Stanford torus: Difference between revisions

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{{short description|Proposed NASA design for space habitat}}
{{short description|Proposed NASA design for space habitat}}
{{Use American English|date=August 2025}}
{{for|fictional structures for living in space|Space stations and habitats in fiction}}
{{for|fictional structures for living in space|Space stations and habitats in fiction}}
[[Image:Stanford torus external view by Don Davis AC76-0525.jpg|thumb|Exterior view of a Stanford torus. Bottom center is the non-rotating primary solar mirror, which reflects sunlight onto the angled ring of secondary mirrors around the hub. Painting by Donald E. Davis.]]
[[Image:Stanford torus external view by Don Davis AC76-0525.jpg|thumb|Exterior view of a Stanford torus. Bottom center is the non-rotating primary solar mirror, which reflects sunlight onto the angled ring of secondary mirrors around the hub. Painting by Donald E. Davis.]]
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[[Image:Stanford torus-Space Settlements-A Design Study-1977.png|thumb|Collage of figures and tables of Stanford Torus space habitat, from ''Space Settlements: A Design Study'' book. Charles Holbrow and Richard D. Johnson, NASA, 1977.]]
[[Image:Stanford torus-Space Settlements-A Design Study-1977.png|thumb|Collage of figures and tables of Stanford Torus space habitat, from ''Space Settlements: A Design Study'' book. Charles Holbrow and Richard D. Johnson, NASA, 1977.]]


The '''Stanford torus''' is a proposed [[NASA]] design<ref name=":1">{{Cite web |date=2017-08-03 |title=Stanford Torus Space Settlement – NSS |url=https://nss.org/stanford-torus-space-settlement/ |access-date=2025-04-08 |language=en-US}}</ref> for a [[space settlement]] capable of housing 10,000 permanent residents.<ref>{{harvnb|Johnson|Holbrow|1977|loc=p. 1, "The Overall System", p. 60, Summary}}</ref> It is a type of [[rotating wheel space station]], consisting of a ring with a diameter of about 1.8 km, its rotation providing about 1.0 ''g'' of [[artificial gravity]].<ref name=":0">{{cite web |last1=Johnson |first1=Richard D. |last2=Holbrow |first2=Charles |year=1977 |title=Space Settlements: A Design Study |url=http://settlement.arc.nasa.gov/75SummerStudy/Table_of_Contents1.html |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20091214010802/http://settlement.arc.nasa.gov/75SummerStudy/Table_of_Contents1.html |archive-date=2009-12-14 |publisher=National Aeronautics and Space Administration}}</ref>
The '''Stanford torus''' is a proposed [[NASA]] design<ref name=":1">{{Cite web |date=2017-08-03 |title=Stanford Torus Space Settlement – NSS |url=https://nss.org/stanford-torus-space-settlement/ |access-date=2025-04-08 |language=en-US}}</ref> for a [[space settlement]] capable of housing 10,000 permanent residents.<ref>{{harvnb|Johnson|Holbrow|1977|loc=p. 1, "The Overall System", p. 60, Summary}}</ref> It is a type of [[rotating wheel space station]], consisting of a ring with a diameter of about {{Convert|1.8|km|abbr=on}}, its rotation providing about 1.0 ''g'' of [[artificial gravity]].<ref name=":0">{{cite web |last1=Johnson |first1=Richard D. |last2=Holbrow |first2=Charles |year=1977 |title=Space Settlements: A Design Study |url=http://settlement.arc.nasa.gov/75SummerStudy/Table_of_Contents1.html |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20091214010802/http://settlement.arc.nasa.gov/75SummerStudy/Table_of_Contents1.html |archive-date=2009-12-14 |publisher=National Aeronautics and Space Administration}}</ref>


==History of the concept==
==History of the concept==
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|publisher=Richard Carl Schmidt & Co.  
|publisher=Richard Carl Schmidt & Co.  
|pages=136–144  
|pages=136–144  
|isbn=3851320603 }}</ref> or [[Wernher von Braun]] (1952),<ref>{{cite book |last=von Braun |first=W. |authorlink=Wernher von Braun |title=Crossing the Final Frontier |publisher=Colliers |date=March 22, 1952}}</ref> among others.
|isbn=3851320603 }}</ref> and [[Wernher von Braun]] (1952),<ref>{{cite book |last=von Braun |first=W. |authorlink=Wernher von Braun |title=Crossing the Final Frontier |publisher=Colliers |date=March 22, 1952}}</ref> among others.


==Design==
==Design==
The Stanford torus (the proposed 10,000 people habitat described in the 1975 Summer Study, to be distinguished from other [[rotating wheel space station]] designs) consists of a [[torus]], or [[doughnut]]-shaped ring, that is 1.8{{nbs}}km in diameter and rotates once per minute to provide between 0.9 ''g'' and 1.0 ''g'' of [[artificial gravity]] on the inside of the outer ring via [[centrifugal force]].<ref>{{harvnb|Johnson|Holbrow|1977|page=46}}</ref>
The Stanford torus (the proposed 10,000 people habitat described in the 1975 Summer Study, to be distinguished from other rotating wheel space station designs) consists of a [[torus]], or [[doughnut]]-shaped ring, that is {{Convert|1.8|km|abbr=on}} in diameter and rotates once per minute to provide between 0.9 ''g'' and 1.0 ''g'' of [[artificial gravity]] on the inside of the outer ring via [[centrifugal force]].<ref>{{harvnb|Johnson|Holbrow|1977|page=46}}</ref>


Sunlight is provided to the interior of the torus by a system of [[mirror]]s, including a large non-rotating primary solar mirror.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Powering the Stanford Torus |url=http://large.stanford.edu/courses/2016/ph240/martelaro2/ |access-date=2025-05-18 |website=large.stanford.edu}}</ref>
Sunlight is provided to the interior of the torus by a system of [[mirror]]s, including a large non-rotating primary solar mirror.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Powering the Stanford Torus |url=http://large.stanford.edu/courses/2016/ph240/martelaro2/ |access-date=2025-05-18 |website=large.stanford.edu}}</ref>
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The interior space of the torus itself is used as living space, and is large enough that a "natural" environment can be simulated; the torus appears similar to a long, narrow, straight [[U-shaped valley|glacial valley]] whose ends curve upward and eventually meet overhead to form a complete circle. The population density is similar to a dense suburb, with part of the ring dedicated to agriculture and part to housing.<ref name="nasa c5" />
The interior space of the torus itself is used as living space, and is large enough that a "natural" environment can be simulated; the torus appears similar to a long, narrow, straight [[U-shaped valley|glacial valley]] whose ends curve upward and eventually meet overhead to form a complete circle. The population density is similar to a dense suburb, with part of the ring dedicated to agriculture and part to housing.<ref name="nasa c5" />
The Stanford Torus design was not conceived for a single, isolated space settlement, but as part of a system for the colonization of space. Part of the people living in the colony would work in the construction of satellite solar power stations and new colonies, so that the habitat would be capable of self-replication, with a full system of multiple Stanford toruses being eventually built.<ref>{{Cite web |title=The Colonization of Space |url=http://settlement.arc.nasa.gov/75SummerStudy/Chapt.1.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20091214014455/http://settlement.arc.nasa.gov/75SummerStudy/Chapt.1.html |archive-date=2009-12-14 |access-date=2025-10-27 |website=settlement.arc.nasa.gov}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Building the Colony and Making It Prosper |url=http://settlement.arc.nasa.gov/75SummerStudy/Chapt6.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20091107063536/http://settlement.arc.nasa.gov/75SummerStudy/Chapt6.html |archive-date=2009-11-07 |access-date=2025-10-27 |website=settlement.arc.nasa.gov}}</ref>


=== Chosen shape ===
=== Chosen shape ===
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* Location: Earth–Moon [[Lagrangian point#L4 and L5|L5 Lagrangian point]].
* Location: Earth–Moon [[Lagrangian point#L4 and L5|L5 Lagrangian point]].
* Human population: 10,000.
* Human population: 10,000.
* Total mass: 10 million tons (including radiation shield (95% of total mass), habitat, and atmosphere).
* Total mass: {{Convert|10|e6t|e6LT e6ST|abbr=off|sp=us}} (including radiation shield (95% of total mass), habitat, and atmosphere).
* Diameter: {{convert|1790|m|mi|abbr=on}}.
* Diameter: {{convert|1790|m|mi|abbr=on}}.
* Circumference: 5,623.45 m (3.49 mi).
* Circumference: 5,623.45 m (3.49 mi).
* Rotation: 1 [[revolution per minute]].
* Rotation: 1 [[revolution per minute]].
* Temperature: 23 ± 8 °C.
* Temperature: {{Convert|23|+/-|8|C}}
* Radiation shield (non-rotating): {{convert|1.7|m|ft|abbr=off|sp=us}} thick raw [[lunar soil]].<ref name=":0" />
* Radiation shield (non-rotating): {{convert|1.7|m|ft|abbr=off|sp=us}} thick raw [[lunar soil]].<ref name=":0" />


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=== Area and volume allocation ===
=== Area and volume allocation ===
The circumference of the torus proper (about 5,600 m in all) would be divided into 6 sections of equal length. 3 of the sections would be used for agriculture and the remaining 3 for residential uses. Agricultural and residential sections would alternate. A central plain would run through the full length of the torus. To gain space, structures would be terraced over the curved walls of the torus, while many commercial facilities (such as large shops, light industry or mechanical facilities) would be below the level of the central plain. According to the figures included in the study, the plain's floor would be about 1/4 of tube's diameter over the torus bottom, and each spoke would connect at the center of one of the 6 sections.<ref name=":0" />
The circumference of the torus proper (about {{Convert|5,600|m|abbr=on}} in all) would be divided into 6 sections of equal length. 3 of the sections would be used for agriculture and the remaining 3 for residential uses. Agricultural and residential sections would alternate. A central plain would run through the full length of the torus. To gain space, structures would be terraced over the curved walls of the torus, while many commercial facilities (such as large shops, light industry or mechanical facilities) would be below the level of the central plain. According to the figures included in the study, the plain's floor would be about 1/4 of tube's diameter over the torus bottom, and each spoke would connect at the center of one of the 6 sections.<ref name=":0" />


==== Non-agricultural uses ====
==== Non-agricultural uses ====
{| class="wikitable"
{{sticky header}}
{| class="wikitable sortable sticky-header-multi"
|+
|+
!Use<ref name=":0" />
!Use<ref name=":0" />
!Used land area (m<sup>2</sup>)
!Used land area
!Number of levels
!Number of levels
!Total usable area (m<sup>2</sup>)<ref group=Note name=Note01/>
!Total usable area<ref group=Note name=Note01/>
!Height per level (m)
!Height per level
!Volume (m<sup>3</sup>)
!Volume
!Notes
!Notes
|-
|-
|Residential
|Residential
|120,000
|{{convert|120,000|m2|sqft|abbr=on|sortable=on}}
|4
|4
|490,000
|{{convert|490,000|m2|sqft|abbr=on|sortable=on}}
|3
|{{convert|3|m|ft|abbr=on|sortable=on}}
|1,470,000
|{{convert|1,470,000|m3|cuft|abbr=on|sortable=on}}
|Including dwelling units, private exterior space and pedestrian access space. Modular housing, allowing for one-or two-level clustered homes, as well as grouped apartment buildings with 4 or 5 stories, and terraced homes taking advantage of the edges of the central plain that runs through the torus
|Including dwelling units ({{Convert|37|m2|abbr=on}}/person), private exterior space and pedestrian access space ({{Convert|12|m2|abbr=on}}/person of total exterior space). Modular housing, allowing for one- or two-level clustered homes, as well as grouped apartment buildings with 4 or 5 stories, and terraced homes taking advantage of the edges of the central plain that runs through the torus
|-
|-
|Shops
|Shops
|10,000
|{{convert|10,000|m2|sqft|abbr=on|sortable=on}}
|2
|2
|23,000
|{{convert|23,000|m2|sqft|abbr=on|sortable=on}}
|4
|{{convert|4|m|ft|abbr=on|sortable=on}}
|92,000
|{{convert|92,000|m3|cuft|abbr=on|sortable=on}}
|The authors of the study determined the space use from recommendations that call for 10 shops per 1000 people
|The authors of the study determined the space use from recommendations that call for 10 shops per 1000 people
|-
|-
|Offices
|Offices
|3,300
|{{convert|3,300|m2|sqft|abbr=on|sortable=on}}
|3
|3
|10,000
|{{convert|10,000|m2|sqft|abbr=on|sortable=on}}
|4
|{{convert|4|m|ft|abbr=on|sortable=on}}
|40,000
|{{convert|40,000|m3|cuft|abbr=on|sortable=on}}
|
|
|-
|-
|Schools
|Schools
|3,000
|{{convert|3,000|m2|sqft|abbr=on|sortable=on}}
|3
|3
|10,000
|{{convert|10,000|m2|sqft|abbr=on|sortable=on}}
|3.8
|{{convert|3.8|m|ft|abbr=on|sortable=on}}
|38,000
|{{convert|38,000|m3|cuft|abbr=on|sortable=on}}
|With community multimedia center. The authors of the study calculated the space use for a student population of 10% of total population
|With community multimedia center. The authors of the study calculated the space use for a student population of 10% of total population
|-
|-
|Hospital
|Hospital
|3,000
|{{convert|3,000|m2|sqft|abbr=on|sortable=on}}
|1
|1
|3,000
|{{convert|3,000|m2|sqft|abbr=on|sortable=on}}
|5
|{{convert|5|m|ft|abbr=on|sortable=on}}
|15,000
|{{convert|15,000|m3|cuft|abbr=on|sortable=on}}
|50-bed hospital with all the different needed facilities
|50-bed hospital with all the different needed facilities
|-
|-
|Assembly (churches, community halls, theaters)
|Assembly (churches, community halls, theaters)
|15,000
|{{convert|15,000|m2|sqft|abbr=on|sortable=on}}
|1
|1
|15,000
|{{convert|15,000|m2|sqft|abbr=on|sortable=on}}
|10
|{{convert|10|m|ft|abbr=on|sortable=on}}
|150,000
|{{convert|150,000|m3|cuft|abbr=on|sortable=on}}
|
|
|-
|-
|Recreation and entertainment
|Recreation and entertainment
|10,000
|{{convert|10,000|m2|sqft|abbr=on|sortable=on}}
|1
|1
|10,000
|{{convert|10,000|m2|sqft|abbr=on|sortable=on}}
|3
|{{convert|3|m|ft|abbr=on|sortable=on}}
|30,000
|{{convert|30,000|m3|cuft|abbr=on|sortable=on}}
|All commercial entertainment, including indoor activities and restaurants
|All commercial entertainment, including indoor activities and restaurants
|-
|-
|Public open space
|Public open space
|100,000
|{{convert|100,000|m2|sqft|abbr=on|sortable=on}}
|1
|1
|100,000
|{{convert|100,000|m2|sqft|abbr=on|sortable=on}}
|50
|{{convert|50|m|ft|abbr=on|sortable=on}}
|5,000,000
|{{convert|5,000,000|m3|cuft|abbr=on|sortable=on}}
|Parks, zoo, outdoor recreation (swimming, golf, playgrounds)
|Parks, zoo, outdoor recreation (swimming, golf, playgrounds)
|-
|-
|Service industry
|Service industry
|20,000
|{{convert|20,000|m2|sqft|abbr=on|sortable=on}}
|2
|2
|40,000
|{{convert|40,000|m2|sqft|abbr=on|sortable=on}}
|6
|{{convert|6|m|ft|abbr=on|sortable=on}}
|240,000
|{{convert|240,000|m3|cuft|abbr=on|sortable=on}}
|Light service industry of personal goods, furniture, handicrafts, etc.
|Light service industry of personal goods, furniture, handicrafts, etc.
|-
|-
|Storage
|Storage
|10,000
|{{convert|10,000|m2|sqft|abbr=on|sortable=on}}
|4
|4
|50,000
|{{convert|50,000|m2|sqft|abbr=on|sortable=on}}
|3.2
|{{convert|3.2|m|ft|abbr=on|sortable=on}}
|160,000
|{{convert|160,000|m3|cuft|abbr=on|sortable=on}}
|Wholesaling and storage
|Wholesaling and storage
|-
|-
|Transportation
|Transportation
|120,000
|{{convert|120,000|m2|sqft|abbr=on|sortable=on}}
|1
|1
|120,000
|{{convert|120,000|m2|sqft|abbr=on|sortable=on}}
|6
|{{convert|6|m|ft|abbr=on|sortable=on}}
|720,000
|{{convert|720,000|m3|cuft|abbr=on|sortable=on}}
|15 m width for typical streets. Ring road around the torus, at the edge of the central plain. Mass transport system consisting of a moving sidewalk, monorail, and minibus
|{{Convert|15|m|abbr=on|adj=on}} width for typical streets. Ring road around the torus, at the edge of the central plain. Mass transport system consisting of a moving sidewalk, monorail, and minibus
|-
|-
|Communication switching equipment (for 2800 families)
|Communication switching equipment (for 2800 families)
|500
|{{convert|500|m2|sqft|abbr=on|sortable=on}}
|1
|1
|500
|{{convert|500|m2|sqft|abbr=on|sortable=on}}
|4
|{{convert|4|m|ft|abbr=on|sortable=on}}
|2,000
|{{convert|2,000|m3|cuft|abbr=on|sortable=on}}
|Communication and telephone distribution
|Communication and telephone distribution
|-
|-
|Waste and water treatment and recycling
|Waste and water treatment and recycling
|40,000
|{{convert|40,000|m2|sqft|abbr=on|sortable=on}}
|1
|1
|40,000
|{{convert|40,000|m2|sqft|abbr=on|sortable=on}}
|4
|{{convert|4|m|ft|abbr=on|sortable=on}}
|160,000
|{{convert|160,000|m3|cuft|abbr=on|sortable=on}}
|Including water supply, return and recycling, and sewage treatment
|Including water supply, return and recycling, and sewage treatment
|-
|-
|Electrical supply and distribution
|Electrical supply and distribution
|1,000
|{{convert|1,000|m2|sqft|abbr=on|sortable=on}}
|1
|1
|1,000
|{{convert|1,000|m2|sqft|abbr=on|sortable=on}}
|4
|{{convert|4|m|ft|abbr=on|sortable=on}}
|4,000
|{{convert|4,000|m3|cuft|abbr=on|sortable=on}}
|Including transformer substations
|Including transformer substations
|-
|-
|Miscellaneous
|Miscellaneous
|10,000
|{{convert|10,000|m2|sqft|abbr=on|sortable=on}}
|2
|2
|29,000
|{{convert|29,000|m2|sqft|abbr=on|sortable=on}}
|3.8
|{{convert|3.8|m|ft|abbr=on|sortable=on}}
|112,000
|{{convert|112,000|m3|cuft|abbr=on|sortable=on}}
|
|
|-
|-
|Total
|Total
|466,000
|{{convert|466,000|m2|sqft|abbr=on|sortable=on}}
| -
|942,000
| -
| -
|8,233,000
|{{convert|942,000|m2|sqft|abbr=on|sortable=on}}
| -
|{{convert|8,233,000|m3|cuft|abbr=on|sortable=on}}
|
|
|}
|}


==== Agricultural uses ====
==== Agricultural uses ====
{| class="wikitable"
{{sticky header}}
{| class="wikitable sortable sticky-header=multi"
!Use<ref name=":0" />
!Use<ref name=":0" />
!Used land area (m<sup>2</sup>)
!Used land area
!Number of levels
!Number of levels
!Total usable area (m<sup>2</sup>)<ref group=Note name=Note01/>
!Total usable area<ref group=Note name=Note01/>
!Height per level (m)
!Height per level
!Volume (m<sup>3</sup>)
!Volume
!Notes
!Notes
|-
|-
|Plant growing areas
|Plant growing areas
|147,000
|{{convert|147,000|m2|sqft|abbr=on|sortable=on}}
|3
|3
|440,000
|{{convert|440,000|m2|sqft|abbr=on|sortable=on}}
|15
|{{convert|15|m|ft|abbr=on|sortable=on}}
|6,600,000
|{{convert|6,600,000|m3|cuft|abbr=on|sortable=on}}
|38,000 m<sup>2</sup> for sorghum (yield of 83 g/m<sup>2</sup>/day), 235,000 m<sup>2</sup> for soybeans (yield of 20 g/m<sup>2</sup>/day), 72,000 m<sup>2</sup> for wheat (yield of 31 g/m<sup>2</sup>/day), 36,000 m<sup>2</sup> for rice (yield of 35 g/m<sup>2</sup>/day), 9,000 m<sup>2</sup> for corn (yield of 58 g/m<sup>2</sup>/day), 52,000 m<sup>2</sup> for vegetables (yield of 132 g/m<sup>2</sup>/day). Part of the plant production is used to feed livestock. Sorghum is used to obtain sugar. Fruit trees are grown in parks and residential areas, providing 250 grams of fruit per person each day, and also serving as ornamentation.
|List of crops:
 
* {{Convert|38,000|m2|abbr=on}} for sorghum; yield of {{Convert|83|g/m2/day|oz/sqft/day|abbr=on}}
* {{Convert|235,000|m2|abbr=on}} for soybeans; yield of {{Convert|20|g/m2/day|oz/sqft/day|abbr=on}}
* {{Convert|72,000|m2|abbr=on}} for wheat; yield of {{Convert|31|g/m2/day|oz/sqft/day|abbr=on}}
* {{Convert|36,000|m2|abbr=on}} for rice; yield of {{Convert|35|g/m2/day|oz/sqft/day|abbr=on}}
* {{Convert|9,000|m2|abbr=on}} for corn; yield of {{Convert|58|g/m2/day|oz/sqft/day|abbr=on}}
* {{Convert|52,000|m2|abbr=on}} for vegetables; yield of {{Convert|132|g/m2/day|oz/sqft/day|abbr=on}}.  
 
Part of the plant production is used to feed livestock. Sorghum is used to obtain sugar. Fruit trees are grown in parks and residential areas, providing {{Convert|250|g}} of fruit per person each day, and also serving as ornamentation.
|-
|-
|Animal areas
|Animal areas
|17,000
|{{convert|17,000|m2|sqft|abbr=on|sortable=on}}
|3
|3
|50,000
|{{convert|50,000|m2|sqft|abbr=on|sortable=on}}
|15
|{{convert|15|m|ft|abbr=on|sortable=on}}
|750,000
|{{convert|750,000|m3|cuft|abbr=on|sortable=on}}
|Stable herd of animals: 260,000 fish (0.1 m<sup>2</sup> for each one), 62,000 chickens (0.13 m<sup>2</sup> for each one), 28,000 rabbits (0.4 m<sup>2</sup> for each one), 1,500 cattle (4 m<sup>2</sup> for each one). Flexibility is allowed for other animals to replace parts of these numbers (for example, pigs would have area requirements between those of rabbits and cattle).
|Stable herd of animals:  
 
* 260,000 fish ({{Convert|0.1|m2|abbr=on}} for each one)
* 62,000 chickens ({{Convert|0.13|m2|abbr=on}} for each one)
* 28,000 rabbits ({{Convert|0.4|m2|abbr=on}} for each one)
* 1,500 cattle ({{Convert|4|m2|abbr=on}} for each one).  
 
Flexibility is allowed for other animals to replace parts of these numbers (for example, pigs would have area requirements between those of rabbits and cattle).
|-
|-
|Food processing, collection, storage, etc.
|Food processing, collection, storage, etc.
|13,000
|{{convert|13,000|m2|sqft|abbr=on|sortable=on}}
|3
|3
|40,000
|{{convert|40,000|m2|sqft|abbr=on|sortable=on}}
|15
|{{convert|15|m|ft|abbr=on|sortable=on}}
|600,000
|{{convert|600,000|m3|cuft|abbr=on|sortable=on}}
|
|
|-
|-
|Agriculture drying area
|Agriculture drying area
|27,000
|{{convert|27,000|m2|sqft|abbr=on|sortable=on}}
|3
|3
|80,000
|{{convert|80,000|m2|sqft|abbr=on|sortable=on}}
|15
|{{convert|15|m|ft|abbr=on|sortable=on}}
|1,200,000
|{{convert|1,200,000|m3|cuft|abbr=on|sortable=on}}
|
|
|}
|}
Line 253: Line 274:
==== Totals ====
==== Totals ====
{| class="wikitable"
{| class="wikitable"
!Used land area (m<sup>2</sup>)
!Used land area
!Total usable area (m<sup>2</sup>)
!Total usable area
!Volume (m<sup>3</sup>)
!Volume
!Notes<ref name=":0" />
!Notes<ref name=":0" />
|-
|-
|670,000
|{{convert|670,000|m2|sqft|abbr=on}}
|1,552,000
|{{convert|1,552,000|m2|sqft|abbr=on}}
|17,383,000
|{{convert|17,383,000|m3|cuft|abbr=on}}
|Only part of the 678,000 m<sup>2</sup> of land area and 69,000,000 m<sup>3</sup> of volume available in the torus are used
|Only part of the {{Convert|678,000|m2|abbr=on}} of land area and {{Convert|69,000,000|m3|abbr=on}} of volume available in the torus are used. The total land area is the result of multiplying the length of the torus at its center ({{Convert|5215|m|abbr=on}}) by the width at that same point ({{Convert|130|m|abbr=on}}).
|}
|}


==Construction==
==Construction==
The torus would require nearly 10 million tons of mass. Construction would use materials extracted from the [[Moon]] and sent to space using a [[mass accelerator]]. A [[mass catcher]] at [[Lagrangian point#L2|L2]] would collect the materials, transporting them to [[Lagrangian point#L4 and L5|L5]] where they could be processed in an industrial facility to construct the torus. Only materials that could not be obtained from the Moon would have to be imported from Earth. [[Asteroid mining]] is an alternative source of materials.<ref>{{harvnb|Johnson|Holbrow|1977|page=201}}</ref>
The torus would require nearly {{Convert|10|e6t|e6LT e6ST|abbr=off|sp=us}} of mass. Construction would use materials extracted from the [[Moon]] and sent to space using a [[mass accelerator]]. A [[mass catcher]] at [[Lagrangian point#L2|L2]] would collect the materials, transporting them to [[Lagrangian point#L4 and L5|L5]] where they could be processed in an industrial facility to construct the torus. Only materials that could not be obtained from the Moon would have to be imported from Earth. [[Asteroid mining]] is an alternative source of materials.<ref>{{harvnb|Johnson|Holbrow|1977|page=201}}</ref>


==World ship proposal==
==World ship proposal==
The 2012 paper ''World Ships – Architectures & Feasibility Revisited'' proposed a [[generation ship]] (also called a world ship) based on the Stanford torus. The Stanford torus was chosen over O'Neill colony designs because of its detailed design that covers in-depth aspects such as life support systems and wall thickness.
The 2012 paper ''World Ships – Architectures & Feasibility Revisited'' proposed a [[generation ship]] (also called a world ship) based on the Stanford torus. The Stanford torus was chosen over O'Neill colony designs because of its detailed design that covers in-depth aspects such as life support systems and wall thickness.
   
   
Four Stanford torus colonies would be stacked together, each with a population of 25,000 (bigger than the population of 10,000 for the original Stanford torus, while keeping the original general design and dimensions, and almost the same mass, that is increased by only 10% to 11 million tones), for a total population of 100,000, the minimum population size that the paper considers for a world ship.  
Four Stanford torus colonies would be stacked together, each with a population of 25,000 (bigger than the population of 10,000 for the original Stanford torus, while keeping the original general design and dimensions, and almost the same mass, that is increased by only 10% to 11 million tonnes), for a total population of 100,000, the minimum population size that the paper considers for a world ship.
 
For the propulsion system, an upscaled version of the one designed in [[Project Daedalus]], with a mass of around 500,000 tonnes, was chosen, to be attached to the center of the torus. Daedalus would provide other additional features, such as power generation (solar energy, as used in the original Stanford Torus, is not available in the [[interstellar medium]] through which a world ship travels) and a dust shield to protect the torus from interstellar dust impacts.


For the propulsion system, the one designed in [[Project Daedalus]] was chosen, to be attached to the center of the torus. Daedalus would provide other additional features, such as power generation and a dust shield to protect the torus from interstellar dust impacts.<ref name="hein-pak-putz-revisited">{{cite journal |last1=Hein |first1=Andreas M. |last2=Pak |first2=Mikhail |last3=Pütz |first3=Daniel |last4=Bühler |first4=Christian |last5=Reiss |first5=Philipp |title=World ships—architectures & feasibility revisited |journal=Journal of the British Interplanetary Society |date=2012 |volume=65 |issue=4 |page=119|url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/236177990 }}</ref>
The world ship would also need a fully automatic fail detection and self-repair system, to prevent failures from having catastrophic effects.<ref name="hein-pak-putz-revisited">{{cite journal |last1=Hein |first1=Andreas M. |last2=Pak |first2=Mikhail |last3=Pütz |first3=Daniel |last4=Bühler |first4=Christian |last5=Reiss |first5=Philipp |title=World ships—architectures & feasibility revisited |journal=Journal of the British Interplanetary Society |date=2012 |volume=65 |issue=4 |page=119|url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/236177990 }}</ref>


==Gallery==
==Gallery==
Line 279: Line 302:
File:Figure5.23 Stanford torus structural cross section.gif|Stanford torus structural cross section
File:Figure5.23 Stanford torus structural cross section.gif|Stanford torus structural cross section
File:Figure4.13, Baseline transportation system, Space Settlements, A Design Study.NASA.gif|Transportation system for the torus construction (1975)  
File:Figure4.13, Baseline transportation system, Space Settlements, A Design Study.NASA.gif|Transportation system for the torus construction (1975)  
File:Concepts from 1975 NASA Summer Study at Stanford.png|A torus expanding from interconnected [[Space habitat#Designs.2Fsolutions|bolas]] or dumbbells
File:Concepts from 1975 NASA Summer Study at Stanford.png|A torus expanding from interconnected [[Space settlement|bolas]] or dumbbells
Image:Lunar base concept drawing s78 23252.jpg|A NASA lunar base concept with a [[mass driver]] (the long structure that extends toward the horizon)
Image:Lunar base concept drawing s78 23252.jpg|A NASA lunar base concept with a [[mass driver]] (the long structure that extends toward the horizon)
Image:Stanford Torus-based generation ship.png|Stanford Torus-based [[generation ship]], proposed by [[Project Hyperion (interstellar)|Project Hyperion]]<ref name="hein-pak-putz-revisited" />
Image:Stanford Torus-based generation ship.png|Stanford Torus-based [[generation ship]], proposed by [[Project Hyperion (interstellar)|Project Hyperion]]<ref name="hein-pak-putz-revisited" />
Line 289: Line 312:
{{Portal|Spaceflight|Engineering}}
{{Portal|Spaceflight|Engineering}}
<!-- Please keep entries in alphabetical order & add a short description [[WP:SEEALSO]] -->
<!-- Please keep entries in alphabetical order & add a short description [[WP:SEEALSO]] -->
*[[Asteroid mining]]
* [[Asteroid mining]]
*[[Bernal sphere]]
* [[Bernal sphere]]
*[[Colonization of the Moon]]
* [[Bishop Ring (habitat)]]
*[[Rotating wheel space station]]
* [[Colonization of the Moon]]
*[[O'Neill cylinder]]
* [[O'Neill cylinder]]
*[[Bishop Ring (habitat)|Bishop ring]]
* [[Space colonization]]
*[[Space colonization]]
In fiction:
* In fiction
* [[Aurora (novel)]]
**[[Aurora (novel)|''Aurora'' (novel)]]
* [[Citizen Sleeper]]
**[[Gaea trilogy]]
* [[Elysium (film)]]
**''[[Ringworld]]''
* [[Gaea trilogy]]
**[[Interstellar (film)|''Interstellar'' (film)]]
* [[Interstellar (film)]]
**[[Elysium (film)|''Elysium'' (film)]]
* ''[[Mobile Suit Gundam Wing]]''
**''[[Mobile Suit Gundam Wing]]''
* ''[[Ringworld]]''
**[[Citizen_Sleeper|''Citizen Sleeper'' (videogame)]]


==Notes==
==Notes==

Latest revision as of 17:10, 13 November 2025

Template:Short description Template:Use American English Script error: No such module "For".

File:Stanford torus external view by Don Davis AC76-0525.jpg
Exterior view of a Stanford torus. Bottom center is the non-rotating primary solar mirror, which reflects sunlight onto the angled ring of secondary mirrors around the hub. Painting by Donald E. Davis.
File:Stanford Torus interior.jpg
Interior of a Stanford torus, painted by Donald E. Davis
File:Stanford torus-Space Settlements-A Design Study-1977.png
Collage of figures and tables of Stanford Torus space habitat, from Space Settlements: A Design Study book. Charles Holbrow and Richard D. Johnson, NASA, 1977.

The Stanford torus is a proposed NASA design[1] for a space settlement capable of housing 10,000 permanent residents.[2] It is a type of rotating wheel space station, consisting of a ring with a diameter of about Template:Convert, its rotation providing about 1.0 g of artificial gravity.[3]

History of the concept

The Stanford torus was proposed during the 1975 NASA Summer Study,[1] conducted at Stanford University, with the purpose of exploring and speculating on designs for future space colonies, with the conclusions and the detailed proposal being published in 1977 in Space Settlements: A Design Study book, by Richard D. Johnson and Charles H. Holbrow[4] (Gerard O'Neill later proposed his Island One or Bernal sphere as an alternative to the torus[5]). "Stanford torus" refers only to this particular version of the design, as the concept of a ring-shaped rotating space station was previously proposed by Konstantin Tsiolkovsky ("Bublik-City", 1903),[6] Herman Potočnik (1923)[7] and Wernher von Braun (1952),[8] among others.

Design

The Stanford torus (the proposed 10,000 people habitat described in the 1975 Summer Study, to be distinguished from other rotating wheel space station designs) consists of a torus, or doughnut-shaped ring, that is Template:Convert in diameter and rotates once per minute to provide between 0.9 g and 1.0 g of artificial gravity on the inside of the outer ring via centrifugal force.[9]

Sunlight is provided to the interior of the torus by a system of mirrors, including a large non-rotating primary solar mirror.[10]

The ring is connected to a hub via a number of "spokes", which serve as conduits for people and materials travelling to and from the hub. Since the hub is at the rotational axis of the station, it experiences the least artificial gravity and is the easiest location for spacecraft to dock. Zero-gravity industry is performed in a non-rotating module attached to the hub's axis.[11]

The interior space of the torus itself is used as living space, and is large enough that a "natural" environment can be simulated; the torus appears similar to a long, narrow, straight glacial valley whose ends curve upward and eventually meet overhead to form a complete circle. The population density is similar to a dense suburb, with part of the ring dedicated to agriculture and part to housing.[11]

The Stanford Torus design was not conceived for a single, isolated space settlement, but as part of a system for the colonization of space. Part of the people living in the colony would work in the construction of satellite solar power stations and new colonies, so that the habitat would be capable of self-replication, with a full system of multiple Stanford toruses being eventually built.[12][13]

Chosen shape

The 1975 NASA Summer Study evaluated several options for the space habitat design, including spherical and cylindrical shapes, in addition to the toroidal one. The torus was chosen as the best option, among other reasons, because it minimized the amount of mass required to have the same area and radius of rotation.[3]

General characteristics

Components

  • Habitation tube (torus proper) with a diameter of Template:Convert. 2/3 of its surface consists of aluminum plates and the remaining 1/3 is filled with glass windows mounted on aluminum ribs, to allow sunlight to enter inside the torus.
  • Non-rotating main mirror that directs sunlight towards the central hub.
  • Central hub with a diameter of Template:Convert. Secondary mirrors around the central hub direct sunlight towards the habitation tube.
  • Fabrication sphere (non-rotating), connected to central hub's South Pole, with a diameter of Template:Convert. It is also connected to a solar furnace and the habitat radiator.
  • Docking module (non-rotating), connected to central hub's North Pole, with a diameter of Template:Convert and a length of Template:Convert.
  • Spokes: 6 spokes of Template:Convert diameter, connecting the central hub with the habitation tube. They have elevators, power cables, and heat exchange pipes between the torus and the hub.[3]

Area and volume allocation

The circumference of the torus proper (about Template:Convert in all) would be divided into 6 sections of equal length. 3 of the sections would be used for agriculture and the remaining 3 for residential uses. Agricultural and residential sections would alternate. A central plain would run through the full length of the torus. To gain space, structures would be terraced over the curved walls of the torus, while many commercial facilities (such as large shops, light industry or mechanical facilities) would be below the level of the central plain. According to the figures included in the study, the plain's floor would be about 1/4 of tube's diameter over the torus bottom, and each spoke would connect at the center of one of the 6 sections.[3]

Non-agricultural uses

Template:Sticky header

Use[3] Used land area Number of levels Total usable area[Note 1] Height per level Volume Notes
Residential Template:Convert 4 Template:Convert Template:Convert Template:Convert Including dwelling units (Template:Convert/person), private exterior space and pedestrian access space (Template:Convert/person of total exterior space). Modular housing, allowing for one- or two-level clustered homes, as well as grouped apartment buildings with 4 or 5 stories, and terraced homes taking advantage of the edges of the central plain that runs through the torus
Shops Template:Convert 2 Template:Convert Template:Convert Template:Convert The authors of the study determined the space use from recommendations that call for 10 shops per 1000 people
Offices Template:Convert 3 Template:Convert Template:Convert Template:Convert
Schools Template:Convert 3 Template:Convert Template:Convert Template:Convert With community multimedia center. The authors of the study calculated the space use for a student population of 10% of total population
Hospital Template:Convert 1 Template:Convert Template:Convert Template:Convert 50-bed hospital with all the different needed facilities
Assembly (churches, community halls, theaters) Template:Convert 1 Template:Convert Template:Convert Template:Convert
Recreation and entertainment Template:Convert 1 Template:Convert Template:Convert Template:Convert All commercial entertainment, including indoor activities and restaurants
Public open space Template:Convert 1 Template:Convert Template:Convert Template:Convert Parks, zoo, outdoor recreation (swimming, golf, playgrounds)
Service industry Template:Convert 2 Template:Convert Template:Convert Template:Convert Light service industry of personal goods, furniture, handicrafts, etc.
Storage Template:Convert 4 Template:Convert Template:Convert Template:Convert Wholesaling and storage
Transportation Template:Convert 1 Template:Convert Template:Convert Template:Convert Template:Convert width for typical streets. Ring road around the torus, at the edge of the central plain. Mass transport system consisting of a moving sidewalk, monorail, and minibus
Communication switching equipment (for 2800 families) Template:Convert 1 Template:Convert Template:Convert Template:Convert Communication and telephone distribution
Waste and water treatment and recycling Template:Convert 1 Template:Convert Template:Convert Template:Convert Including water supply, return and recycling, and sewage treatment
Electrical supply and distribution Template:Convert 1 Template:Convert Template:Convert Template:Convert Including transformer substations
Miscellaneous Template:Convert 2 Template:Convert Template:Convert Template:Convert
Total Template:Convert - Template:Convert - Template:Convert

Agricultural uses

Template:Sticky header

Use[3] Used land area Number of levels Total usable area[Note 1] Height per level Volume Notes
Plant growing areas Template:Convert 3 Template:Convert Template:Convert Template:Convert List of crops:

Part of the plant production is used to feed livestock. Sorghum is used to obtain sugar. Fruit trees are grown in parks and residential areas, providing Template:Convert of fruit per person each day, and also serving as ornamentation.

Animal areas Template:Convert 3 Template:Convert Template:Convert Template:Convert Stable herd of animals:

Flexibility is allowed for other animals to replace parts of these numbers (for example, pigs would have area requirements between those of rabbits and cattle).

Food processing, collection, storage, etc. Template:Convert 3 Template:Convert Template:Convert Template:Convert
Agriculture drying area Template:Convert 3 Template:Convert Template:Convert Template:Convert

Totals

Used land area Total usable area Volume Notes[3]
Template:Convert Template:Convert Template:Convert Only part of the Template:Convert of land area and Template:Convert of volume available in the torus are used. The total land area is the result of multiplying the length of the torus at its center (Template:Convert) by the width at that same point (Template:Convert).

Construction

The torus would require nearly Template:Convert of mass. Construction would use materials extracted from the Moon and sent to space using a mass accelerator. A mass catcher at L2 would collect the materials, transporting them to L5 where they could be processed in an industrial facility to construct the torus. Only materials that could not be obtained from the Moon would have to be imported from Earth. Asteroid mining is an alternative source of materials.[14]

World ship proposal

The 2012 paper World Ships – Architectures & Feasibility Revisited proposed a generation ship (also called a world ship) based on the Stanford torus. The Stanford torus was chosen over O'Neill colony designs because of its detailed design that covers in-depth aspects such as life support systems and wall thickness.

Four Stanford torus colonies would be stacked together, each with a population of 25,000 (bigger than the population of 10,000 for the original Stanford torus, while keeping the original general design and dimensions, and almost the same mass, that is increased by only 10% to 11 million tonnes), for a total population of 100,000, the minimum population size that the paper considers for a world ship.

For the propulsion system, an upscaled version of the one designed in Project Daedalus, with a mass of around 500,000 tonnes, was chosen, to be attached to the center of the torus. Daedalus would provide other additional features, such as power generation (solar energy, as used in the original Stanford Torus, is not available in the interstellar medium through which a world ship travels) and a dust shield to protect the torus from interstellar dust impacts.

The world ship would also need a fully automatic fail detection and self-repair system, to prevent failures from having catastrophic effects.[15]

Gallery

See also

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In fiction:

Notes

Template:Reflist

References

Template:Reflist

External links

Template:Sister project

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