-connecticut-and-rhode-island/ |access-date=2020-11-15}}</ref> It has spread through the Eastern United States and Canada.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Parratt |first1=Matt |title=Common beech – Fagus sylvatica |url=https://observatree.org.uk/media/1794/hotm-july-2023-beech.pdf |publisher=[[Forest Research]] |access-date=7 October 2025 |date=July 2023}}</ref>
-=== Asia ===
+<gallery class=center mode=nolines widths=180 heights=180>
-East Asia is home to eight species of ''Fagus'', only one of which (''F.&nbsp;crenata'') is occasionally planted in Western countries. Smaller than ''F.&nbsp;sylvatica'' and ''F.&nbsp;grandifolia'', this beech is one of the most common hardwoods in its native range.
+The bark of the beech tree showing signs of beech bark disease. (0bfa1340-c4ae-488a-bf25-0805049ea28b).JPG|[[Beech bark disease]] indicated by white wax marks caused by [[scale insect]]s
+File:Perithecia.jpg|Fruiting bodies of ''Neonectria faginata'', agent of beech bark disease
+File:Litylenchus crenatae 161966913.jpg|[[Beech leaf disease]], leaf infected by ''[[Litylenchus crenatae mccannii]]''
+</gallery>
-== Ecology ==
+== Uses ==
-Beech grows on a wide range of soil types, acidic or basic, provided they are not waterlogged. The tree canopy casts dense shade and thickens the ground with [[leaf litter]].
-In North America, they can form [[Beech-maple forest|beech-maple]] [[climax community|climax]] forests by partnering with the [[sugar maple]].
-The [[beech blight aphid]] (''Grylloprociphilus imbricator'') is a common pest of American beech trees. Beeches are also used as food plants by some species of [[Lepidoptera]].
+=== Furniture and construction ===
-Beech bark is extremely thin and scars easily. Since the beech tree has such delicate bark, carvings, such as lovers' initials and other forms of graffiti, remain because the tree is unable to heal itself.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Lawrence |first1=Gale |first2=Adelaide |last2=Tyrol |title=A Field Guide to the Familiar: Learning to Observe the Natural World |publisher=Prentice-Hall |location= |date=1984 |isbn=978-0-13-314071-2 |pages=75–76 |url=}}</ref>
+The European beech ''Fagus sylvatica'' yields a tough timber. It weighs about 720 kg per cubic metre and is widely used for [[furniture]] construction, flooring, plywood, and household items. The timber can be used to build chalets, houses, and log cabins.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Skarvelis |first1=Michalis |last2=Mantanis |first2=George I. |title=Physical and mechanical properties of beech wood harvested in the Greek public forests |journal=Wood Research |publisher=Pulp and Paper Research Institute |volume=58 |issue=1 |date=2012-12-29 |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/237840835 |access-date=2024-12-24 |pages=123–130}}</ref>
-=== Diseases ===
+<gallery class=center mode=nolines widths=180 heights=180>
+File:Chair (backstool), England, c. 1675, carved and japanned beechwood, caned seat - Ham House - London, UK - DSC07896 (cropped).jpg|English carved and [[japanned]] beechwood chair, c. 1675
+File:Desk chair MET 211351.jpg|French desk chair, beechwood with leather [[upholstery]], c. 1740–50
+File:Reclining Rocking Chair (Italy), ca. 1905.jpg|Italian [[bentwood|bent]] beechwood [[rocking chair]], Antonio Volpe S.A., c. 1905
+File:Hans J Wegner Wishbone Chair.jpg|[[Hans J. Wegner|Hans J Wegner]] Wishbone Chair of [[woodturning|turned]] and waxed beech, Denmark, 1949
+</gallery>
-[[Beech bark disease]] is a fungal infection that attacks the American beech through damage caused by scale insects.<ref>"beech." The Columbia Encyclopedia. New York: Columbia University Press, 2008. Credo Reference. Web. 17 September 2012.</ref> Infection can lead to the death of the tree.<ref>{{cite book |first= |last= |chapter=beech bark disease |chapter-url= |editor= |title=Dictionary of Microbiology & Molecular Biology |publisher=Wiley |location= |date=2006 |isbn=978-0-470-03545-0 |pages= |url=}} Credo Reference. Web. 27 September 2012.</ref>
+=== Ornamental tree ===
-[[Beech leaf disease]] is a disease that affects American beeches spread by the newly discovered nematode, ''[[Litylenchus crenatae mccannii]]''. This disease was first discovered in Lake County, Ohio, in 2012 and has now spread to over 41 counties in Ohio, Pennsylvania, New York, and Ontario, Canada.<ref>{{cite news |last=Crowley |first=Brendan |date=2020-09-28 |title=Deadly 'Beech Leaf Disease' Identified Across Connecticut and Rhode Island |work=The Connecticut Examiner |url=https://ctexaminer.com/2020/09/28/deadly-beech-leaf-disease-identified-across-connecticut-and-rhode-island/ |access-date=2020-11-15}}</ref>
+The European beech, ''Fagus sylvatica'', is widely cultivated in most regions that have a suitable climate, including North and South America, Europe, South Africa, Australia, and New Zealand.<ref name="IDS">{{cite web |title=Trees and Shrubs Online: Fagus sylvatica L. |url=https://www.treesandshrubsonline.org/articles/fagus/fagus-sylvatica/ |publisher=International Dendrology Society |access-date=7 October 2025}}</ref> Many varieties are in cultivation, including the weeping beech ''F. sylvatica'' 'Pendula', several varieties of copper or purple beech, the fern-leaved beech ''F. sylvatica'' 'Asplenifolia',<ref>{{cite web |title=The European beech: Subspecies, varieties, forms, cultivars and cultivar groups |url=https://www.monumentaltrees.com/en/trees/europeanbeech/ |website=Monumental trees |access-date=7 October 2025}}</ref> and the tricolour beech ''F. sylvatica'' 'Roseomarginata'.<ref>{{cite web |title=Fagus sylvatica 'Purpurea Tricolor' (v) |url=https://www.rhs.org.uk/plants/99417/fagus-sylvatica-purpurea-tricolor-(v)/details |publisher=[[Royal Horticultural Society]] |access-date=7 October 2025 |quote=Synonyms Fagus sylvatica 'Roseomarginata' Fagus sylvatica 'Tricolor' misapplied}}</ref> The columnar Dawyck beech (''F. sylvatica'' 'Dawyck') is named after [[Dawyck Botanic Garden]] in the Scottish Borders.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.forestry.gov.uk/newsrele.nsf/WebPressReleases/8F4ACFD1F5025FF480256DD0005AE961 |title=Borders' special trees in the spotlight |publisher=Forestry Commission |date=7 November 2003 |archive-date=2 March 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120302041303/http://www.forestry.gov.uk/newsrele.nsf/WebPressReleases/8F4ACFD1F5025FF480256DD0005AE961 |url-status=dead}}</ref>
-As of 2024, the disease has become widespread in Connecticut, Massachusetts and Rhode Island, and in portions of coastal New Hampshire and coastal and central Maine.<ref>University of New Hampshire</ref>
-== Cultivation ==
+The tallest beech hedge in the world, and the longest hedge in Britain, is the [[Meikleour Beech Hedges|Meikleour Beech Hedge]] in [[Perth and Kinross]], Scotland.<ref>{{cite web |title=Meikleour Beech Hedge |url=https://www.visitscotland.com/info/see-do/meikleour-beech-hedge-p2569991 |publisher=[[VisitScotland]] |access-date=7 October 2025}}</ref>
-The beech most commonly grown as an [[ornamental tree]] is the European beech (''Fagus sylvatica''), widely cultivated in North America as well as its native Europe. Many varieties are in cultivation, notably the weeping beech ''F.&nbsp;sylvatica'' 'Pendula', several varieties of copper or purple beech, the fern-leaved beech ''F.&nbsp;sylvatica'' 'Asplenifolia', and the tricolour beech ''F.&nbsp;sylvatica'' 'Roseomarginata'. The columnar Dawyck beech (''F.&nbsp;sylvatica'' 'Dawyck') occurs in green, gold, and purple forms, named after [[Dawyck Botanic Garden]] in the Scottish Borders, one of the four garden sites of the [[Royal Botanic Garden Edinburgh]].
-== Uses ==
+<gallery class=center mode=nolines widths=180 heights=180>
-[[File:Eugène Atget - Beech Tree - Google Art Project.jpg|thumb|''Beech Tree'' photographed by [[Eugène Atget]], ''circa'' 1910–1915]]
+File:FagusPurpurea052005.jpg|''F. sylvatica'' var ''Purpurea''
+File:Fagus sylvatica 'Asplenifolia' kz2.jpg|''F. sylvatica'' var ''Asplenifolia''
+File:Fagus sylvatica roseo-marginata 0zz.jpg|''F. sylvatica'' var ''Roseomarginata''
+</gallery>
-===Wood===
+=== Food and food preparation ===
-Beech wood is an excellent [[firewood]], easily split and burning for many hours with bright but calm flames. Slats of beech wood are washed in caustic soda to leach out any flavour or aroma characteristics and are spread around the bottom of fermentation tanks for [[Budweiser]] beer. This provides a complex surface on which the yeast can settle, so that it does not pile up, preventing yeast [[autolysis (biology)|autolysis]] which would contribute off-flavours to the beer.{{Citation needed|date= March 2018}} Beech logs are burned to dry the [[malt]] used in German [[smoked beer]]s.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.schlenkerla.de/rauchbier/prozess/prozess.html |title=Der Brauprozeß von Schlenkerla Rauchbier |author=<!--Not stated--> |date=2011 |website=Schlenkerla - die historische Rauchbierbrauerei |publisher=Schlenkerla |language=de |access-date=11 December 2020}}</ref> Beech is also used to smoke [[Westphalian ham]],<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.germanfoods.org/consumer/facts/guidetoham.cfm |title=GermanFoods.org - Guide to German Sausages and German Hams |access-date=2012-05-17 |url-status = dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121123232931/http://www.germanfoods.org/consumer/facts/guidetoham.cfm |archive-date=2012-11-23 }}</ref> traditional [[andouille]] (an offal sausage) from Normandy,<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.cookthink.com/reference/823/What_is_andouille |title=What is andouille? &#124; Cookthink |access-date=2012-11-22 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120512015109/http://www.cookthink.com/reference/823/What_is_andouille |archive-date=2012-05-12 |url-status=dead }}</ref> and some cheeses.
-Some drums are made from beech, which has a tone between those of [[maple]] and [[birch]], the two most popular drum woods.
+The fruit of the beech tree is an edible nut, known as beech mast.<ref>{{cite book |last=Little |first=Elbert L. |title=The Audubon Society Field Guide to North American Trees: Western Region |publisher=Knopf |year=1994 |isbn=0-394-50761-4 |edition=Chanticleer Press |page=390 |orig-date=1980}}</ref><ref name="Lyle-2010">{{Cite book |last=Lyle |first=Katie Letcher |title=The Complete Guide to Edible Wild Plants, Mushrooms, Fruits, and Nuts: How to Find, Identify, and Cook Them |publisher=[[FalconGuides]] |year=2010 |isbn=978-1-59921-887-8 |edition=2nd |location=Guilford, CN |page=138 |oclc=560560606 |orig-date=2004}}</ref> According to the Roman statesman [[Pliny the Elder]] in his ''[[Natural History (Pliny)|Natural History]]'', the fruit: "of the beech is the sweetest of all; so much so, that, according to Cornelius Alexander, the people of the city of [[Chios]], when besieged, supported themselves wholly on mast".<ref>{{cite web |url=https://interestingearth.com/how_did_beech_mast_save_the_people_of_chios.html|title=How did beech mast save the people of Chios? - Interesting Earth |website=interestingearth.com |access-date=2019-10-07}}</ref> They can also be roasted and pulverized into a [[coffee substitute]].<ref>{{cite book |title=The Complete Guide to Edible Wild Plants |publisher=[[Skyhorse Publishing]] |author=[[United States Department of the Army]] |year=2009 |isbn=978-1-60239-692-0 |location=New York |page=29 |oclc=277203364}}</ref>
-The textile [[Modal (textile)|modal]] is a kind of [[rayon]] often made wholly from reconstituted [[cellulose]] of pulped beech wood.<ref>holistic-interior-designs.com, ''[http://www.holistic-interior-designs.com/modal-fabric.html Modal Fabric] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111009010337/http://www.holistic-interior-designs.com/modal-fabric.html |date=2011-10-09 }}'', retrieved 9 October 2011</ref><ref>uniformreuse.co.uk, ''[http://www.uniformreuse.co.uk/fabric_modal.html?KeepThis=true&TB_iframe=true&height=460&width=800 Modal data sheet] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111024015844/http://www.uniformreuse.co.uk/fabric_modal.html?KeepThis=true&TB_iframe=true&height=460&width=800 |date=2011-10-24 }}'', retrieved 9 October 2011</ref><ref>fabricstockexchange.com, ''[http://www.fabricstockexchange.com/blog/resources/fiber-dictionary/ Modal] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110925102655/http://fabricstockexchange.com/blog/resources/fiber-dictionary/ |date=2011-09-25 }}'' (dictionary entry), retrieved 9 October 2011</ref>
+Slats of beech wood, its flavour removed with caustic soda, are spread inside fermentation tanks for beers such as [[Budweiser]] to prevent the yeast from piling up on the bottom and possibly spoiling the beer's flavour.<ref>{{Cite web |title=The Oxford Companion to Beer Definition of beechwood chips |url=http://beerandbrewing.com/dictionary/2mEFk1wLW0/ |access-date=2022-08-19 |website=Craft Beer & Brewing |archive-date=August 19, 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220819065343/http://beerandbrewing.com/dictionary/2mEFk1wLW0/ |url-status=live }}</ref> Beech logs are burned to dry the [[malt]] used in German [[smoked beer]]s.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.schlenkerla.de/rauchbier/prozess/prozess.html |title=Der Brauprozeß von Schlenkerla Rauchbier |author=<!--Not stated--> |date=2011 |website=Schlenkerla - die historische Rauchbierbrauerei |publisher=Schlenkerla |language=de |trans-title=The Brewing Process of Schlenkerla Smoked Beer |access-date=11 December 2020}}</ref> Beech is also used to smoke [[Westphalian ham]],<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.germanfoods.org/consumer/facts/guidetoham.cfm |title=GermanFoods.org - Guide to German Sausages and German Hams |access-date=2012-05-17 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121123232931/http://www.germanfoods.org/consumer/facts/guidetoham.cfm |archive-date=2012-11-23 }}</ref> traditional [[andouille]] (an offal sausage) from [[Normandy]],<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.cookthink.com/reference/823/What_is_andouille |title=What is andouille? &#124; Cookthink |access-date=2012-11-22 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120512015109/http://www.cookthink.com/reference/823/What_is_andouille |archive-date=2012-05-12 }}</ref> and some [[smoked cheese]]s.<ref>{{cite web |title=Calories in Tesco Beechwood Smoked Cheese Slices Made in Germany |url=https://freecaloriechart.uk/calories-in-tesco-beechwood-smoked-cheese-slices-made-in-germany/ |website=Free Calorie Chart UK |date=8 November 2015 |access-date=6 October 2025}}</ref>
-The European species ''Fagus sylvatica'' yields a tough, utility timber. It weighs about 720&nbsp;kg per cubic metre and is widely used for furniture construction, flooring, and engineering purposes, in plywood and household items, but rarely as a decorative wood. The timber can be used to build chalets, houses, and log cabins.<ref>{{cite journal | last1=Skarvelis | first1=Michalis | last2=Mantanis | first2=George I. | title=Physical and mechanical properties of beech wood harvested in the Greek public forests | journal=Wood Research | publisher=Pulp and Paper Research Institute | volume=58 | issue=1 | date=2012-12-29 | issn=1336-4561 | url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/237840835 | access-date=2024-12-24 | pages=123–130}}</ref>
+=== Other ===
-Beech wood is used for the stocks of military rifles when traditionally preferred woods such as [[Juglans#Wood|walnut]] are scarce or unavailable or as a lower-cost alternative.<ref name="Walter-2006">{{cite book |first=J. |last=Walter |title=Rifles of the World |publisher=Krause Publications |edition=3rd |date=2006 |isbn=978-0-89689-241-5 |pages= |url=}}</ref>
+[[File:Venus with a Mirror (study) (cropped).jpg|thumb|upright|Painting ''Venus with a Mirror''. Oil and plaster on beech wood. [[Titian]], 1511]]
-===Food===
+In antiquity, [[Proto-Indo-Europeans|Indo-European people]] used beech bark as a writing material, especially in a religious context.<ref>{{cite book |last=Pronk-Tiethoff |first=Saskia |title=The Germanic loanwords in Proto-Slavic |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=0iWLAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA81 |date=25 October 2013 |publisher=Rodopi |isbn=978-94-012-0984-7 |page=81}}</ref> Beech wood tablets were a common [[writing material]] in Germanic societies before the development of paper. The Old English ''bōc''<ref>A Concise Anglo-Saxon Dictionary, Second Edition (1916), [http://lexicon.ff.cuni.cz/html/oe_clarkhall/b0047.html Blōtan-Boldwela], [[John Richard Clark Hall]]</ref> has the primary sense of "beech" with a secondary sense of "book".<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.etymonline.com/index.php?term=book |title=Book |last=Harper |first=Douglas |work=Online Etymological Dictionary |access-date=2011-11-18}}</ref>
-The edible fruit of the beech tree,<ref name="Lyle-2010" /> known as beechnuts or mast, is found in small burrs that drop from the tree in autumn. They are small, roughly triangular, and edible, with a bitter, astringent, or in some cases, mild and nut-like taste. According to the Roman statesman [[Pliny the Elder]] in his work [[Natural History (Pliny)|''Natural History'']], beechnut was eaten by the people of [[Chios]] when the town was besieged, writing of the fruit: "that of the beech is the sweetest of all; so much so, that, according to Cornelius Alexander, the people of the city of Chios, when besieged, supported themselves wholly on mast".<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://interestingearth.com/how_did_beech_mast_save_the_people_of_chios.html|title=How did beech mast save the people of Chios? - Interesting Earth|website=interestingearth.com|access-date=2019-10-07}}</ref> They can also be roasted and pulverized into an adequate [[coffee substitute]].<ref>{{Cite book |url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/277203364 |title=The Complete Guide to Edible Wild Plants |publisher=[[Skyhorse Publishing]] |author=[[United States Department of the Army]] |year=2009 |isbn=978-1-60239-692-0 |location=New York |pages=29 |language=en-US |oclc=277203364}}</ref> The leaves can be steeped in liquor to give a light green/yellow liqueur.
-===Books===
+The pigment [[bistre]] was made from beech wood [[soot]]. Beech [[Plant litter|litter]] raking was used as a replacement for straw in [[animal husbandry]] in Switzerland in the 17th century.<ref>{{cite journal |title=Three objectives of historical ecology: the case of litter collecting in Central European forests |author=Bürgi, M. |author2=Gimmi, U. |year=2007 |doi=10.1007/s10980-007-9128-0 |journal=Landscape Ecology |volume=22 |issue=S1 |pages=77–87|bibcode=2007LaEco..22S..77B |hdl=20.500.11850/58945 |s2cid=21130814 |url=http://doc.rero.ch/record/316425/files/10980_2007_Article_9128.pdf |hdl-access=free }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |title=Soil carbon pools in Swiss forests show legacy effects from historic forest litter raking |author=Gimmi, U. |author2=Poulter, B. |author3=Wolf, A. |author4=Portner, H. |author5=Weber, P. |author6=Bürgi, M. |year=2013 |doi=10.1007/s10980-012-9778-4 |journal=Landscape Ecology |volume=28 |issue=5 |pages=385–846|bibcode=2013LaEco..28..835G |hdl=20.500.11850/66782 |s2cid=16930894 |url=http://doc.rero.ch/record/315772/files/10980_2012_Article_9778.pdf |hdl-access=free }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |title=Reconstructing European forest management from 1600 to 2010 |author=McGrath, M.J. |year=2015 |doi=10.5194/bg-12-4291-2015 |journal=Biogeosciences |volume=12 |issue=14 |pages=4291–4316|display-authors=etal|bibcode=2015BGeo...12.4291M |doi-access=free }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |title=Consequence of litter removal on pedogenesis: A case study in Bachs and Irchel (Switzerland) |author=Scalenghe, R. |author2=Minoja, A.P. |author3=Zimmermann, S. |author4=Bertini, S. |year=2016 |doi=10.1016/j.geoderma.2016.02.024 |journal=Geoderma |volume=271 |pages=191–201|bibcode=2016Geode.271..191S |url=https://zenodo.org/record/889561 }}</ref> Beech is one of the 38 plants whose flowers are used to prepare [[Bach flower remedies]].<ref name="Vohra-2004">{{cite book |last=Vohra |first=D. S. |title=Bach Flower Remedies: A Comprehensive Study|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=icG8onA0ys8C&pg=PR3 |access-date=2 September 2013|date=1 June 2004 |publisher=B. Jain Publishers |isbn=978-81-7021-271-3 |page=3}}</ref> Beech makes an excellent [[firewood]].<ref>{{cite web |title=The burning properties of wood |url=http://www.scoutbase.org.uk/library/hqdocs/facts/pdfs/fs315001.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121223202805/http://www.scoutbase.org.uk/library/hqdocs/facts/pdfs/fs315001.pdf |archive-date=23 December 2012 |access-date=26 July 2013 |work=Scoutbase (Scout Information Centre) |publisher=Scout Association}}</ref>
-[[File:Venus with a Mirror (study).jpg|thumb|Painting on beech wood - 1511]]
+Some [[drum shell]]s are made from beech.<ref>{{cite web |title=1987 Snare Drums |url=https://www.sonormuseum.com/1987/snares/snares.html |website=Sonor Museum |access-date=6 October 2025}}</ref>
-In antiquity, the bark of the beech tree was used by [[Proto-Indo-Europeans|Indo-European people]] for writing-related purposes, especially in a religious context.<ref>{{cite book |first= Saskia |last=Pronk-Tiethoff |title= The Germanic loanwords in Proto-Slavic |url= https://books.google.com/books?id=0iWLAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA81 |date= 25 October 2013 |publisher= Rodopi |isbn= 978-94-012-0984-7 |pages= 81}}</ref> Beech wood tablets were a common [[writing material]] in Germanic societies before the development of paper. The Old English ''bōc''<ref>A Concise Anglo-Saxon Dictionary, Second Edition (1916), [http://lexicon.ff.cuni.cz/html/oe_clarkhall/b0047.html Blōtan-Boldwela], [[John Richard Clark Hall]]</ref> has the primary sense of "beech" but also a secondary sense of "book", and it is from ''bōc'' that the modern word derives.<ref>{{cite web|url= http://www.etymonline.com/index.php?term=book |title= Book |author= Douglas Harper |work= Online Etymological Dictionary |access-date= 2011-11-18}}</ref> In modern German, the word for "book" is ''Buch,'' with ''Buche'' meaning "beech tree". In modern Dutch, the word for "book" is ''boek,'' with ''beuk'' meaning "beech tree". In Swedish, these words are the same, ''bok'' meaning both "beech tree" and "book". There is a similar relationship in some Slavic languages. In Russian and [[Bulgarian language|Bulgarian]], the word for beech is [[:wikt:бук|бук]] (''buk''), while that for "letter" (as in a letter of the alphabet) is буква (''bukva''), while [[Serbo-Croatian language|Serbo-Croatian]] and [[Slovene language|Slovene]] use "[[:wikt:bukva|bukva]]" to refer to the tree.
+The textile [[Modal (textile)|modal]] is a kind of [[rayon]] often made wholly from [[cellulose]] extracted from pulped beech wood.<ref>holistic-interior-designs.com, ''[http://www.holistic-interior-designs.com/modal-fabric.html Modal Fabric] {{Webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111009010337/http://www.holistic-interior-designs.com/modal-fabric.html |date=2011-10-09 }}'', retrieved 9 October 2011</ref><ref>uniformreuse.co.uk, ''[http://www.uniformreuse.co.uk/fabric_modal.html?KeepThis=true&TB_iframe=true&height=460&width=800 Modal data sheet] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111024015844/http://www.uniformreuse.co.uk/fabric_modal.html?KeepThis=true&TB_iframe=true&height=460&width=800 |date=2011-10-24 }}'', retrieved 9 October 2011</ref><ref>fabricstockexchange.com, ''[http://www.fabricstockexchange.com/blog/resources/fiber-dictionary/ Modal] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110925102655/http://fabricstockexchange.com/blog/resources/fiber-dictionary/ |date=2011-09-25 }}'' (dictionary entry), retrieved 9 October 2011</ref>
-===Other===
+In [[Gallo-Roman religion]], ''Fagus'' (Latin for "beech") was a god known from four inscriptions found in the [[Hautes-Pyrénées]].<ref>Nicole Jufer & Thierry Luginbühl (2001). ''Les dieux gaulois : répertoire des noms de divinités celtiques connus par l'épigraphie, les textes antiques et la toponymie.'' Paris: Editions Errance. {{ISBN|2-87772-200-7}}.</ref>
-The pigment [[bistre]] was made from beech wood [[soot]]. Beech [[Plant litter|litter]] raking as a replacement for straw in [[animal husbandry]] was an old non-timber practice in forest management that once occurred in parts of [[Switzerland]] in the 17th century.<ref>{{cite journal |title= Three objectives of historical ecology: the case of litter collecting in Central European forests |author= Bürgi, M. |author2=Gimmi, U. |year= 2007 |doi= 10.1007/s10980-007-9128-0 |journal= Landscape Ecology |volume= 22 |issue= S1 |pages= 77–87|bibcode= 2007LaEco..22S..77B |hdl= 20.500.11850/58945 |s2cid= 21130814 |url= http://doc.rero.ch/record/316425/files/10980_2007_Article_9128.pdf |hdl-access= free }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |title= Soil carbon pools in Swiss forests show legacy effects from historic forest litter raking |author= Gimmi, U. |author2= Poulter, B. |author3= Wolf, A. |author4= Portner, H. |author5= Weber, P. |author6= Bürgi, M. |year= 2013 |doi= 10.1007/s10980-012-9778-4 |journal= Landscape Ecology |volume= 28 |issue= 5 |pages= 385–846|bibcode= 2013LaEco..28..835G |hdl= 20.500.11850/66782 |s2cid= 16930894 |url= http://doc.rero.ch/record/315772/files/10980_2012_Article_9778.pdf |hdl-access= free }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |title= Reconstructing European forest management from 1600 to 2010 |author= McGrath, M.J. |year= 2015 |doi= 10.5194/bg-12-4291-2015 |journal= Biogeosciences |volume= 12 |issue= 14 |pages= 4291–4316|display-authors=etal|bibcode= 2015BGeo...12.4291M |doi-access= free }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |title= Consequence of litter removal on pedogenesis: A case study in Bachs and Irchel (Switzerland) |author= Scalenghe, R. |author2= Minoja, A.P. |author3= Zimmermann, S. |author4= Bertini, S. |year= 2016 |doi= 10.1016/j.geoderma.2016.02.024 |journal= Geoderma |volume= 271 |pages= 191–201|bibcode= 2016Geode.271..191S |url= https://zenodo.org/record/889561 }}</ref> Beech has been listed as one of the 38 plants whose flowers are used to prepare [[Bach flower remedies]].<ref name="Vohra-2004">{{cite book|author=D. S. Vohra|title=Bach Flower Remedies: A Comprehensive Study|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=icG8onA0ys8C&pg=PR3|access-date=2 September 2013|date=1 June 2004|publisher=B. Jain Publishers|isbn=978-81-7021-271-3|page=3}}</ref>
 == See also ==
@@ Line 441: / Line 301: @@
 == References ==
 {{Reflist}}
 == External links ==
 {{Commons category|Fagus|beeches}}
 {{Wikispecies|Fagus|''Fagus''}}
 {{Wiktionary|beech}}
-* {{cite web|url=http://apps.kew.org/wcsp/|title=WCSP |work= World Checklist of Selected Plant Families – Fagus}}
-* {{cite web|last=Eichhorn|first=Markus|title=The Beech Tree|url=http://www.test-tube.org.uk/trees/video_beech.htm|work=Test Tube|publisher=[[Brady Haran]] for the [[University of Nottingham]]|date=October 2010}}
+* {{cite web |url=http://apps.kew.org/wcsp/ |title=WCSP |work= World Checklist of Selected Plant Families – Fagus}}
+* {{cite web |last=Eichhorn |first=Markus |title=The Beech Tree |url=http://www.test-tube.org.uk/trees/video_beech.htm |work=Test Tube |publisher=[[Brady Haran]] for the [[University of Nottingham]] |date=October 2010 |ref=none}}
 * [https://www.eatweeds.co.uk/beech-fagus-sylvatica Traditional and Modern Use of Beech]

Beech: Difference between revisions

Latest revision as of 17:01, 30 October 2025

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