Tellurium: Difference between revisions

Latest revision as of 15:46, 16 November 2025

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Tellurium is a chemical element; it has the symbol Te and atomic number 52. It is a brittle, mildly toxic, rare, silver-white metalloid. Tellurium is chemically related to selenium and sulfur, all three of which are chalcogens. It is occasionally found in its native form as elemental crystals. Tellurium is far more common in the universe as a whole than on Earth. Its extreme rarity in the Earth's crust, comparable to that of platinum, is due partly to its formation of a volatile hydride that caused tellurium to be lost to space as a gas during the hot nebular formation of Earth.

Tellurium-bearing compounds were first discovered in 1782 in a gold mine in Kleinschlatten, Transylvania (now Zlatna, Romania) by Austrian mineralogist Franz-Joseph Müller von Reichenstein, although it was Martin Heinrich Klaproth who named the new element in 1798 after the Latin Script error: No such module "Lang". 'earth'. Gold telluride minerals are the most notable natural gold compounds. However, they are not a commercially significant source of tellurium itself, which is normally extracted as a by-product of copper and lead production.

Commercially, the primary use of tellurium is CdTe solar panels and thermoelectric devices. A more traditional application in copper (tellurium copper) and steel alloys, where tellurium improves machinability, also consumes a considerable portion of tellurium production.

Tellurium has no biological function, although fungi can use it in place of sulfur and selenium in amino acids such as tellurocysteine and telluromethionine. In humans, tellurium is partly metabolized into dimethyl telluride, (CH₃)₂Te, a gas with a garlic-like odor exhaled in the breath of victims of tellurium exposure or poisoning.

Characteristics

Physical properties

File:Tellurium element.jpg

Pieces of tellurium in a vial

Tellurium has two allotropes, crystalline and amorphous. When crystalline, tellurium is silvery-white with a metallic luster. The crystals are trigonal and chiral (space group 152 or 154 depending on the chirality), like the gray form of selenium. It is a brittle and easily pulverized metalloid. Amorphous tellurium is a black-brown powder prepared by precipitating it from a solution of tellurous acid or telluric acid (Te(OH)₆).^[1] Tellurium is a semiconductor that shows greater electrical conductivity in certain directions depending on atomic alignment; the conductivity increases slightly when exposed to light (photoconductivity).^[2] When molten, tellurium is corrosive to copper, iron, and stainless steel. Of the chalcogens (oxygen-family elements), tellurium has the highest melting and boiling points, at Template:Convert, respectively.^[3]

Chemical properties

Crystalline tellurium consists of parallel helical chains of Te atoms, with three atoms per turn. This gray material resists oxidation by air and is not volatile.^[4]

Isotopes

Script error: No such module "Labelled list hatnote". Naturally occurring tellurium has eight isotopes. Six of those isotopes, ¹²⁰Te, ¹²²Te, ¹²³Te, ¹²⁴Te, ¹²⁵Te, and ¹²⁶Te, are stable. The other two, ¹²⁸Te and ¹³⁰Te, are slightly radioactive,^[5] with extremely long half-lives, including 2.2 × 10²⁴ years for ¹²⁸Te. This is the longest known half-life among all radionuclides^[6] and is about 160 trillion (10¹²) times the age of the known universe. Electron capture decay should occur for ¹²³Te, but is still unobserved.^[7]

A further 31 artificial radioisotopes of tellurium are known, with atomic masses ranging from 104 to 142 and with half-lives up to 19.31 days for ¹²¹Te. Also, 17 nuclear isomers are known, with half-lives up to 164.7 days for the same isotope. Except for beryllium-8 and beta-delayed alpha emission branches in some lighter nuclides, tellurium (¹⁰⁴Te to ¹⁰⁹Te) is the lightest element with isotopes known to undergo alpha decay.^[5]

The atomic mass of tellurium (Template:Val) exceeds that of iodine (Template:Val), the next element in the periodic table.^[8] Such inversions were thought by some to be paradoxical before atomic number was discovered.

Occurrence

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File:Tellurium-89043.jpg

Native tellurium crystal on sylvanite (Vatukoula, Viti Levu, Fiji). Picture width 2 mm.

With an abundance in the Earth's crust comparable to that of platinum (about 1 μg/kg), tellurium is one of the rarest stable solid elements.^[9] In comparison, even thulium – the rarest of the stable lanthanides – has crystal abundances of 500 μg/kg (see Abundance of the chemical elements).^[10]

The rarity of tellurium in the Earth's crust is not a reflection of its cosmic abundance. Tellurium is more abundant than rubidium in the cosmos, though rubidium is 10,000 times more abundant in the Earth's crust. The rarity of tellurium on Earth is thought to be caused by conditions during preaccretional sorting in the solar nebula, when the stable form of certain elements, in the absence of oxygen and water, was controlled by the reductive power of free hydrogen. Under this scenario, certain elements that form volatile hydrides, such as tellurium, were severely depleted through the evaporation of these hydrides. Tellurium and selenium are the heavy elements most depleted by this process.^[11]

Tellurium is sometimes found in its native (i.e., elemental) form, but is more often found as the tellurides of gold such as calaverite and krennerite (two different polymorphs of AuTe₂), petzite, Ag₃AuTe₂, and sylvanite, AgAuTe₄. The town of Telluride, Colorado, was named in the hope of a strike of gold telluride (which never materialized, though gold metal ore was found). Gold itself is usually found uncombined, but when found as a chemical compound, it is often combined with tellurium.^[12]

Although tellurium is found with gold more often than in uncombined form, it is found even more often combined as tellurides of more common metals (e.g. melonite, NiTe₂). Natural tellurite and tellurate minerals also occur, formed by the oxidation of tellurides near the Earth's surface. In contrast to selenium, tellurium does not usually replace sulfur in minerals because of the great difference in ion radii. Thus, many common sulfide minerals contain substantial quantities of selenium and only traces of tellurium.^[13]

In the gold rush of 1893, miners in Kalgoorlie discarded a pyritic material as they searched for pure gold, and it was used to fill in potholes and build sidewalks. In 1896, that tailing was discovered to be calaverite, a telluride of gold, and it sparked a second gold rush that included mining the streets.^[14]

In 2023 astronomers detected the creation of tellurium during collision between two neutron stars.^[15]

History

Oval black and white engraving of a man looking left with a scarf and a coat with large buttons.

Klaproth named the new element and credited von Reichenstein with its discovery

Tellurium (Latin tellus meaning "earth") was discovered in the 18th century in a gold ore from the mines in Kleinschlatten (today Zlatna), near today's city of Alba Iulia, Romania. This ore was known as "Faczebajer weißes blättriges Golderz" (white leafy gold ore from Faczebaja, German name of Facebánya, now Fața Băii in Alba County) or antimonalischer Goldkies (antimonic gold pyrite), and according to Anton von Rupprecht, was Spießglaskönig (argent molybdique), containing native antimony.^[16] In 1782 Franz-Joseph Müller von Reichenstein, who was then serving as the Austrian chief inspector of mines in Transylvania, concluded that the ore did not contain antimony but was bismuth sulfide.^[17] The following year, he reported that this was erroneous and that the ore contained mostly gold and an unknown metal very similar to antimony. After a thorough investigation that lasted three years and included more than fifty tests, Müller determined the specific gravity of the mineral and noted that when heated, the new metal gives off a white smoke with a radish-like odor; that it imparts a red color to sulfuric acid; and that when this solution is diluted with water, it has a black precipitate. Nevertheless, he was not able to identify this metal and gave it the names aurum paradoxum (paradoxical gold) and metallum problematicum (problem metal), because it did not exhibit the properties predicted for antimony.^[18]^[19]^[20]

In 1789, a Hungarian scientist, Pál Kitaibel, discovered the element independently in an ore from Deutsch-Pilsen that had been regarded as argentiferous molybdenite, but later he gave the credit to Müller. In 1798, it was named by Martin Heinrich Klaproth, who had earlier isolated it from the mineral calaverite.^[21]^[19]^[20]^[22]

In the early 1920s, Thomas Midgley Jr. found tellurium prevented engine knocking when added to fuel, but ruled it out due to the difficult-to-eradicate smell. Midgley went on to discover and popularize the use of tetraethyl lead.^[23]

The 1960s brought an increase in thermoelectric applications for tellurium (as bismuth telluride), and in free-machining steel alloys, which became the dominant use. These applications were overtaken by the growing importance of CdTe in thin-film solar cells in the 2000s.^[24]

Production

Most Te (and Se) is obtained from porphyry copper deposits, where it occurs in trace amounts.^[25] The element is recovered from anode sludges from the electrolytic refining of blister copper. It is a component of dusts from blast furnace refining of lead. Treatment of 1000 tons of copper ore yields approximately Template:Convert of tellurium.^[26]

The anode sludges contain the selenides and tellurides of the noble metals in compounds with the formula M₂Se or M₂Te (M = Cu, Ag, Au). At temperatures of 500 °C the anode sludges are roasted with sodium carbonate under air. The metal ions are reduced to the metals, while the telluride is converted to sodium tellurite.^[27]

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Tellurites can be leached from the mixture with water and are normally present as hydrotellurites HTeO₃⁻ in solution. Selenites are also formed during this process, but they can be separated by adding sulfuric acid. The hydrotellurites are converted into the insoluble tellurium dioxide while the selenites stay in solution.^[27]

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The metal is produced from the oxide (reduced) either by electrolysis or by reacting the tellurium dioxide with sulfur dioxide in sulfuric acid.^[27]

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Commercial-grade tellurium is usually marketed as 200-mesh powder but is also available as slabs, ingots, sticks, or lumps. The year-end price for tellurium in 2000 was US$30 per kilogram. In recent years, the tellurium price was driven up by increased demand and limited supply, reaching as high as US$220 per pound in 2006.^[28]^[29] The average annual price for 99.99%-pure tellurium increased from $38 per kilogram in 2017 to $74 per kilogram in 2018.^[24] Despite the expectation that improved production methods will double production, the United States Department of Energy (DoE) anticipates a supply shortfall of tellurium by 2025.^[30]

In the 2020s, China produced ca. 50% of world's tellurium and was the only country that mined Te as the main target rather than a by-product. This dominance was driven by the rapid expansion of solar cell industry in China. In 2022, the largest Te providers by volume were China (340 tonnes), Russia (80 t), Japan (70 t), Canada (50 t), Uzbekistan (50 t), Sweden (40 t) and the United States (no official data).^[31]

Compounds

Script error: No such module "Labelled list hatnote". Tellurium belongs to the chalcogen (group 16) family of elements on the periodic table, which also includes oxygen, sulfur, selenium and polonium: Tellurium and selenium compounds are similar. Tellurium exhibits the oxidation states −2, +2, +4 and +6, with +4 being most common.^[1]

Tellurides

Reduction of Te metal produces the tellurides and polytellurides, Te_n²⁻. The −2 oxidation state is exhibited in binary compounds with many metals, such as zinc telluride, Template:Chem, produced by heating tellurium with zinc.^[32] Decomposition of Template:Chem with hydrochloric acid yields hydrogen telluride (Template:Chem), a highly unstable analogue of the other chalcogen hydrides, [[Water (molecule)|Template:Chem]], [[Hydrogen sulfide|Template:Chem]] and [[Hydrogen selenide|Template:Chem]]:^[33] Template:Block indent

Halides

The +2 oxidation state is exhibited by the dihalides, Template:Chem, Template:Chem and Template:Chem. The dihalides have not been obtained in pure form,^[34]Template:Rp although they are known decomposition products of the tetrahalides in organic solvents, and the derived tetrahalotellurates are well-characterized:

Template:Block indent

where X is Cl, Br, or I. These anions are square planar in geometry.^[34]Template:Rp Polynuclear anionic species also exist, such as the dark brown Template:Chem Template:Su Template:Chem,^[34]Template:Rp and the black Template:Chem Template:Su Template:Chem.^[34]Template:Rp

With fluorine Te forms the mixed-valence Template:Chem and [[Tellurium hexafluoride|Template:Chem]]. In the +6 oxidation state, the Template:Chem structural group occurs in a number of compounds such as [[Teflic acid|Template:Chem]], Template:Chem, Template:Chem, Template:Chem and Template:Chem.^[35] The square antiprismatic anion Template:Chem is also attested.^[27] The other halogens do not form halides with tellurium in the +6 oxidation state, but only tetrahalides ([[Tellurium tetrachloride|Template:Chem]], [[Tellurium tetrabromide|Template:Chem]] and [[Tellurium tetraiodide|Template:Chem]]) in the +4 state, and other lower halides (Template:Chem, Template:Chem, Template:Chem, Template:Chem and two forms of Template:Chem). In the +4 oxidation state, halotellurate anions are known, such as Template:Chem and Template:Chem. Halotellurium cations are also attested, including Template:Chem, found in Template:Chem.^[36]

Oxocompounds

A sample of pale yellow powder

A sample of tellurium dioxide powder

Tellurium monoxide was first reported in 1883 as a black amorphous solid formed by the heat decomposition of Template:Chem in vacuum, disproportionating into tellurium dioxide, Template:Chem and elemental tellurium upon heating.^[37]^[38] Since then, however, existence in the solid phase is doubted and in dispute, although it is known as a vapor fragment; the black solid may be merely an equimolar mixture of elemental tellurium and tellurium dioxide.^[39]

Tellurium dioxide is formed by heating tellurium in air, where it burns with a blue flame.^[32] Tellurium trioxide, β-Template:Chem, is obtained by thermal decomposition of Template:Chem. The other two forms of trioxide reported in the literature, the α- and γ- forms, were found not to be true oxides of tellurium in the +6 oxidation state, but a mixture of Template:Chem, Template:Chem and Template:Chem.^[40] Tellurium also exhibits mixed-valence oxides, Template:Chem and Template:Chem.^[40]

The tellurium oxides and hydrated oxides form a series of acids, including tellurous acid (Template:Chem), orthotelluric acid (Template:Chem) and metatelluric acid (Template:Chem).^[39] The two forms of telluric acid form tellurate salts containing the TeOTemplate:Su and TeOTemplate:Su anions, respectively. Tellurous acid forms tellurite salts containing the anion TeOTemplate:Su.^[41]

Zintl cations

File:Zintl ion.jpg

A solution of Template:Chem

When tellurium is treated with concentrated sulfuric acid, the result is a red solution of the Zintl ion, Template:Chem.^[42] The oxidation of tellurium by [[arsenic pentafluoride|Template:Chem]] in liquid [[sulfur dioxide|Template:Chem]] produces the same square planar cation, in addition to the trigonal prismatic, yellow-orange Template:Chem:^[27]

Template:Block indent Template:Block indent

Other tellurium Zintl cations include the polymeric Template:Chem and the blue-black Template:Chem, consisting of two fused 5-membered tellurium rings. The latter cation is formed by the reaction of tellurium with tungsten hexachloride:^[27]

Template:Block indent

Interchalcogen cations also exist, such as Template:Chem (distorted cubic geometry) and Template:Chem. These are formed by oxidizing mixtures of tellurium and selenium with Template:Chem or [[antimony pentafluoride|Template:Chem]].^[27]

Organotellurium compounds

Script error: No such module "Labelled list hatnote". Tellurium does not readily form analogues of alcohols and thiols, with the functional group –TeH, that are called tellurols. The –TeH functional group is also attributed using the prefix tellanyl-.^[43] Like H₂Te, these species are unstable with respect to loss of hydrogen. Telluraethers (R–Te–R) are more stable, as are telluroxides.^[44]

Tritelluride quantum materials

Recently, physicists and materials scientists have been discovering unusual quantum properties associated with layered compounds composed of tellurium that's combined with certain rare-earth elements, as well as yttrium (Y).^[45]

These novel materials have the general formula of R Te₃, where "R " represents a rare-earth lanthanide (or Y), with the full family consisting of R = Y, lanthanum (La), cerium (Ce), praseodymium (Pr), neodymium (Nd), samarium (Sm), gadolinium (Gd), terbium (Tb), dysprosium (Dy), holmium (Ho), erbium (Er), and thulium (Tm). Compounds containing promethium (Pm), europium (Eu), ytterbium (Yb), and lutetium (Lu) have not yet been observed. These materials have a two-dimensional character within an orthorhombic crystal structure, with slabs of R Te separated by sheets of pure tellurium.^[45]

It is thought that this 2-D layered structure is what leads to a number of interesting quantum features, such as charge-density waves, high carrier mobility, superconductivity under specific conditions, and other peculiar properties whose natures are only now emerging.^[45]

For example, in 2022, a small group of physicists at Boston College in Massachusetts led an international team that used optical methods to demonstrate a novel axial mode of a Higgs-like particle in R Te₃ compounds that incorporate either of two rare-earth elements (R = La, Gd).^[46] This long-hypothesized, axial, Higgs-like particle also shows magnetic properties and may serve as a candidate for dark matter.^[47]

Applications

In 2022, the major applications of tellurium were thin-film solar cells (40%), thermoelectrics (30%), metallurgy (15%), and rubber (5%), with the first two applications experiencing a rapid increase owing to the worldwide tendency of reducing dependence on the fossil fuel.^[31]^[24] In metallurgy, tellurium is added to iron, stainless steel, copper, and lead alloys. It improves the machinability of copper without reducing its high electrical conductivity. It increases resistance to vibration and fatigue of lead and stabilizes various carbides and in malleable iron.^[24]

Heterogeneous catalysis

Tellurium oxides are components of commercial oxidation catalysts. Te-containing catalysts are used for the ammoxidation route to acrylonitrile (CH₂=CH–C≡N):^[48]

Template:Block indent

Related catalysts are used in the production of tetramethylene glycol: Template:Block indent

Niche

Solar panels, angled at about 30 degrees, reflect the blue sky from above a grassy field.

A CdTe photovoltaic array

Synthetic rubber vulcanized with tellurium shows mechanical and thermal properties that in some ways are superior to sulfur-vulcanized materials.^[49]^[48]
Tellurium compounds are specialized pigments for ceramics.^[12]
Selenides and tellurides greatly increase the optical refraction of glass widely used in glass optical fibers for telecommunications.^[50]^[51]
Mixtures of selenium and tellurium are used with barium peroxide as an oxidizer in the delay powder of electric blasting caps.^[52]
Neutron bombardment of tellurium is the most common way to produce iodine-131.^[53] This in turn is used to treat some thyroid conditions, and as a tracer compound in hydraulic fracturing, among other applications.

Semiconductor and electronic

File:NuSTAR detector.JPG

A (Cd,Zn)Te detector from the NuSTAR NASA X-ray telescope

File:Swift's instrument Burst Alert Telescope (BAT) the detector plane.jpg

An array of (Cd,Zn)Te X-ray detectors from the Burst Alert Telescope of the NASA Neil Gehrels Swift Observatory

Cadmium telluride (CdTe) solar panels exhibit some of the greatest efficiencies for solar cell electric power generators.^[54]

In 2018, China installed thin-film solar panels with a total power output of 175 GW, more than any other country in the world; most of those panels were made of CdTe.^[24] In June 2022, China set goals of generating 25% of energy consumption and installing 1.2 billion kilowatts of capacity for wind and solar power by 2030. This proposal will increase the demand for tellurium and its production worldwide, especially in China, where the annual volumes of Te refining increased from 280 tonnes in 2017 to 340 tonnes in 2022.^[31]

Template:Chem2 is an efficient material for detecting X-rays.^[55] It is being used in the NASA space-based X-ray telescope NuSTAR.

Mercury cadmium telluride is a semiconductor material that is used in thermal imaging devices.^[24]

Organotellurium compounds

Script error: No such module "Labelled list hatnote". Organotellurium compounds are mainly of interest in the research context. Several have been examined such as precursors for metalorganic vapor phase epitaxy growth of II-VI compound semiconductors. These precursor compounds include dimethyl telluride, diethyl telluride, diisopropyl telluride, diallyl telluride, and methyl allyl telluride.^[56] Diisopropyl telluride (DIPTe) is the preferred precursor for low-temperature growth of CdHgTe by MOVPE.^[57] The greatest purity metalorganics of both selenium and tellurium are used in these processes. The compounds for semiconductor industry and are prepared by adduct purification.^[58]^[59]

Tellurium suboxide is used in the media layer of rewritable optical discs, including ReWritable Compact Discs (CD-RW), ReWritable Digital Video Discs (DVD-RW), and ReWritable Blu-ray Discs.^[60]^[61]

Tellurium is used in the phase change memory chips^[62] developed by Intel.^[63] Bismuth telluride (Bi₂Te₃) and lead telluride are working elements of thermoelectric devices. Lead telluride exhibits promise in far-infrared detectors.^[24]

Photocathodes

Tellurium shows up in a number of photocathodes used in solar blind photomultiplier tubes^[64] and for high brightness photoinjectors driving modern particle accelerators. The photocathode Cs-Te, which is predominantly Cs₂Te, has a photoemission threshold of 3.5 eV and exhibits the uncommon combination of high quantum efficiency (>10%) and high durability in poor vacuum environments (lasting for months under use in RF electron guns).^[65] This has made it the go to choice for photoemission electron guns used in driving free electron lasers.^[66] In this application, it is usually driven at the wavelength 267 nm which is the third harmonic of commonly used Ti-sapphire lasers. More Te containing photocathodes have been grown using other alkali metals such as rubidium, potassium, and sodium, but they have not found the same popularity that Cs-Te has enjoyed.^[67]^[68]

Thermoelectric material

Tellurium itself can be used as a high-performance elemental thermoelectric material. A trigonal Te with the space group of P3₁21 can transfer into a topological insulator phase, which is suitable for thermoelectric material. Though often not considered as a thermoelectric material alone, polycrystalline tellurium does show great thermoelectric performance with the thermoelectric figure of merit, zT, as high as 1.0, which is even higher than some of other conventional TE materials like SiGe and BiSb.^[69]

Telluride, which is a compound form of tellurium, is a more common TE material. Typical and ongoing research includes Bi₂Te₃, and La_3−xTe₄, etc. Bi₂Te₃ is widely used from energy conversion to sensing to cooling due to its great TE properties. The BiTe-based TE material can achieve a conversion efficiency of 8%, an average zT value of 1.05 for p-type and 0.84 for n-type bismuth telluride alloys.^[70] Lanthanum telluride can be potentially used in deep space as a thermoelectric generator due to the huge temperature difference in space. The zT value reaches to a maximum of ~1.0 for a La_3−xTe₄ system with x near 0.2. This composition also allows other chemical substitution which may enhance the TE performance. The addition of Yb, for example, may increase the zT value from 1.0 to 1.2 at 1275K, which is greater than the current SiGe power system.^[71]

Biological role

Tellurium has no known biological function, although fungi can incorporate it in place of sulfur and selenium into amino acids such as tellurocysteine and telluromethionine.^[72]^[73] Organisms have shown a highly variable tolerance to tellurium compounds. Many bacteria, such as Pseudomonas aeruginosa and Gayadomonas sp, take up tellurite and reduce it to elemental tellurium, which accumulates and causes a characteristic and often dramatic darkening of cells.^[74]^[75] In yeast, this reduction is mediated by the sulfate assimilation pathway.^[76] Tellurium accumulation seems to account for a major part of the toxicity effects. Many organisms also metabolize tellurium partly to form dimethyl telluride, although dimethyl ditelluride is also formed by some species. Dimethyl telluride has been observed in hot springs at very low concentrations.^[77]^[78]

Tellurite agar is used to identify members of the corynebacterium genus, most typically Corynebacterium diphtheriae, the pathogen responsible for diphtheria.^[79]

Precautions

Template:Chembox Tellurium and tellurium compounds are considered to be mildly toxic and need to be handled with care, although acute poisoning is rare.^[80] Tellurium poisoning is particularly difficult to treat as many chelation agents used in the treatment of metal poisoning will increase the toxicity of tellurium. Tellurium is not reported to be carcinogenic, but it may be fatal if inhaled, swallowed, or absorbed through skin.^[80]^[81]

Humans exposed to as little as 0.01 mg/m³ or less in air exude a foul garlic-like odor known as "tellurium breath".^[12]^[82] This is caused by the body converting tellurium from any oxidation state to dimethyl telluride, (CH₃)₂Te, a volatile compound with a pungent garlic-like smell. Volunteers given 15 mg of tellurium still had this characteristic smell on their breath eight months later. In laboratories, this odor makes it possible to discern which scientists are responsible for tellurium chemistry, and even which books they have handled in the past.^[83] Even though the metabolic pathways of tellurium are not known, it is generally assumed that they resemble those of the more extensively studied selenium because the final methylated metabolic products of the two elements are similar.^[84]^[85]^[86]

People can be exposed to tellurium in the workplace by inhalation, ingestion, skin contact, and eye contact. The Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA) limits (permissible exposure limit) tellurium exposure in the workplace to 0.1 mg/m³ over an eight-hour workday. The National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH) has set the recommended exposure limit (REL) at 0.1 mg/m³ over an eight-hour workday. In concentrations of 25 mg/m³, tellurium is immediately dangerous to life and health.^[87]

Notes

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References

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Cited sources

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External links

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USGS Mineral Information on Selenium and Tellurium Template:Webarchive
Tellurium at The Periodic Table of Videos (University of Nottingham)
CDC – NIOSH Pocket Guide to Chemical Hazards – Tellurium

Template:Periodic table (navbox) Template:Tellurium compounds Template:Good article

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Klaproth (1798) "Ueber die siebenbürgischen Golderze, und das in selbigen enthaltene neue Metall" (On the Transylvanian gold ore, and the new metal contained in it), Chemische Annalen für die Freunde der Naturlehre, Arzneygelahrtheit, Haushaltungskunst und Manufacturen (Chemical Annals for the Friends of Science, Medicine, Economics, and Manufacturing), 1 : 91–104. From page 100: " … ; und welchem ich hiermit den, von der alten Muttererde entlehnten, Namen Tellurium beylege." ( … ; and to which I hereby bestow the name tellurium, derived from the old Mother of the Earth.)
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↑ Rao, T., & Dowell, D. H. (2013). An engineering guide to photoinjectors. CreateSpace Independent Publishing.
↑ LCLS-II Project Team. (2015). LCLS-II Final Design Report Template:Webarchive. (LCLSII-1.1-DR-0251-R0). SLAC.
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↑ Trautner, H. (2000). Spectral Response of Cesium Telluride and Rubidium Telluride Photocathodes for the Production of Highly Charged Electron Bunches. CERN.
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[3] Periodic Table. ptable.com

[4] Greenwood, p. 752

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[21] Klaproth (1798) "Ueber die siebenbürgischen Golderze, und das in selbigen enthaltene neue Metall" (On the Transylvanian gold ore, and the new metal contained in it), Chemische Annalen für die Freunde der Naturlehre, Arzneygelahrtheit, Haushaltungskunst und Manufacturen (Chemical Annals for the Friends of Science, Medicine, Economics, and Manufacturing), 1 : 91–104. From page 100: " … ; und welchem ich hiermit den, von der alten Muttererde entlehnten, Namen Tellurium beylege." ( … ; and to which I hereby bestow the name tellurium, derived from the old Mother of the Earth.)
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[usgs2-24] ↑ ^a ^b ^c ^d ^e ^f ^g Schuyler Anderson, C. (August 2022) Selenium and Tellurium. 2018 Minerals Yearbook. United States Geological Survey

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[usgs-31] Flanagan, Daniel M. (2023) Tellurium. United States Geological Survey

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[44] Greenwood, p. 787

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[53] Iodine-131 (n, gamma) Radiochemical Sodium Iodide Solution. nordion.com

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[59] Mullin, J.B.; Cole-Hamilton, D.J.; Shenai-Khatkhate, D.V.; Webb P. (May 26, 1992) U.S. patent 5117021 "Method for purification of tellurium and selenium alkyls"

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[65] Rao, T., & Dowell, D. H. (2013). An engineering guide to photoinjectors. CreateSpace Independent Publishing.

[66] LCLS-II Project Team. (2015). LCLS-II Final Design Report Template:Webarchive. (LCLSII-1.1-DR-0251-R0). SLAC.

[67] Template:Cite patent

[68] Trautner, H. (2000). Spectral Response of Cesium Telluride and Rubidium Telluride Photocathodes for the Production of Highly Charged Electron Bunches. CERN.

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 {{Infobox tellurium}}
-'''Tellurium''' is a [[chemical element]]; it has [[Symbol (chemistry)|symbol]] '''Te''' and [[atomic number]] 52. It is a brittle, mildly toxic, rare, silver-white [[metalloid]]. Tellurium is chemically related to [[selenium]] and [[sulfur]], all three of which are [[chalcogen]]s. It is occasionally found in its native form as elemental crystals. Tellurium is far more common in the Universe as a whole than on Earth. Its extreme [[abundance of the chemical elements|rarity]] in the Earth's crust, comparable to that of [[platinum]], is due partly to its formation of [[hydrogen telluride|a volatile hydride]] that caused tellurium to be lost to space as a gas during the [[Nebular hypothesis|hot nebular]] [[formation of Earth]].
+'''Tellurium''' is a [[chemical element]]; it has the [[Symbol (chemistry)|symbol]] '''Te''' and [[atomic number]] 52. It is a brittle, mildly toxic, rare, silver-white [[metalloid]]. Tellurium is chemically related to [[selenium]] and [[sulfur]], all three of which are [[chalcogen]]s. It is occasionally found in its native form as elemental crystals. Tellurium is far more common in the universe as a whole than on Earth. Its extreme [[abundance of the chemical elements|rarity]] in the Earth's crust, comparable to that of [[platinum]], is due partly to its formation of [[hydrogen telluride|a volatile hydride]] that caused tellurium to be lost to space as a gas during the [[Nebular hypothesis|hot nebular]] [[formation of Earth]].
 [[Telluride mineral|Tellurium-bearing compounds]] were first discovered in 1782 in a gold mine in [[Zlatna|Kleinschlatten]], [[Transylvania]] (now Zlatna, [[Romania]]) by Austrian mineralogist [[Franz-Joseph Müller von Reichenstein]], although it was [[Martin Heinrich Klaproth]] who named the new element in 1798 after the Latin {{lang|la|tellus}} 'earth'. [[Gold telluride]] minerals are the most notable natural gold compounds. However, they are not a commercially significant source of tellurium itself, which is normally extracted as a by-product of [[copper]] and [[lead]] production.
@@ Line 13: / Line 13: @@
 ===Physical properties===
+[[File:Tellurium element.jpg|thumb|left|upright=0.5|Pieces of tellurium in a vial]]
 Tellurium has two [[allotrope]]s, crystalline and amorphous. When [[crystal]]line, tellurium is silvery-white with a metallic luster. The crystals are [[trigonal crystal system|trigonal]] and [[chiral]] ([[space group]] 152 or 154 depending on the chirality), like the gray form of [[selenium]]. It is a brittle and easily pulverized metalloid. Amorphous tellurium is a black-brown powder prepared by precipitating it from a solution of [[tellurous acid]] or [[telluric acid]] (Te(OH)<sub>6</sub>).<ref name="lan" /> Tellurium is a [[semiconductor]] that shows greater electrical conductivity in certain directions depending on [[atom]]ic alignment; the conductivity increases slightly when exposed to light ([[photoconductivity]]).<ref>{{Cite book|chapter-url = https://books.google.com/books?id=Ty5Ymlg_Mh0C&pg=PA89|pages = 89–91|isbn = 978-0-8493-8912-2|chapter = Tellurium|publisher = CRC Press|title = Semiconductor materials|first = Lev Isaakovich|last = Berger|year = 1997|url = https://archive.org/details/semiconductormat0000berg/page/89}}</ref> When molten, tellurium is corrosive to copper, [[iron]], and [[stainless steel]]. Of the [[chalcogen]]s (oxygen-family elements), tellurium has the highest melting and boiling points, at {{convert|722.66|and|1261|K|°C}}, respectively.<ref>[http://www.ptable.com/#Property/State Periodic Table]. ptable.com</ref>
@@ Line 20: / Line 21: @@
 ===Isotopes===
 {{Main|Isotopes of tellurium}}
-Naturally occurring tellurium has eight isotopes. Six of those isotopes, <sup>120</sup>Te, <sup>122</sup>Te, <sup>123</sup>Te, <sup>124</sup>Te, <sup>125</sup>Te, and <sup>126</sup>Te, are stable. The other two, <sup>128</sup>Te and <sup>130</sup>Te, are slightly radioactive,<ref name="NUBASE">{{Cite journal| last1 = Audi| first1 = G.|title = The NUBASE Evaluation of Nuclear and Decay Properties| journal = Nuclear Physics A| volume = 729| issue = 1| pages = 3–128|publisher = Atomic Mass Data Center| date = 2003| doi = 10.1016/j.nuclphysa.2003.11.001| bibcode=2003NuPhA.729....3A| last2 = Bersillon| first2 = O.| last3 = Blachot| first3 = J.| last4 = Wapstra| first4 = A. H.| url = http://hal.in2p3.fr/in2p3-00014184}}</ref><ref name="Tellurium 128">{{Cite web|title = WWW Table of Radioactive Isotopes: Tellurium|publisher = Nuclear Science Division, Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory|date = 2008|url = http://ie.lbl.gov/toi/nuclide.asp?iZA=520128|access-date = 2010-01-16|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20100205101344/http://ie.lbl.gov/toi/nuclide.asp?iZA=520128|archive-date = 2010-02-05|url-status = dead}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|arxiv=hep-ex/0211015|doi= 10.1103/PhysRevC.67.014323|title= New limits on naturally occurring electron capture of <sup>123</sup>Te|journal= Physical Review C|volume= 67|issue= 1|pages= 014323|year= 2003|last1= Alessandrello|first1= A.|last2= Arnaboldi|first2= C.|last3= Brofferio|first3= C.|last4= Capelli|first4= S.|last5= Cremonesi|first5= O.|last6= Fiorini|first6= E.|last7= Nucciotti|first7= A.|last8= Pavan|first8= M.|last9= Pessina|first9= G.|last10= Pirro|first10= S.|last11= Previtali|first11= E.|last12= Sisti|first12= M.|last13= Vanzini|first13= M.|last14= Zanotti|first14= L.|last15= Giuliani|first15= A.|last16= Pedretti|first16= M.|last17= Bucci|first17= C.|last18= Pobes|first18= C.|bibcode= 2003PhRvC..67a4323A|s2cid= 119523039}}</ref> with extremely long half-lives, including 2.2&nbsp;×&nbsp;10<sup>24</sup> years for <sup>128</sup>Te. This is the longest known half-life among all [[radionuclide]]s<ref>{{Cite web|title=Noble Gas Research |publisher=Laboratory for Space Sciences, Washington University in St. Louis |date=2008 |url=http://presolar.wustl.edu/work/noblegas.html |access-date=2013-01-10 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110928143717/http://presolar.wustl.edu/work/noblegas.html |archive-date=September 28, 2011 }}</ref> and is about 160 [[Orders of magnitude (numbers)#1012|trillion]] (10<sup>12</sup>) times the [[Age of the universe|age of the known universe]].
+Naturally occurring tellurium has eight isotopes. Six of those isotopes, <sup>120</sup>Te, <sup>122</sup>Te, <sup>123</sup>Te, <sup>124</sup>Te, <sup>125</sup>Te, and <sup>126</sup>Te, are stable. The other two, <sup>128</sup>Te and <sup>130</sup>Te, are slightly radioactive,<ref name="NUBASE">{{NUBASE2020}}</ref> with extremely long half-lives, including 2.2&nbsp;×&nbsp;10<sup>24</sup> years for <sup>128</sup>Te. This is the longest known half-life among all [[radionuclide]]s<ref>{{Cite web|title=Noble Gas Research |publisher=Laboratory for Space Sciences, Washington University in St. Louis |date=2008 |url=http://presolar.wustl.edu/work/noblegas.html |access-date=2013-01-10 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110928143717/http://presolar.wustl.edu/work/noblegas.html |archive-date=September 28, 2011 }}</ref> and is about 160 [[Orders of magnitude (numbers)#1012|trillion]] (10<sup>12</sup>) times the [[Age of the universe|age of the known universe]]. [[Electron capture]] decay should occur for <sup>123</sup>Te, but is still unobserved.<ref>{{cite journal|arxiv=hep-ex/0211015|doi= 10.1103/PhysRevC.67.014323|title= New limits on naturally occurring electron capture of <sup>123</sup>Te|journal= Physical Review C|volume= 67|issue= 1|article-number= 014323|year= 2003|last1= Alessandrello|first1= A.|last2= Arnaboldi|first2= C.|last3= Brofferio|first3= C.|last4= Capelli|first4= S.|last5= Cremonesi|first5= O.|last6= Fiorini|first6= E.|last7= Nucciotti|first7= A.|last8= Pavan|first8= M.|last9= Pessina|first9= G.|last10= Pirro|first10= S.|last11= Previtali|first11= E.|last12= Sisti|first12= M.|last13= Vanzini|first13= M.|last14= Zanotti|first14= L.|last15= Giuliani|first15= A.|last16= Pedretti|first16= M.|last17= Bucci|first17= C.|last18= Pobes|first18= C.|bibcode= 2003PhRvC..67a4323A|s2cid= 119523039}}</ref>
-A further 31 artificial [[radioisotope]]s of tellurium are known, with [[atomic mass]]es ranging from 104 to 142 and with half-lives of 19 days or less. Also, 17 [[nuclear isomer]]s are known, with half-lives up to 154 days. Except for [[beryllium-8]] and beta-delayed alpha emission branches in some lighter [[nuclide]]s, tellurium (<sup>104</sup>Te to <sup>109</sup>Te) is the second lightest element with isotopes known to undergo alpha decay, [[antimony]] being the lightest.<ref name="NUBASE" />
+A further 31 artificial [[radioisotope]]s of tellurium are known, with [[atomic mass]]es ranging from 104 to 142 and with half-lives up to 19.31 days for <sup>121</sup>Te. Also, 17 [[nuclear isomer]]s are known, with half-lives up to 164.7 days for the same isotope. Except for [[beryllium-8]] and beta-delayed alpha emission branches in some lighter [[nuclide]]s, tellurium (<sup>104</sup>Te to <sup>109</sup>Te) is the lightest element with isotopes known to undergo alpha decay.<ref name="NUBASE" />
-The atomic mass of tellurium ({{val|127.60|u=g·mol<sup>−1</sup>}}) exceeds that of iodine ({{val|126.90|u=g·mol<sup>−1</sup>}}), the next element in the periodic table.<ref name="Emsley">{{Cite book|chapter-url = https://books.google.com/books?id=j-Xu07p3cKwC&pg=PA426|isbn = 978-0-19-850340-8|pages = [https://archive.org/details/naturesbuildingb0000emsl/page/426 426–429]|publisher = Oxford University Press|date = 2003|title = Nature's building blocks: an A-Z guide to the elements|chapter = Tellurium|first = John|last = Emsley|url = https://archive.org/details/naturesbuildingb0000emsl/page/426}}</ref>
+The atomic mass of tellurium ({{val|127.60|u=g·mol<sup>−1</sup>}}) exceeds that of iodine ({{val|126.90|u=g·mol<sup>−1</sup>}}), the next element in the periodic table.<ref name="Emsley">{{Cite book|chapter-url = https://books.google.com/books?id=j-Xu07p3cKwC&pg=PA426|isbn = 978-0-19-850340-8|pages = [https://archive.org/details/naturesbuildingb0000emsl/page/426 426–429]|publisher = Oxford University Press|date = 2003|title = Nature's building blocks: an A-Z guide to the elements|chapter = Tellurium|first = John|last = Emsley|url = https://archive.org/details/naturesbuildingb0000emsl/page/426}}</ref> Such inversions were thought by some to be paradoxical before [[atomic number]] was discovered.
 ===Occurrence===
@@ Line 40: / Line 41: @@
 In the gold rush of 1893, miners in [[Kalgoorlie]] discarded a pyritic material as they searched for pure gold, and it was used to fill in potholes and build sidewalks. In 1896, that tailing was discovered to be [[calaverite]], a telluride of gold, and it sparked a second gold rush that included mining the streets.<ref>{{Cite book|title=The Earth: An Intimate History |last=Fortey |first=Richard |author-link=Richard Fortey |date=2004 |publisher=[[Harper Perennial]]<!-- presumably UK but not sure --> |isbn=978-0-00-257011-4 |page=230}}</ref>
-In 2023 astronomers detected the creation of tellurium during collision between two neutron stars.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Sample |first=Ian |last2= |first2= |date=25 October 2023 |title=Creation of rare heavy elements witnessed in neutron-star collision |language=en-GB |work=The Guardian |url=https://www.theguardian.com/science/2023/oct/25/creation-of-rare-heavy-elements-witnessed-in-neutron-star-collision |access-date=26 October 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231026082650/https://www.theguardian.com/science/2023/oct/25/creation-of-rare-heavy-elements-witnessed-in-neutron-star-collision |archive-date=26 October 2023 |issn=0261-3077}}</ref>
+In 2023 astronomers detected the creation of tellurium during collision between two neutron stars.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Sample |first=Ian |date=25 October 2023 |title=Creation of rare heavy elements witnessed in neutron-star collision |language=en-GB |work=The Guardian |url=https://www.theguardian.com/science/2023/oct/25/creation-of-rare-heavy-elements-witnessed-in-neutron-star-collision |access-date=26 October 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231026082650/https://www.theguardian.com/science/2023/oct/25/creation-of-rare-heavy-elements-witnessed-in-neutron-star-collision |archive-date=26 October 2023 |issn=0261-3077}}</ref>
 ==History==
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 {{block indent|TeO<sub>2</sub> + 2 SO<sub>2</sub> + 2H<sub>2</sub>O → Te + 2 {{chem|SO|4|2-}} + 4 H<sup>+</sup>}}
-Commercial-grade tellurium is usually marketed as 200-[[Mesh (scale)|mesh]] powder but is also available as slabs, ingots, sticks, or lumps. The year-end price for tellurium in 2000 was [[United States dollar|US$]]30 per kilogram. In recent years, the tellurium price was driven up by increased demand and limited supply, reaching as high as [[United States dollar|US$]]220 per pound in 2006.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://arizonageology.blogspot.com/2007/05/arizona-tellurium-rush.html|access-date=2009-08-08|date=May 21, 2007|title=An Arizona tellurium rush?|publisher=arizonageology.blogspot.com}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.resourceinvestor.com/News/2007/4/Pages/Byproducts-Part-I--Is-There-a-Tellurium-Rush-in.aspx|access-date=2009-08-08|date=April 19, 2007|title=Byproducts Part I: Is There a Tellurium Rush in the Making?|publisher=resourceinvestor.com|archive-date=2017-06-25|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170625134721/http://www.resourceinvestor.com/News/2007/4/Pages/Byproducts-Part-I--Is-There-a-Tellurium-Rush-in.aspx|url-status=dead}}</ref> The average annual price for 99.99%-pure tellurium increased from $38 per kilogram in 2017 to $74 per kilogram in 2018.<ref name=usgs2>Schuyler Anderson, C. (August 2022) [https://pubs.usgs.gov/myb/vol1/2018/myb1-2018-selenium-tellurium.pdf Selenium and Tellurium]. ''2018 Minerals Yearbook''. [[United States Geological Survey]]</ref> Despite the expectation that improved production methods will double production, the [[United States Department of Energy]] (DoE) anticipates a supply shortfall of tellurium by 2025.<ref>{{Cite journal|doi = 10.1016/S0262-4079(11)61452-8|title = 13 elements you can't live without|journal = New Scientist|volume = 210|issue = 2817|page = 39|year = 2011|last1 = Crow|first1 = James Mitchell|bibcode = 2011NewSc.210...36C}}</ref>
+Commercial-grade tellurium is usually marketed as 200-[[Mesh (scale)|mesh]] powder but is also available as slabs, ingots, sticks, or lumps. The year-end price for tellurium in 2000 was [[United States dollar|US$]]30 per kilogram. In recent years, the tellurium price was driven up by increased demand and limited supply, reaching as high as [[United States dollar|US$]]220 per pound in 2006.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://arizonageology.blogspot.com/2007/05/arizona-tellurium-rush.html|access-date=2009-08-08|date=May 21, 2007|title=An Arizona tellurium rush?|publisher=arizonageology.blogspot.com}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.resourceinvestor.com/News/2007/4/Pages/Byproducts-Part-I--Is-There-a-Tellurium-Rush-in.aspx|access-date=2009-08-08|date=April 19, 2007|title=Byproducts Part I: Is There a Tellurium Rush in the Making?|publisher=resourceinvestor.com|archive-date=2017-06-25|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170625134721/http://www.resourceinvestor.com/News/2007/4/Pages/Byproducts-Part-I--Is-There-a-Tellurium-Rush-in.aspx}}</ref> The average annual price for 99.99%-pure tellurium increased from $38 per kilogram in 2017 to $74 per kilogram in 2018.<ref name=usgs2>Schuyler Anderson, C. (August 2022) [https://pubs.usgs.gov/myb/vol1/2018/myb1-2018-selenium-tellurium.pdf Selenium and Tellurium]. ''2018 Minerals Yearbook''. [[United States Geological Survey]]</ref> Despite the expectation that improved production methods will double production, the [[United States Department of Energy]] (DoE) anticipates a supply shortfall of tellurium by 2025.<ref>{{Cite journal|doi = 10.1016/S0262-4079(11)61452-8|title = 13 elements you can't live without|journal = New Scientist|volume = 210|issue = 2817|page = 39|year = 2011|last1 = Crow|first1 = James Mitchell|bibcode = 2011NewSc.210...36C}}</ref>
 In the 2020s, China produced ca. 50% of world's tellurium and was the only country that mined Te as the main target rather than a by-product. This dominance was driven by the rapid expansion of solar cell industry in China. In 2022, the largest Te providers by volume were China (340 tonnes), Russia (80 t), Japan (70 t), Canada (50 t), Uzbekistan (50 t), Sweden (40 t) and the United States (no official data).<ref name=usgs>Flanagan, Daniel M. (2023) [https://pubs.usgs.gov/periodicals/mcs2023/mcs2023-tellurium.pdf Tellurium]. [[United States Geological Survey]]</ref>
@@ Line 75: / Line 76: @@
 ==Compounds==
 {{Main|Tellurium compounds}}
-Tellurium belongs to the [[chalcogen]] (group 16) family of elements on the periodic table, which also includes [[oxygen]], [[sulfur]], [[selenium]] and [[polonium]]: Tellurium and selenium compounds are similar. Tellurium exhibits the oxidation states −2, +2, +4 and +6, with +4 being most common.<ref name="lan">{{Cite book|title = The radiochemistry of tellurium|issue = 3038|series = Nuclear science series|publisher = Subcommittee on Radiochemistry, National Academy of Sciences-National Research Council, U.S.|first = G. W.|last = Leddicotte|date = 1961|page = 5|url = http://library.lanl.gov/cgi-bin/getfile?rc000049.pdf|archive-date = 2021-11-06|access-date = 2010-01-28|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20211106195637/https://library.lanl.gov/cgi-bin/getfile?rc000049.pdf|url-status = dead}}</ref>
+Tellurium belongs to the [[chalcogen]] (group 16) family of elements on the periodic table, which also includes [[oxygen]], [[sulfur]], [[selenium]] and [[polonium]]: Tellurium and selenium compounds are similar. Tellurium exhibits the oxidation states −2, +2, +4 and +6, with +4 being most common.<ref name="lan">{{Cite book|title = The radiochemistry of tellurium|issue = 3038|series = Nuclear science series|publisher = Subcommittee on Radiochemistry, National Academy of Sciences-National Research Council, U.S.|first = G. W.|last = Leddicotte|date = 1961|page = 5|url = http://library.lanl.gov/cgi-bin/getfile?rc000049.pdf|archive-date = 2021-11-06|access-date = 2010-01-28|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20211106195637/https://library.lanl.gov/cgi-bin/getfile?rc000049.pdf}}</ref>
 ===Tellurides===
@@ Line 131: / Line 132: @@
 ===Tritelluride quantum materials===
-Recently, physicists and materials scientists have been discovering unusual quantum properties associated with layered compounds composed of tellurium that's combined with certain [[rare-earth element]]s, as well as [[yttrium]] (Y).<ref name=Yumigeta1>{{cite journal |last1=Yumigeta |first1=Kentaro |last2=Qin |first2=Ying |last3=Li |first3=Han |last4=Blei |first4=Mark |last5=Attarde |first5=Yashika |last6=Kopas |first6=Cameron |last7=Tongay |first7=Sefaattin |date=2021 |title=Advances in Rare-Earth Tritelluride Quantum Materials: Structure, Properties, and Synthesis |url=https://www.osti.gov/servlets/purl/1816430 |journal=Advanced Science |volume=8 |issue= 12|pages=2004762 |doi=10.1002/advs.202004762 |pmid=34165898 |pmc=8224454 |osti=1816430 |access-date=12 June 2022}}</ref>
+Recently, physicists and materials scientists have been discovering unusual quantum properties associated with layered compounds composed of tellurium that's combined with certain [[rare-earth element]]s, as well as [[yttrium]] (Y).<ref name=Yumigeta1>{{cite journal |last1=Yumigeta |first1=Kentaro |last2=Qin |first2=Ying |last3=Li |first3=Han |last4=Blei |first4=Mark |last5=Attarde |first5=Yashika |last6=Kopas |first6=Cameron |last7=Tongay |first7=Sefaattin |date=2021 |title=Advances in Rare-Earth Tritelluride Quantum Materials: Structure, Properties, and Synthesis |url=https://www.osti.gov/servlets/purl/1816430 |journal=Advanced Science |volume=8 |issue= 12|article-number=2004762 |doi=10.1002/advs.202004762 |pmid=34165898 |pmc=8224454 |bibcode=2021AdvSc...804762Y |osti=1816430 |access-date=12 June 2022}}</ref>
 These novel materials have the general formula of ''R'' Te<sub>3</sub>, where "''R'' " represents a rare-earth lanthanide (or Y), with the full family consisting of ''R'' = Y, [[lanthanum]] (La), [[cerium]] (Ce), [[praseodymium]] (Pr), [[neodymium]] (Nd), [[samarium]] (Sm), [[gadolinium]] (Gd), [[terbium]] (Tb), [[dysprosium ]] (Dy), [[holmium]] (Ho), [[erbium]] (Er), and [[thulium]] (Tm). Compounds containing [[promethium]] (Pm), [[europium]] (Eu), [[ytterbium]] (Yb), and [[lutetium]] (Lu) have not yet been observed. These materials have a two-dimensional character within an [[orthorhombic crystal system#Two-dimensional|orthorhombic]] crystal structure, with slabs of ''R'' Te separated by sheets of pure tellurium.<ref name=Yumigeta1/>
@@ Line 140: / Line 141: @@
 ==Applications==
-In 2022, the major applications of tellurium were [[thin-film solar cell]]s (40%), [[thermoelectrics]] (30%), metallurgy (15%), and rubber (5%), with the first two applications experiencing a rapid increase owing to the worldwide tendency of reducing dependence on the [[fossil fuel]].<ref name=usgs/><ref name=usgs2/> In metallurgy, tellurium is added to [[iron]], [[stainless steel]], [[copper]], and lead alloys. It improves the machinability of copper without reducing its high electrical conductivity. It increases resistance to vibration and fatigue of lead and stabilizes various carbides and in malleable iron.<ref name=usgs2/>
+In 2022, the major applications of tellurium were [[thin-film solar cell]]s (40%), [[thermoelectrics]] (30%), metallurgy (15%), and rubber (5%), with the first two applications experiencing a rapid increase owing to the worldwide tendency of reducing dependence on the [[fossil fuel]].<ref name=usgs/><ref name=usgs2/> In metallurgy, tellurium is added to [[iron]], [[stainless steel]], [[copper]], and [[lead]] [[alloys]]. It improves the machinability of copper without reducing its high electrical conductivity. It increases resistance to vibration and fatigue of lead and stabilizes various carbides and in malleable iron.<ref name=usgs2/>
 ===Heterogeneous catalysis===
@@ Line 155: / Line 156: @@
 * Tellurium compounds are specialized pigments for [[ceramic]]s.<ref name="CRC" />
 * Selenides and tellurides greatly increase the optical refraction of glass widely used in [[Optical fiber|glass optical fibers]] for telecommunications.<ref>{{Cite journal|doi =10.1016/S0022-3093(05)80767-7|title =Recent advances and trends in chalcogenide glass fiber technology: a review|date =1992|last1 =Nishii|first1 =J.|last2 =Morimoto|first2 =S.|last3 =Inagawa|first3 =I.|last4 =Iizuka|first4 =R.|last5 =Yamashita|first5 =T.|last6 =Yamagishi|first6 =T.|journal =Journal of Non-Crystalline Solids|volume =140|pages =199–208|bibcode=1992JNCS..140..199N}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|url =https://books.google.com/books?id=BAEnBr6ncmEC&pg=PA1|isbn = 978-0-8493-0368-5|pages =1–11|title = Tellurite glasses handbook: physical properties and data|publisher = CRC Press|date = 2002|first = Raouf A. H.|last = El-Mallawany}}</ref>
-* Mixtures of selenium and tellurium are used with [[barium peroxide]] as an oxidizer in the delay powder of electric [[blasting cap]]s.<ref>{{Cite journal|doi = 10.1021/ie50610a035|title = Correspondence. Representing Delay Powder Data.|date = 1960|last1 = Johnson|first1 = L. B.|journal = Industrial & Engineering Chemistry|volume = 52|pages = 868|issue = 10}}</ref>
+* Mixtures of selenium and tellurium are used with [[barium peroxide]] as an oxidizer in the delay powder of electric [[blasting cap]]s.<ref>{{Cite journal|doi = 10.1021/ie50610a035|title = Correspondence. Representing Delay Powder Data.|date = 1960|last1 = Johnson|first1 = L. B.|journal = Industrial & Engineering Chemistry|volume = 52|page = 868|issue = 10}}</ref>
 * [[Neutron]] bombardment of tellurium is the most common way to produce [[iodine-131]].<ref>[http://www.nordion.com/wp-content/uploads/2014/10/MI_Iodine-131_Solution_Canada.pdf Iodine-131 (n, gamma) Radiochemical Sodium Iodide Solution]. nordion.com</ref> This in turn is used to treat some [[thyroid]] conditions, and as a tracer compound in [[hydraulic fracturing]], among other applications.
@@ Line 171: / Line 172: @@
 ===Organotellurium compounds===
 {{main|Organotellurium chemistry}}
-Organotellurium compounds are mainly of interest in the research context. Several have been examined such as precursors for [[metalorganic vapor phase epitaxy]] growth of II-VI [[compound semiconductor]]s. These precursor compounds include [[dimethyl telluride]], diethyl telluride, diisopropyl telluride, diallyl telluride, and methyl allyl telluride.<ref>{{Cite book|isbn = 978-0-7923-7206-6|chapter-url = https://books.google.com/books?id=HtgEcjQcgkkC&pg=PA265|chapter = Metalorganic vapour phase epitaxy|pages =265–267|editor=Capper, Peter|editor2=Elliott, C. T.|date = 2001|publisher = Kluwer Academic|location = Boston, Mass.|title = Infrared detectors and emitters : materials and devices}}</ref> Diisopropyl telluride (DIPTe) is the preferred precursor for low-temperature growth of CdHgTe by [[MOVPE]].<ref>{{Cite journal|title = Ultra-pure organotellurium precursors for the low-temperature MOVPE growth of II/VI compound semiconductors|doi = 10.1016/0022-0248(88)90613-6|journal = Journal of Crystal Growth|volume = 93|date = 1988|pages = 744–749|last1 = Shenai-Khatkhate|first1 = Deodatta V.|issue =1–4|bibcode = 1988JCrGr..93..744S|last2 = Webb|first2 = Paul|last3 = Cole-Hamilton|first3 = David J.|last4 = Blackmore|first4 = Graham W.|last5 = Brian Mullin|first5 = J. }}</ref> The greatest purity [[metalorganics]] of both [[selenium]] and tellurium are used in these processes. The compounds for semiconductor industry and are prepared by [[adduct purification]].<ref>{{Cite journal|title = Organometallic Molecules for Semiconductor Fabrication [and Discussion]|first6 = P.|last6 = Day|first5 = D. J.|last5 = Cole-Hamilton|first4 = J. B.|last4 = Mullin|first3 = A. E. D.|last3 = McQueen|doi = 10.1098/rsta.1990.0011|first2 = M. B.|journal = Phil. Trans. R. Soc. Lond. A|volume = 330|last2 = Parker|date = 1990|pages = 173–182|last1 = Shenai-Khatkhate|first1 = Deodatta V.|issue =1610|bibcode = 1990RSPTA.330..173S |s2cid = 100757359}}</ref><ref>Mullin, J.B.; Cole-Hamilton, D.J.; Shenai-Khatkhate, D.V.; Webb P. (May 26, 1992) {{US patent|5117021}} "Method for purification of tellurium and selenium alkyls"</ref>
+Organotellurium compounds are mainly of interest in the research context. Several have been examined such as precursors for [[metalorganic vapor phase epitaxy]] growth of II-VI [[compound semiconductor]]s. These precursor compounds include [[dimethyl telluride]], diethyl telluride, diisopropyl telluride, diallyl telluride, and methyl allyl telluride.<ref>{{Cite book|isbn = 978-0-7923-7206-6|chapter-url = https://books.google.com/books?id=HtgEcjQcgkkC&pg=PA265|chapter = Metalorganic vapour phase epitaxy|pages =265–267|editor=Capper, Peter|editor2=Elliott, C. T.|date = 2001|publisher = Kluwer Academic|location = Boston, Mass.|title = Infrared detectors and emitters: materials and devices}}</ref> Diisopropyl telluride (DIPTe) is the preferred precursor for low-temperature growth of CdHgTe by [[MOVPE]].<ref>{{Cite journal|title = Ultra-pure organotellurium precursors for the low-temperature MOVPE growth of II/VI compound semiconductors|doi = 10.1016/0022-0248(88)90613-6|journal = Journal of Crystal Growth|volume = 93|date = 1988|pages = 744–749|last1 = Shenai-Khatkhate|first1 = Deodatta V.|issue =1–4|bibcode = 1988JCrGr..93..744S|last2 = Webb|first2 = Paul|last3 = Cole-Hamilton|first3 = David J.|last4 = Blackmore|first4 = Graham W.|last5 = Brian Mullin|first5 = J. }}</ref> The greatest purity [[metalorganics]] of both [[selenium]] and tellurium are used in these processes. The compounds for semiconductor industry and are prepared by [[adduct purification]].<ref>{{Cite journal|title = Organometallic Molecules for Semiconductor Fabrication [and Discussion]|first6 = P.|last6 = Day|first5 = D. J.|last5 = Cole-Hamilton|first4 = J. B.|last4 = Mullin|first3 = A. E. D.|last3 = McQueen|doi = 10.1098/rsta.1990.0011|first2 = M. B.|journal = Phil. Trans. R. Soc. Lond. A|volume = 330|last2 = Parker|date = 1990|pages = 173–182|last1 = Shenai-Khatkhate|first1 = Deodatta V.|issue =1610|bibcode = 1990RSPTA.330..173S |s2cid = 100757359}}</ref><ref>Mullin, J.B.; Cole-Hamilton, D.J.; Shenai-Khatkhate, D.V.; Webb P. (May 26, 1992) {{US patent|5117021}} "Method for purification of tellurium and selenium alkyls"</ref>
 [[Tellurium suboxide]] is used in the media layer of rewritable [[optical disc]]s, including [[CD-RW|ReWritable Compact Discs]] ([[CD-RW]]), ReWritable Digital Video Discs ([[DVD-RW]]), and ReWritable [[Blu-ray Disc]]s.<ref>{{Cite web|url = https://www.engadget.com/2006/10/19/panasonic-says-that-its-100gb-blu-ray-discs-will-last-a-century/|title = Panasonic says that its 100GB Blu-ray discs will last a century|access-date = 2008-11-13|first = Cyrus|last = Farivar|date =2006-10-19}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|journal = Japanese Journal of Applied Physics|volume = 37|issue = 4B|date = 1998|pages = 2163–2167|title = Dual-Layer Optical Disk with Te–O–Pd Phase-Change Film|author = Nishiuchi, Kenichi|author2 = Kitaura, Hideki|author3 = Yamada, Noboru|author4 = Akahira, Nobuo|doi = 10.1143/JJAP.37.2163|bibcode = 1998JaJAP..37.2163N| s2cid=119849468 }}</ref>
@@ Line 179: / Line 180: @@
 === Photocathodes ===
-Tellurium shows up in a number of [[photocathode]]s used in solar blind [[photomultiplier tube]]s<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Taft|first1=E.|last2=Apker|first2=L.|date=1953-02-01|title=Photoemission from Cesium and Rubidium Tellurides|url=https://www.osapublishing.org/josa/abstract.cfm?uri=josa-43-2-81|journal=JOSA|language=EN|volume=43|issue=2|pages=81–83|doi=10.1364/JOSA.43.000081|bibcode=1953JOSA...43...81T}}</ref> and for high brightness [[photoinjector]]s driving modern particle accelerators. The photocathode Cs-Te, which is predominantly Cs<sub>2</sub>Te, has a photoemission threshold of 3.5 eV and exhibits the uncommon combination of high quantum efficiency (>10%) and high durability in poor vacuum environments (lasting for months under use in RF electron guns).<ref>[[Triveni Rao|Rao, T.]], & Dowell, D. H. (2013). ''An engineering guide to photoinjectors''. CreateSpace Independent Publishing.</ref>  This has made it the go to choice for photoemission electron guns used in driving [[Free-electron laser|free electron lasers]].<ref>LCLS-II Project Team. (2015). [https://portal.slac.stanford.edu/sites/ard_public/people/tora/Temp/150921%20LCLS-II%20FDR.pdf ''LCLS-II Final Design Report'']. (LCLSII-1.1-DR-0251-R0). SLAC.</ref>  In this application, it is usually driven at the wavelength 267&nbsp;nm which is the third harmonic of commonly used [[Ti-sapphire laser]]s. More Te containing photocathodes have been grown using other alkali metals such as rubidium, Potassium, and Sodium, but they have not found the same popularity that Cs-Te has enjoyed.<ref>{{Cite patent|title=Bi-alkali telluride photocathode|gdate=1978-07-20|country=US|number=4196257|pubdate=1980-04-01|assign=[[RCA Corporation]]|inventor1-last=Engstrom |inventor1-first=Ralph W. |inventor2-last=McDonie |inventor2-first=Arthur F.}}</ref><ref>Trautner, H. (2000). ''Spectral Response of Cesium Telluride and Rubidium Telluride Photocathodes for the Production of Highly Charged Electron Bunches''. CERN.</ref>
+Tellurium shows up in a number of [[photocathode]]s used in solar blind [[photomultiplier tube]]s<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Taft|first1=E.|last2=Apker|first2=L.|date=1953-02-01|title=Photoemission from Cesium and Rubidium Tellurides|url=https://www.osapublishing.org/josa/abstract.cfm?uri=josa-43-2-81|journal=JOSA|language=EN|volume=43|issue=2|pages=81–83|doi=10.1364/JOSA.43.000081|bibcode=1953JOSA...43...81T}}</ref> and for high brightness [[photoinjector]]s driving modern particle accelerators. The photocathode Cs-Te, which is predominantly Cs<sub>2</sub>Te, has a photoemission threshold of 3.5 eV and exhibits the uncommon combination of high quantum efficiency (>10%) and high durability in poor vacuum environments (lasting for months under use in RF electron guns).<ref>[[Triveni Rao|Rao, T.]], & Dowell, D. H. (2013). ''An engineering guide to photoinjectors''. CreateSpace Independent Publishing.</ref>  This has made it the go to choice for photoemission electron guns used in driving [[Free-electron laser|free electron lasers]].<ref>LCLS-II Project Team. (2015). [https://portal.slac.stanford.edu/sites/ard_public/people/tora/Temp/150921%20LCLS-II%20FDR.pdf ''LCLS-II Final Design Report''] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210116070118/https://portal.slac.stanford.edu/sites/ard_public/people/tora/Temp/150921%20LCLS-II%20FDR.pdf |date=2021-01-16 }}. (LCLSII-1.1-DR-0251-R0). SLAC.</ref>  In this application, it is usually driven at the wavelength 267&nbsp;nm which is the third harmonic of commonly used [[Ti-sapphire laser]]s. More Te containing photocathodes have been grown using other alkali metals such as rubidium, potassium, and sodium, but they have not found the same popularity that Cs-Te has enjoyed.<ref>{{Cite patent|title=Bi-alkali telluride photocathode|gdate=1978-07-20|country=US|number=4196257|pubdate=1980-04-01|assign=[[RCA Corporation]]|inventor1-last=Engstrom |inventor1-first=Ralph W. |inventor2-last=McDonie |inventor2-first=Arthur F.}}</ref><ref>Trautner, H. (2000). ''Spectral Response of Cesium Telluride and Rubidium Telluride Photocathodes for the Production of Highly Charged Electron Bunches''. CERN.</ref>
 === Thermoelectric material ===
-Tellurium itself can be used as a high-performance elemental thermoelectric material. A trigonal Te with the space group of P3<sub>1</sub>21 can transfer into a topological insulator phase, which is suitable for thermoelectric material. Though often not considered as a thermoelectric material alone, polycrystalline tellurium does show great thermoelectric performance with the thermoelectric figure of merit, zT, as high as 1.0, which is even higher than some of other conventional TE materials like SiGe and BiSb.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Lin |first1=Siqi |last2=Li |first2=Wen |last3=Chen |first3=Zhiwei |last4=Shen |first4=Jiawen |last5=Ge |first5=Binghui |last6=Pei |first6=Yanzhong |date=2016-01-11 |title=Tellurium as a high-performance elemental thermoelectric |journal=Nature Communications |language=en |volume=7 |issue=1 |pages=10287 |doi=10.1038/ncomms10287 |pmid=26751919 |pmc=4729895 |bibcode=2016NatCo...710287L |issn=2041-1723}}</ref>
+Tellurium itself can be used as a high-performance elemental thermoelectric material. A trigonal Te with the space group of P3<sub>1</sub>21 can transfer into a topological insulator phase, which is suitable for thermoelectric material. Though often not considered as a thermoelectric material alone, polycrystalline tellurium does show great thermoelectric performance with the thermoelectric figure of merit, zT, as high as 1.0, which is even higher than some of other conventional TE materials like SiGe and BiSb.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Lin |first1=Siqi |last2=Li |first2=Wen |last3=Chen |first3=Zhiwei |last4=Shen |first4=Jiawen |last5=Ge |first5=Binghui |last6=Pei |first6=Yanzhong |date=2016-01-11 |title=Tellurium as a high-performance elemental thermoelectric |journal=Nature Communications |language=en |volume=7 |issue=1 |article-number=10287 |doi=10.1038/ncomms10287 |pmid=26751919 |pmc=4729895 |bibcode=2016NatCo...710287L |issn=2041-1723}}</ref>
-Telluride, which is a compound form of tellurium, is a more common TE material. Typical and ongoing research includes Bi<sub>2</sub>Te<sub>3</sub>, and La<sub>3−x</sub>Te<sub>4</sub>, etc. Bi<sub>2</sub>Te<sub>3</sub> is widely used from energy conversion to sensing to cooling due to its great TE properties. The BiTe-based TE material can achieve a conversion efficiency of 8%, an average zT value of 1.05 for p-type and 0.84 for n-type bismuth telluride alloys.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Nozariasbmarz |first1=Amin |last2=Poudel |first2=Bed |last3=Li |first3=Wenjie |last4=Kang |first4=Han Byul |last5=Zhu |first5=Hangtian |last6=Priya |first6=Shashank |date=2020-07-24 |title=Bismuth Telluride Thermoelectrics with 8% Module Efficiency for Waste Heat Recovery Application |journal=iScience |language=en |volume=23 |issue=7 |pages=101340 |doi=10.1016/j.isci.2020.101340 |pmid=32688286 |pmc=7369584 |bibcode=2020iSci...23j1340N |issn=2589-0042}}</ref> Lanthanum telluride can be potentially used in deep space as a thermoelectric generator due to the huge temperature difference in space. The zT value reaches to a maximum of ~1.0 for a La<sub>3−x</sub>Te<sub>4</sub> system with x near 0.2. This composition also allows other chemical substitution which may enhance the TE performance. The addition of Yb, for example, may increase the zT value from 1.0 to 1.2 at 1275K, which is greater than the current SiGe power system.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=May |first1=Andrew |last2=Snyder |first2=Jeff |last3=Fleurial |first3=Jean-Pierre |last4=El-Genk |first4=Mohamed S. |date=2008 |title=Lanthanum Telluride: Mechanochemical Synthesis of a Refractory Thermoelectric Material |url=http://aip.scitation.org/doi/abs/10.1063/1.2845029 |journal=AIP Conference Proceedings |language=en |location=Albuquerque (New Mexico) |publisher=AIP |volume=969 |pages=672–678 |doi=10.1063/1.2845029|bibcode=2008AIPC..969..672M |url-access=subscription }}</ref>
+Telluride, which is a compound form of tellurium, is a more common TE material. Typical and ongoing research includes Bi<sub>2</sub>Te<sub>3</sub>, and La<sub>3−x</sub>Te<sub>4</sub>, etc. Bi<sub>2</sub>Te<sub>3</sub> is widely used from energy conversion to sensing to cooling due to its great TE properties. The BiTe-based TE material can achieve a conversion efficiency of 8%, an average zT value of 1.05 for p-type and 0.84 for n-type bismuth telluride alloys.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Nozariasbmarz |first1=Amin |last2=Poudel |first2=Bed |last3=Li |first3=Wenjie |last4=Kang |first4=Han Byul |last5=Zhu |first5=Hangtian |last6=Priya |first6=Shashank |date=2020-07-24 |title=Bismuth Telluride Thermoelectrics with 8% Module Efficiency for Waste Heat Recovery Application |journal=iScience |language=en |volume=23 |issue=7 |article-number=101340 |doi=10.1016/j.isci.2020.101340 |pmid=32688286 |pmc=7369584 |bibcode=2020iSci...23j1340N |issn=2589-0042}}</ref> Lanthanum telluride can be potentially used in deep space as a thermoelectric generator due to the huge temperature difference in space. The zT value reaches to a maximum of ~1.0 for a La<sub>3−x</sub>Te<sub>4</sub> system with x near 0.2. This composition also allows other chemical substitution which may enhance the TE performance. The addition of Yb, for example, may increase the zT value from 1.0 to 1.2 at 1275K, which is greater than the current SiGe power system.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=May |first1=Andrew |last2=Snyder |first2=Jeff |last3=Fleurial |first3=Jean-Pierre |last4=El-Genk |first4=Mohamed S. |date=2008 |title=Lanthanum Telluride: Mechanochemical Synthesis of a Refractory Thermoelectric Material |url=http://aip.scitation.org/doi/abs/10.1063/1.2845029 |journal=AIP Conference Proceedings |language=en |location=Albuquerque (New Mexico) |publisher=AIP |volume=969 |pages=672–678 |doi=10.1063/1.2845029|bibcode=2008AIPC..969..672M |url-access=subscription }}</ref>
 ==Biological role==
-Tellurium has no known biological function, although fungi can incorporate it in place of sulfur and selenium into amino acids such as [[tellurocysteine]] and [[telluromethionine]].<ref name="tellurium-fungi">{{Cite journal|doi = 10.1007/BF02917437|title = Incorporation of tellurium into amino acids and proteins in a tellurium-tolerant fungi|date = 1989|last1 = Ramadan|first1 = Shadia E.|last2 = Razak|first2 = A. A.|last3 = Ragab|first3 = A. M.|last4 = El-Meleigy|first4 = M.|journal = Biological Trace Element Research|volume = 20|pages = 225–32|pmid = 2484755|issue = 3| bibcode=1989BTER...20..225R |s2cid = 9439946}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|author=Rahman, Atta-ur|title=Studies in Natural Products Chemistry|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=8Ugmrew2EqEC&pg=PA905|date=2008|publisher=Elsevier|isbn=978-0-444-53181-0|pages=905–}}</ref> Organisms have shown a highly variable tolerance to tellurium compounds. Many bacteria, such as ''[[Pseudomonas aeruginosa]]'' and ''[[Gayadomonas]]'' sp, take up tellurite and reduce it to elemental tellurium, which accumulates and causes a characteristic and often dramatic darkening of cells.<ref>{{Cite journal|title=C-di-GMP regulates ''Pseudomonas aeruginosa'' stress response to tellurite during both planktonic and biofilm modes of growth |journal=Scientific Reports |year=2015 |doi=10.1038/srep10052 |pmid=25992876 |pmc=4438720 |volume=5 |pages=10052|bibcode=2015NatSR...510052C |last1=Chua |first1=Song Lin |last2=Sivakumar |first2=Krishnakumar |last3=Rybtke |first3=Morten |last4=Yuan |first4=Mingjun |last5=Andersen |first5=Jens Bo |last6=Nielsen |first6=Thomas E. |last7=Givskov |first7=Michael |last8=Tolker-Nielsen |first8=Tim |last9=Cao |first9=Bin |last10=Kjelleberg |first10=Staffan |last11=Yang |first11=Liang }}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Abd El-Ghany |first1=Mohamed N. |last2=Hamdi |first2=Salwa A. |last3=Korany |first3=Shereen M. |last4=Elbaz |first4=Reham M. |last5=Farahat |first5=Mohamed G. |date=2023-02-22 |title=Biosynthesis of Novel Tellurium Nanorods by Gayadomonas sp. TNPM15 Isolated from Mangrove Sediments and Assessment of Their Impact on Spore Germination and Ultrastructure of Phytopathogenic Fungi |journal=Microorganisms |language=en |volume=11 |issue=3 |pages=558 |doi=10.3390/microorganisms11030558 |doi-access=free |issn=2076-2607 |pmc=10053417 |pmid=36985132}}</ref> In yeast, this reduction is mediated by the [[sulfate assimilation pathway]].<ref>{{Cite journal|doi = 10.1128/EC.00078-10|title = Sulfate assimilation mediates tellurite reduction and toxicity in ''Saccharomyces cerevisiae''|first1 = L. G.|last1 = Ottosson|pmid = 20675578|first2 = K.|last2 = Logg|first3 = S.|last3 = Ibstedt|first4 = P.|last4 = Sunnerhagen|first5 = M.|last5 = Käll|first6 = A.|last6 = Blomberg|first7 = J.|last7 = Warringer|journal = Eukaryotic Cell|date = 2010|volume = 9|issue = 10|pages = 1635–47|pmc=2950436}}</ref> Tellurium accumulation seems to account for a major part of the toxicity effects. Many organisms also metabolize tellurium partly to form dimethyl telluride, although dimethyl ditelluride is also formed by some species. Dimethyl telluride has been observed in [[hot spring]]s at very low concentrations.<ref>{{Cite journal|doi = 10.1021/cr010210+|title = Biomethylation of Selenium and Tellurium: Microorganisms and Plants|first1 = Thomas G.|last1 = Chasteen|pmid = 12517179|first2 = Ronald|last2 = Bentley|journal = Chemical Reviews|date = 2003|volume = 103|issue = 1|pages = 1–26}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|doi =10.1007/BF02785282|title =Biochemistry of tellurium|date =1996|last1 =Taylor|first1 =Andrew|journal =Biological Trace Element Research|volume =55|pages =231–9|pmid =9096851|issue =3|bibcode =1996BTER...55..231T|s2cid =10691234}}</ref>
+Tellurium has no known biological function, although fungi can incorporate it in place of sulfur and selenium into amino acids such as [[tellurocysteine]] and [[telluromethionine]].<ref name="tellurium-fungi">{{Cite journal|doi = 10.1007/BF02917437|title = Incorporation of tellurium into amino acids and proteins in a tellurium-tolerant fungi|date = 1989|last1 = Ramadan|first1 = Shadia E.|last2 = Razak|first2 = A. A.|last3 = Ragab|first3 = A. M.|last4 = El-Meleigy|first4 = M.|journal = Biological Trace Element Research|volume = 20|pages = 225–32|pmid = 2484755|issue = 3| bibcode=1989BTER...20..225R |s2cid = 9439946}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|author=Rahman, Atta-ur|title=Studies in Natural Products Chemistry|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=8Ugmrew2EqEC&pg=PA905|date=2008|publisher=Elsevier|isbn=978-0-444-53181-0|pages=905–}}</ref> Organisms have shown a highly variable tolerance to tellurium compounds. Many bacteria, such as ''[[Pseudomonas aeruginosa]]'' and ''[[Gayadomonas]]'' sp, take up tellurite and reduce it to elemental tellurium, which accumulates and causes a characteristic and often dramatic darkening of cells.<ref>{{Cite journal|title=C-di-GMP regulates ''Pseudomonas aeruginosa'' stress response to tellurite during both planktonic and biofilm modes of growth |journal=Scientific Reports |year=2015 |doi=10.1038/srep10052 |pmid=25992876 |pmc=4438720 |volume=5 |article-number=10052|bibcode=2015NatSR...510052C |last1=Chua |first1=Song Lin |last2=Sivakumar |first2=Krishnakumar |last3=Rybtke |first3=Morten |last4=Yuan |first4=Mingjun |last5=Andersen |first5=Jens Bo |last6=Nielsen |first6=Thomas E. |last7=Givskov |first7=Michael |last8=Tolker-Nielsen |first8=Tim |last9=Cao |first9=Bin |last10=Kjelleberg |first10=Staffan |last11=Yang |first11=Liang }}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Abd El-Ghany |first1=Mohamed N. |last2=Hamdi |first2=Salwa A. |last3=Korany |first3=Shereen M. |last4=Elbaz |first4=Reham M. |last5=Farahat |first5=Mohamed G. |date=2023-02-22 |title=Biosynthesis of Novel Tellurium Nanorods by Gayadomonas sp. TNPM15 Isolated from Mangrove Sediments and Assessment of Their Impact on Spore Germination and Ultrastructure of Phytopathogenic Fungi |journal=Microorganisms |language=en |volume=11 |issue=3 |page=558 |doi=10.3390/microorganisms11030558 |doi-access=free |issn=2076-2607 |pmc=10053417 |pmid=36985132}}</ref> In yeast, this reduction is mediated by the [[sulfate assimilation pathway]].<ref>{{Cite journal|doi = 10.1128/EC.00078-10|title = Sulfate assimilation mediates tellurite reduction and toxicity in ''Saccharomyces cerevisiae''|first1 = L. G.|last1 = Ottosson|pmid = 20675578|first2 = K.|last2 = Logg|first3 = S.|last3 = Ibstedt|first4 = P.|last4 = Sunnerhagen|first5 = M.|last5 = Käll|first6 = A.|last6 = Blomberg|first7 = J.|last7 = Warringer|journal = Eukaryotic Cell|date = 2010|volume = 9|issue = 10|pages = 1635–47|pmc=2950436}}</ref> Tellurium accumulation seems to account for a major part of the toxicity effects. Many organisms also metabolize tellurium partly to form dimethyl telluride, although dimethyl ditelluride is also formed by some species. Dimethyl telluride has been observed in [[hot spring]]s at very low concentrations.<ref>{{Cite journal|doi = 10.1021/cr010210+|title = Biomethylation of Selenium and Tellurium: Microorganisms and Plants|first1 = Thomas G.|last1 = Chasteen|pmid = 12517179|first2 = Ronald|last2 = Bentley|journal = Chemical Reviews|date = 2003|volume = 103|issue = 1|pages = 1–26}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|doi =10.1007/BF02785282|title =Biochemistry of tellurium|date =1996|last1 =Taylor|first1 =Andrew|journal =Biological Trace Element Research|volume =55|pages =231–9|pmid =9096851|issue =3|bibcode =1996BTER...55..231T|s2cid =10691234}}</ref>
 [[Tellurite agar]] is used to identify members of the [[corynebacterium]] genus, most typically ''[[Corynebacterium diphtheriae]]'', the pathogen responsible for [[diphtheria]].<ref>{{Cite journal|doi = 10.1017/S0022172400065025|title = Diphtheria in Europe|journal = The Journal of Hygiene|date = 1984|volume = 93|issue = 3|last = Kwantes|first = W.|pages = 433–437|pmid = 6512248|pmc = 2129475|jstor=3862778}}</ref>
@@ Line 229: / Line 230: @@
 {{Commons|Tellurium}}
 {{Wiktionary|tellurium}}
-* [http://minerals.er.usgs.gov/minerals/pubs/commodity/selenium USGS Mineral Information on Selenium and Tellurium]
+* [https://minerals.er.usgs.gov/minerals/pubs/commodity/selenium USGS Mineral Information on Selenium and Tellurium] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090109023121/http://minerals.er.usgs.gov/minerals/pubs/commodity/selenium/ |date=2009-01-09 }}
 * [http://www.periodicvideos.com/videos/052.htm Tellurium] at ''[[The Periodic Table of Videos]]'' (University of Nottingham)
 * [https://www.cdc.gov/niosh/npg/npgd0587.html CDC – NIOSH Pocket Guide to Chemical Hazards – Tellurium]

Tellurium: Difference between revisions

Latest revision as of 15:46, 16 November 2025

Contents

Characteristics

Physical properties

Chemical properties

Isotopes

Occurrence

History

Production

Compounds

Tellurides

Halides

Oxocompounds

Zintl cations

Organotellurium compounds

Tritelluride quantum materials

Applications

Heterogeneous catalysis

Niche

Semiconductor and electronic

Organotellurium compounds

Photocathodes

Thermoelectric material

Biological role

Precautions

See also

Notes

References

Cited sources

External links

Navigation menu

Tellurium: Difference between revisions

Latest revision as of 15:46, 16 November 2025

Characteristics

Physical properties

Chemical properties

Isotopes

Occurrence

History

Production

Compounds

Tellurides

Halides

Oxocompounds

Zintl cations

Organotellurium compounds

Tritelluride quantum materials

Applications

Heterogeneous catalysis

Niche

Semiconductor and electronic

Organotellurium compounds

Photocathodes

Thermoelectric material

Biological role

Precautions

See also

Notes

References

Cited sources

External links

Navigation menu

Search